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Scope: This course unit aims to give knowledge on,

❑different aspects of hydrogeology
Field methods in ❑different techniques of water analysis
Hydrogeology
On successful completion of the course unit students will be able to,
❑ draw water table contour maps and describe regional and local
hydrological aspects
BSTE 4152 ❑measure water quality using various equipment and methods

Continuous assessment : 40%

End semester examination: 60% (Theory 40 %, Practical 20%)

Ground water
• Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces
in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic
formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers (Groundwater
Foundation).

Global hydrological cycle

Aquifers
• Ground water hydrologic budget • Aquifers are typically made up of gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured
rock, like limestone. Water can move through these materials
𝐼 + 𝐺𝑖𝑛 − 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑔 − 𝐸𝑔 − 𝑇𝑔 = ΔS because they have large connected spaces that make them
permeable. The speed at which groundwater flows depends on the
size of the spaces in the soil or rock and how well the spaces are
I -infiltration connected.
Gin -Inflow to the system
Gout -out flow from the system
Qg -Ground water flow
Eg -Evaporation
Tg -Transpiration
ΔS -change of storage

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• Aquifers are the major hydrogeologic units within the hydrogeologic

framework of a region from which groundwater is or can be
extracted.

• Aquifers can be either unconfined or confined, depending on the

existence of an overlying aquitard or aquiclude.

• Recharge to the aquifer from the land surface or from and to streams
Schematic representation of unconfined aquifers, confined aquifers, is not restricted.
aquitards, and aquicludes

Unconfined aquifer Confined aquifers

• The water table moves freely up and down, depending on the water • In a confined aquifer, on the other hand, water is ‘‘sandwiched’’
stored, added to, or removed from the unconfined aquifer. between two aquitards or between an aquitard and an aquiclude
above and below the aquifer.
• The water level in a borehole drilled into an unconfined aquifer will
be the same as the water level in the aquifer (if we ignore the effects
of the capillary fringe).

• Water in a confined aquifer is under hydrostatic pressure created by • An artesian well occurs where the pressure is so large that the water level
the weight of the overlying geologic formations and the water in a well drilled into the confined aquifer rises above the land surface.
pressure created by the higher water levels in the usually remote
recharge area of a confined aquifer. • A confined aquifer does not have a water table—it is completely filled with
groundwater.
• Due to the pressure in a confined aquifer, the water level in aborehole
drilled into a confined aquifer will rise significantly above the top of • The water level in wells drilled into a confined aquifer, instead, corresponds
the aquifer. to the hydrostatic pressure head or potentiometric surface of the aquifer,
which is located higher than the upper boundary of the aquifer itself.

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Perched water tables

• An aquifer that is confined by an aquitard rather than an aquiclude is • Water collects over a impermeable or low permeable layer within a
referred to as a ‘‘leaky aquifer’’ or a ‘‘semiconfined aquifer.’’ saturated zone is called perched water table.
• The aquitard is not always a contiguous layer of less permeable
material.

Artificial recharge of aquifers

• Water that collects in aquifers from those sources over periods of • Increasing dependence of water supply on groundwater resources is
years, decades, centuries, and even millennia is discharged back to resulting in increasing use of aquifers as a source of fresh water supply.
the surface through,
1. springs, • Natural replenishment of aquifers occurs very slowly.
2. subsurface discharge into rivers and streams,
3. lateral outflow to downgradient aquifers, • Therefore, withdrawal of groundwater at a rate greater than the natural
replenishment rate causes declining of groundwater level, which may lead
4. vertical leakage to overlying or underlying aquifers and man-made to decreased water supply, contamination of fresh water by intrusion of
wells. pollutant water from nearby sources, seawater intrusion into the aquifer of
coastal areas, etc.

Artificial recharge wells

• To increase the natural replenishment, artificial recharging of the
aquifer is becoming increasingly important in groundwater
management.

• The artificial recharge may be defined as an augmentation of surface

water into aquifers by some artificially planned operations.

• The source of water for recharge may be direct precipitation,

imported water, or reclaimed wastewater.

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• A variety of direct surface, direct subsurface, and indirect recharge • Stream channel modification involves alteration in the course of
techniques have been developed to recharge groundwater systems. stream flow to detain stream flow and increasing the stream bed area
for recharging purposes.
• The choice of a technique depends on the source of water, quality of • Construction of check dams across the stream flow is one technique
the water, the type of aquifer, topographical condition, etc. of stream channel modification.
• It enhances artificial recharge in two ways. Above the dam,
impoundments enhance recharge by increasing the recharge area and
• Trenches are constructed mostly in foothill regions to arrest the detaining water for a longer period by reducing the rate of water flow.
runoff and put it into the aquifers for storage.

• Bunds, which are small earthen barriers, are constructed in agricultural • The most widely practiced methods are direct surface techniques,
lands with slopes to facilitate impounding of runoff for a longer which include surface flooding in basins, ponds, lakes, ditches,
duration, thereby increasing recharge. trenches, and furrow systems; stream and channel modification; and
bunds (2–5).
• In the indirect subsurface recharge techniques, water is injected
directly into an aquifer through
(a) natural openings in the aquifers,
(b) pits or shafts, and
(c) wells.

Classification of wells Tube wells

• Open wells 1. Strainer type
1. Based on well finishing 2. Cavity type
i. Unlined wells 3. Slotted type
ii. Pervious lined wells 4. Artesian type
iii. Impervious lined wells
2. Based on Availability of mota formation
i. Shallow wells
ii. Deep wells

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Unlined wells Pervious lined wells

• No any lining on the sides and bottom • Wells with dry bricks or stone lining and this wells are comparatively
shallow depth wells
• They are shallow pits, 3-5m deep dug in stable pervious or hard
formation • Suitable for shallow water tables in gravel or coarse sand formation.

• Water contribution from bottom as well as the sides • The contribution of water from sides and the bottom

Impervious lined wells Shallow Well

• The are dug to 5 – 60 m depths • These types of wells rest on a previous stratum and draw its water
• Water is drawn fro the deep sandy layer from the surrounding material.
• Lined with concrete
• Very common type of wells and it forms a permanent source of • Since a shallow well draws water from the topmost water-bearing
irrigation stratum, it is susceptible to contamination from percolating rainwater.
Furthermore, the yielding capacity of shallow wells is very low.

Deep Well- Shallow vs Deep wells

• These types of wells are built on an impervious 'mota' layer and Shallow wells Deep wells
draws its supply from the pervious formation beneath the 'mota' Economical in first cost Initial cost may be high depending on the depth of
mota layer
layer via a bore hole drilled into the 'mota' layer.
Supply is proportional to the cross sectional area of Large cross sectional area due to wider cavity
well bottom developed
• It refers to a layer of clay, cemented sand, or other hard materials Suitable where water table is high Suitable where mota layer met with high yield
found in the subsoil a few metres below the water table.
Low yield High yield

• these types of wells can provide a higher discharge and greater

Liable to contamination Not liable to contamination and better quality water
supplies than a shallow well.

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Classification based on conditions of flow Yield of an open well

• Gravity well 𝐾
Y= 𝐴 ×
𝐴
𝐻
The water flow is under gravity and the water level in the well is at the
level of saturated layer.
Where, K/A ; Specific yield of the well, H: depression head (m)
K/A = 0.25 for clay , 0.5 per fine sand 1.0 course sand, A is cross
• Pressure well sectional area.
Flow is under high pressure due to compression from confined layers.

Strainer type tube well Cavity type tube wells

• Widely used tube well type, and it draws water • Tube well is without any strainer
from a confined aquifer with unlimited extent.
• It draws water from only one aquifer
• It consists of a strainer or screen placed against the located at the bottom where the cavity
water bearing strata through which water enters is formed.
the well.
• It requires a very hard clay stratum to
• The rest of the bore hole length is plain pipe called form a strong and dependable roof
blind pipe. over the cavity.

Slotted type tube wells

• The depth of the cavity at the center is 15 to 30 cm and radius 6 to • It consists of a slotted wrought iron
10m. The water flow in to the cavity is spherical. pipes having slots 25 X 3mm at 10-
12mm spacing.
• Cavity wells have a shorter life and failure is caused due to collapse of
the clay roofing.

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Artesian tube well Ground water hydrology

Porous media: unconsolidated
• Deposits, consisting of mixtures of clay, silt, sand, and gravel
• The term porous media is used to denote groundwater fl ow through
primary pore spaces

𝑉𝑝
n=
𝑉𝑡
• Where, n is the total porosity
Vp is the Pore volume
Vt is the total volume

Sand-stone pore structure

• Principally aquifers are found in one of the four categories of
geological formations:
1. Unconsolidated sand and gravels,
2. Permeable sedimentary rocks (sandstones)
3. Carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite),
4. Igneous rocks (heavily fractured volcanic and crystalline rocks).

Porosity in different aquifers

• The most productive aquifers are found in unconsolidated deposits
generated in fluvial or glacial settings.

• Lacustrine deposits generally are finer grained and have relatively low
hydraulic conductivity, limiting their viability as water sources.

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• Assuming vertical flow among units and relatively small changes in

aquitard water storage, the leakage may be approximated using a
modified form of the Darcy equation:

• In principle, there are two mechanisms by which the water volume in • The first mechanism, which occurs in unconfined aquifers, is by
storage in a porous medium may change. simple gravity drainage of water from the pore volume.

• Both of these are responses of the aquifer to changes in hydraulic • This might occur in the drainage of water near the upper surface of an
head. unconfined aquifer in response to nearby pumping.

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• The second mechanism, which occurs in confined and semiconfined • Capillary forces tend to retain water in small pore spaces, resulting in
aquifers, is a reduction in hydraulic head, which leads to expansion of the sequential drainage of the largest pores followed by the smaller
the water and compaction of the aquifer. pores.

• Relatively small amounts of water typically are derived from this • These same capillary forces and the presence of isolated pores cause
second process. some portion of water to be retained within the media after gravity
drainage is complete.

• Fig. shows a portion of the aquifer that has been drained by gravity
because of a change in the elevation of the water table of Δh = 10 m.
The ratio of the water volume that drains under gravity, V w , to the total
dewatered volume, Vt , is referred to as the specific yield, S y

• The specific yield is often referred to as the “drainable porosity,”

because it is the portion that is able to drain under gravity.

• Because the total volume of water per unit volume of a saturated

media is the total porosity, n , the porosity is a physical upper bound
to the magnitude of specific yield in any media sample (i.e., S y ≤ n ).

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• The size of soil particles affects porosity: Soils with a mixture of • Soil structure: Soil with an aggregate structure has greater pore space than
particle sizes, such as sandy loam, tend to have larger pores due to a structure with less or single-grain soil.
the presence of coarse particles like sand.
• In contrast, soils with smaller particles, such as clay, have smaller • Arrangement of soil particles: The arrangement of soil particles influences
pores and can be less porous. porosity. When the sphere particles are arranged in columnar form, it gives
the most open packing system
• Soil texture : In sandy soils, pores are quite large. Thus, the total pore
space is less. • Compaction: Soil compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed
together, reducing pore space. Activities like heavy machinery, foot traffic,
• In fine-textured soils, there is the possibility of more granulation and or improper agricultural practices can lead to compaction, resulting in
more total space because there are pores between individual decreased soil porosity.
particles and within granules (micropores).

• In confined and semiconfined aquifers, lesser water volumes may be

derived from storage without drainage of the pore volumes by the
reduction of the pore water pressure and the resultant compaction of the
aquifer matrix.

• Even though the water pressure is reduced, the buried soil volume still
must bear the unchanged overlying load imposed by the soil column.

• This results in a shift of the burden carried by the water to the soil matrix.

• In the case of an unconsolidated media, this results in an increase in the

intergranular stress—the compressive forces at the point of contact between • Specific storage, Ss , is defined as the volume of water removed per
grains. unit volume of porous media per unit change in hydraulic head.

• Most frequently, the grains themselves are assumed to be Incompressible,

so reductions in pore volume occur through the rearrangement of the matrix
grains in response to increases in intergranular stress.

• Generally this is considered to be a reversible process in that later increases

in pore water pressure can cause a return to the original pore volume.

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Aquifer storativity
• Storativity (S) is a dimensionless measure of the volume of water that
will be discharged from an aquifer per unit area of the aquifer and per
unit reduction in hydraulic head.

Expansibility of water

confined aquifer releases water due to the compression of aquifer material

and the expansion of water (decrease in water density owing to the decrease
in pore-water pressure)

• Porous media with high specific storage values, due to high matrix
compressibility, provide more water for a given reduction in the Darcy equation
hydraulic head.
• The first quantitative expression of groundwater flow through porous media is
• Specific storage values range between 10− 2 m − 1 for highly commonly attributed to the nineteenth century French engineer Henri Darcy.
compressible clays to 10− 7 m − 1 for low porosity rock (deMarsil ,986).
• Darcy observed that the flow per unit area through a porous medium is
• The term γβθ represents the amount of water released from aquifer proportional to the rate of decrease in hydraulic head.
storage because of expansion of the water itself. The term γσ
represents the amount released owing to aquifer compression. • The constant of proportionality between the flow per unit area and the rate of
hydraulic head decrease is called the hydraulic conductivity, K . Specifically, Darcy
found through empirical observations that for one-dimensional flow in his
apparatus

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The total vertical flow through the column,

Q , is given by the product of the Darcy
velocity or specific discharge, q, and the
media ’s bulk cross-sectional area, A .

• In this case, because the manometer penetrating the top of the soil • The rate of change of hydraulic head, Δh / Δx , or its differential equivalent the
column has a higher water elevation, h1 , than the bottom manometer, hydraulic gradient, dh / dx , is a measure of the rate of energy loss of water as
h2 , the flow is downward at a rate proportional to the hydraulic head or it passes through the soil.
the piezometric head difference, Δh.
• That energy loss occurs principally through the frictional forces resisting flow
at the interface of the porous media grain surfaces and the flowing water.

• then, as the ratio of the grain-surface area to unit media volume increases,
the resistance to flow also increases, resulting in a decrease in the hydraulic
conductivity.

• A crude mathematical model of flow through porous media may be

constructed by considering the media to behave as slow, steady,
horizontal flow through a network of parallel tubes.

• By integration of the Navier-Stokes equation along the length of the

tube, the specific discharge, q , of this ideal media would be

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• The result obtained for the idealized media of parallel tubes suggests that
Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow and
the hydraulic conductivity is the product of a term collectively representing Anisotropy
the soil ’s resistance to flow ( k ). • The previous discussion considered only one-dimensional flow.

• Flow in the subsurface is typically three-dimensional and varies both in

space and time.

where K x , K y , and K z are the hydraulic conduct ivies in the x, y, and z directions, respectively

• Porous media for which K x = K y = K z = K are referred to as isotropic . • Anisotropy most often occurs because of the horizontal deposition of
sediments, resulting in a layer cake of material of varying gradation.
• More frequently, porous media are anisotropic with the ratio of
vertical hydraulic conductivity to horizontal hydraulic conductivity • Media whose soil properties vary from point to point are referred to as
being less than one. heterogeneous , in contrast to homogeneous media with spatially uniform
properties.

• Horizontal flow, by contrast, is channeled preferentially through high

hydraulic conductivity units while bypassing lower conductivity units. This
results in anisotropic
• Media with layered heterogeneity are referred to as stratified.
• systems with vertical hydraulic conductivities less than horizontal
conductivities.
• Stratified systems are anisotropic.
• Consider, for example, the horizontal flow through several of these layers
• If the layers are continuous horizontally, then the vertical flow must of thickness bi and contrasting hydraulic conductivity, Ki.
pass through both fi ne and coarse media, with varying hydraulic
conductivities • If the head does not vary significantly over the vertical direction, then the
total horizontal flow per unit width of aquifer, Q , is the sum of flows
through each of these layers:

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• Define ∆h as the hydraulic head difference over a horizontal distance • Therefore,

ΔLx (so that ∆h/ΔLx is the hydraulic gradient).
𝑄 = 𝑞𝑑
• The volumetric discharge Q (L3/T) through a unit of the system is the
sum of the volumetric discharges through each layer. Where, Q is total flow through a unit width ( L3/T)
Q, specific discharge (L/T)
• The specific discharge is q = Q/A. Here the area is equal to the d, thickness of the layer (L)
product of the thickness d and one unit of distance into the image, so
A=d(f), thus q = Q/d(f), or q = Q/d.
Or else Q = Ki Per unit gradient

• The original system is made up of four layers that have different

thicknesses (d1, d2, d3, and d4) and hydraulic conductivities (K1, K2, K3,
Consider, for example, the horizontal flow through several of these layers of and K4).
thickness b i and contrasting hydraulic conductivity, K i , as shown in Fig.
• The total horizontal flux per unit thickness into the image is
represented by Q/d(1) where Q is the flow through a cross sectional
area that is d long and the unit thickness is 1 unit wide.

• Conceptually, flow in the x direction passes through all of the layers

under the same gradient, ∆h/ΔLx.

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• Considering entire area ( Q= qA) • by cancelling the gradients, the equivalent K in the x direction is,

• Mass must be conserved, so the volumetric inflow Q (L3/T) through a unit

width (into the image) of the system at the bottom must be equal to the
outflow at the top.

• In fact, water cannot be created nor destroyed along the flow path, so the
specific discharge must be the same through each layer of the system.

• Given that the hydraulic conductivities differ between layers, then by

Darcy’s law, with a constant flow rate through each layer, the gradient will
be different in each layer

• Rearranging Equation where ∆h is expanded into the sum of the layer

∆hi values, and, by Darcy’s law, each ∆hi can be expressed as qdi / Ki.

And then

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Aquifer Head Loss

• Head loss for steady-state flow in a confined, homogeneous, and
isotropic aquifer with an initially horizontal piezometric surface can
be estimated using the steady-state Thiem Equation (Todd and Mays
2004 ):

• it is assumed that the water well fully penetrates the saturated

thickness of the confined aquifer and that the drop in the hydraulic
head is small in comparison to the height of the undisturbed or static
piezometric surface.

• In a fully developed well, assuming no damage zone losses, r e may be

assumed to be that of the outer radius of the filter-pack envelope, if
one exists, or the radius of the well casing, r w .

Exploring groundwater

• Exploration of groundwater requires a basic understanding of its

position in the subsurface geological setup.

Groundwater detection • Groundwater Exploration is attempted through either by direct or

indirect methods.

• Test drilling is the direct approach to find out the resource. This is an
expensive affair.

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Surface methods
• Every individual can not go for test drilling. During the last two • The surface methods are easy to operate and implement.
centuries, more and more techniques have been developed to
explore the groundwater.
• These require minimum facilities like topo-sheets, maps, reports, some
field measurements and interpretations of data in the laboratories.
• They are classified into surface and sub-surface methods.
• The surface methods of groundwater exploration include the following:

1. Esoteric Methods • Electric resistivity is an intrinsic property that quantifies how strongly a
2. Geomorphologic methods given material opposes the flow of electric current.
3. Geological & structural Methods
4. Soil and Micro-Biological Methods • Resistivity is represented by ρ(rho) and its SI unit is ohmmeter (Ω/mts.)
5. Remote Sensing Techniques
6. Surface Geophysical Methods • Electrical resistivity methods measure the ability of electrical current to
flow through the subsurface. Thus, resistivity methods require electrical
connection (i.e., galvanic coupling) with the ground, and this is achieved
with the use of metal electrodes.

• The resistivity measurements are normally made by injecting current

into the ground through two current electrodes (C1 and C2 ), and
• Typically, a battery-run power supply is used to apply a direct current measuring the resulting voltage difference at two potential electrodes
(DC) between two designated current electrodes implanted in the (P1 and P2).
ground.
• From the current (I) and voltage (V) values, an apparent resistivity
• For each resistivity measurement, the transmitted current and (pa) value is calculated, using pa = k V / I, where k is the geometric
subsequent voltage induced across the potential electrodes are factor which depends on the arrangement of the four electrodes.
recorded.
• The electrode arrangement in these investigations are called as
arrays. Some of the most common electrode arrays are Wenner,
Schlumberger, pole-pole, pole-dipole and dipole-dipole array.

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Wenner array

• The Wenner electrode array is the simplest of arrays; in it, the four • With the Wenner array, the resistivity of subsurface layers is found by
electrodes—A, M, N, and B—are placed in line and spaced increasing the distance between the electrodes while maintaining the
equidistant from each other. location of the center point of the array.

• This method is called vertical electrical sounding (VES) or electrical

• The two outer electrodes, A and B, are current electrodes, and the drilling. Detection of horizontal changes of resistivity is achieved by
two inner electrodes, M and N, are potential electrodes. moving the four electrodes across the surface while maintaining
constant electrode separation.

• This method is called profiling or sometimes electrical trenching.

Schlumberger array
• The Schlumberger array is an array where four electrodes are placed
in line around a common midpoint. The two outer electrodes, A and
B, are current electrodes, and the two inner electrodes, M and N, are
potential electrodes placed close together.

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• With the Schlumberger array, for each measurement the current electrodes
A and B are moved outward to a greater separation throughout the survey, Dipole-Dipole array
while the potential electrodes M and N stay in the same position until the
observed voltage becomes too small to measure.

• At this point, the potential electrodes M and N are moved outward to a

new spacing.

• As a rule of the thumb, the reasonable distance between M and N should

be equal or less than one-fifth of the distance between A and B at the
beginning.

• This ratio goes about up to one-tenth or one-fifteenth depending on the

signal strength.

• A dipole is a pair of oppositely charged electrodes that are so close Pole-dipole array
together that the electric field seems to form a single electric field
rather than a field from two different electric poles.

• The dipole-dipole array consists of a current electrode pair A and B

and a potential electrode pair M and N, and it offers a way to plot raw
data in order to get an idea of a cross-section of the earth.

Vertical electrical sounding

• pole is a single transmitting electrode, and a dipole is a pair of oppositely • Vertical electrical sounding, VES, is used to determine the resistivity
charged electrodes that are so close together that the electric field seems variation with depth.
to be a single electrode field instead of fields from two different electric
poles. • Single VES should only be applied in areas, where the ground is assumed
to be horizontal layered with very little lateral variation, since the sounding
curves only can be interpreted using a horizontally layered earth (1D)
model.

• To measure the apparent resistivity values a resistivity meter is used.

Resistivity meters normally give a resistance value, R = V/I, so in practice
the apparent resistivity value is calculated by pa = k R.

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• The calculated resistivity value is not the true resistivity of the

subsurface, but an “apparent” value which is the resistivity of a
homogeneous ground which will give the same resistance value for • Igneous and metamorphic rocks typically have high resistivity values.
the same electrode arrangement. The resistivity of these rocks is greatly dependent on the degree of
fracturing, and the percentage of the fractures filled with ground
water.
• The relationship between the “apparent” resistivity and the “true”
resistivity is a complex relationship.
• Sedimentary rocks, which usually are more porous and have a higher
water content, normally have lower resistivity values.
• To determine the true subsurface resistivity, an inversion of the
measured apparent resistivity values using a computer program must • Wet soils and fresh ground water have even lower resistivity values.
be carried out. Clay soil normally has a lower resistivity value than sandy soil.

• However, note the overlap in the resistivity values of the different

classes of rocks and soils. This is because the resistivity of a particular Seismic surveying
rock or soil sample depends on a number of factors such as the
porosity, the degree of water saturation and the concentration of • In seismic surveying, seismic waves are created by a controlled source
dissolved salts. and propagate through the subsurface.

• The resistivity of ground water varies from 10 to 100 ohm*m. • Some waves will return to the surface after refraction or reflection at
geological boundaries within the subsurface.
• Depending on the concentration of dissolved salts. Note the low
resistivity (about 0.2 ohm*m) of sea water due to the relatively high • Instruments distributed along the surface detect the ground motion
salt content. This makes the resistivity method an ideal technique for caused by these returning waves and hence measure the arrival times
mapping the saline and fresh water interface in coastal areas. of the waves at different ranges from the source.

• These travel times may be converted into depth values and, hence,
the distribution of subsurface geological interfaces may be
systematically mapped.

• The methods are also used, on a smaller scale, for the mapping of
near-surface sediment layers, the location of the water table and, in
an engineering context, site investigation of foundation conditions
including the determination of depth to bedrock.

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• Seismic surveying can be carried out on land or at sea and is used

extensively in offshore geological surveys and the exploration for Seismic data acquisition systems
offshore resources.
• The fundamental purpose of seismic surveys is accurately to record
the ground motion caused by a known source in a known location.

• The essential instrumental requirements are to

1. generate a seismic pulse with a suitable source
2. detect the seismic waves in the ground with a suitable transducer

Electromagnetic Method Electrical Profiling

• The term electromagnetism is defined as the production of a • Another classical survey technique is the profiling method. In this
magnetic field by current flowing in a conductor. case, the spacing between the electrodes remains fixed, but the
entire array is moved along a straight line.
• Coiling a current-carrying conductor around a core material that can
be easily magnetized, such as iron, can form an electromagnet.
• This gives some information about lateral changes in the subsurface
resistivity, but it cannot detect vertical changes in the resistivity.
• The magnetic field will be concentrated in the core. This arrangement
is called a solenoid. The more turns we wrap on this core, the
stronger the electromagnet and the stronger the magnetic lines of •
force become.

• The resistivity sounding method might not be sufficiently accurate for such
situations.
• Interpretation of data from profiling surveys is mainly qualitative. The
most severe limitation of the resistivity sounding method is that • Resistivity surveys give a picture of the subsurface resistivity distribution.
horizontal (or lateral) changes in the subsurface resistivity are
commonly found.
• To convert the resistivity picture into a geological picture, some knowledge
of typical resistivity values for different types of subsurface materials and
• In many engineering and environmental studies, the subsurface the geology of the area surveyed, is important.
geology is very complex where the resistivity can change rapidly over
short distances.
• The resistivity values of common rocks and soil materials are given in this
table .

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Ground water exploration

• Typically, a resistivity meter (i.e., combination ammeter-voltmeter) collects
the data and has a calculated output displayed as the ratio of measured
voltage to induced current.

• Ohm’s Law, which is defined as V = IR, relates current (I) and voltage (V)
data to the resistance (R) of the material(s) being measured. However,
resistance is not a diagnostic material criterion, as it varies with material
type and shape.

• Thus, resistivity methods customarily present and interpret data as

apparent resistivity values.

• A wide range of geophysical surveying methods exists, for each of

which there is an ‘operative’ physical property to which the method is
sensitive.

• Ex: seismic or electrical methods are suitable for the location of a

buried water table because saturated rock may be distinguished from
dry rock by its higher seismic velocity and higher electrical
conductivity.

Seismic surveying
• In seismic surveying, seismic waves are created by a controlled source
and propagate through the subsurface.

• Some waves will return to the surface after refraction or reflection at

geological boundaries within the subsurface.

• Instruments distributed along the surface detect the ground motion

caused by these returning waves and hence measure the arrival times
of the waves at different ranges from the source.

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• Seismic surveying can be carried out on land or at sea and is used

extensively in offshore geological surveys and the exploration for
offshore resources.
• These travel times may be converted into depth values and, hence,
the distribution of subsurface geological interfaces may be
systematically mapped.

• The methods are also used, on a smaller scale, for the mapping of
near-surface sediment layers, the location of the water table and, in
an engineering context, site investigation of foundation conditions
including the determination of depth to bedrock.

Seismic data acquisition systems Remote sensing ground water

• The fundamental purpose of seismic surveys is accurately to record • Landsat-8 OLI has good spatial and spectral resolution and a wide
the ground motion caused by a known source in a known location. range of bands in the electromagnetic spectrum.

• The essential instrumental requirements are to • Given the advantages of Landsat-8 images, they were widely used in
1. generate a seismic pulse with a suitable source geological explorations, natural resources and other disciplines.
2. detect the seismic waves in the ground with a suitable transducer
• The uses of these images led to the development of the density of
the lineaments in the study area.

• SRTM ( Shuttle radar topography mission) has been distributed by the

United States Geological Survey (USGS).

• Using these data, slope maps and drainage density maps were
developed can be developed.

• Sentinel-2 images have a good spectral resolution and a variety of

bands in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Outcharm et al., 2020

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Lineament density (Ld)

• Ld is used to identify areas of higher lineament concentrations, which • The high density of the lineaments gives clues about the types of
could be correlated with a high permeability area and potential lithology, the higher the density, reveals that this part consists of hard
groundwater zones. rocks whereas if the density is low, it consists of soft/sedimentary rocks.

• lineaments can reveal surface morphology, such as fractures, cracks,

faults and other discontinuities. • The groundwater storage potential would be very high in areas with
high lineament density.
• Also, lineaments can provide information on the circulation and
infiltration of water through their openings depending on the rock
type.

Drainage density (Dd)

• Drainage density is the ratio of the total length of the river system to
the total area of the study area.

• Dd is directly related to components such as lithology, infiltration,

runoff, rivers, vegetation cover and climate (Moglen et al. 1998).

• Therefore, Dd is an important factor to consider when assessing

groundwater potential in a given region.

Satty’s analytical hierarchical process

• Analytical hierarchical process (AHP) is a modern technique for
demarcation of groundwater potential zones mapping based on the
remote sensing and GIS database.

• It is included to design the multiple decision criteria based on the

hierarchy method

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Analytical hierarchy model

• The establishment of the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is fixed of

critical problem solving for groundwater-related issues as wells as
natural resources problems (Saaty 1980).

• The AHP technique is a standard, or options concerning a model, in a

natural, pairwise model.

Consistency ratio
• Normalized value = matrix value / total matrix value

• Criteria weight – Average of normalized value ( Mean of each row)

• Consistency matrix – each matrix value X Criteria weight ( for

weighted sum value, summation of each row)

• Weighted sum to criteria weight ratio

Normalized weights
• The GWPI areas could be calculated using the following formula:

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Calculate the consistency ratio

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