FARM POWER SOURCES

HUMAN
ANIMAL
ELECTRIC MOTORS
RENEWABLE POWERS
SOLAR POWER
WIND POWER
HYDRO-POWER
BIOMASS
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
ENGINE FUELS
OPERATIONS
 HUMAN POWER
- A mature human being can continuously develop an output of 0.10 hp if
he is in good physical condition, well-fed and working in a favorable environment.

- As a poor source of mechanical power, he is most suited to operations

which require judgment and skill.
HUMAN POWER
HUMAN POWER
HUMAN POWER
HUMAN POWER
 ANIMAL POWER
Draft or work animals can develop an output of 0.7-1.3 horsepower.

James Watt of Scotland, to determine the power performance of his

steam engines, ran a series of tests with average horses and found that a
horse could lift 366 lb of coal out of a mine at the rate of 1 ft/s (22,000 ft-
lb/min). He arbitrarily increased this value by 50% to deliberately underrate
his engines. The resulting figure is 33,000 ft-lb/min or 550 ft-lb/s. It is
approximately equivalent to 0.746 kW.
 The table below shows the results of experiments conducted to
determine the power outputs of carabao and cattle as affected by load.

Performance of carabao and cattle under varying pulling loads

Load (kg) Draft (kg) Speed (kph) Hp
Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle
50 24 20 4.0 4.4 0.42 0.32
100 55 40 4.6 4.0 0.92 0.58
150 75 62 4.3 3.6 1.18 0.82
200 101 88 4.3 3.2 1.58 1.03
250 146 118 3.9 2.4 2.08 1.03
300 The test draft animals could not pull the load of 300 kg and beyond.
Source: Test data of the National Carabao Research Center, Institute of Animal Science, UPLB, 1990.
ANIMAL POWER
ANIMAL POWER
ANIMAL POWER
ANIMAL POWER
ANIMAL POWER
ANIMAL POWER
ANIMAL POWER
 ELECTRICITY
Electricity supplies power for lighting buildings, for heating and for operating water
pumps and refrigeration equipment. Electric motors provide stationary power for
various agricultural operations.
 SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy has been in use throughout
the world mainly for drying and heating.
Very recently, new dimensions of solar
energy applications have been
developed like electricity generation,
space cooling, refrigeration and water
Solar energy
pumping.
Solar energy
Solar energy
Solar energy
 SOLAR ENERGY
Classification of solar energy applications

a. Thermal or heat based applications. These

rely on heat energy coming from the sun. The
heat energy can be used directly to heat or
cool systems or be transformed to other forms
of energy such as mechanical or electrical.

b. Photovoltaic applications. These rely on the

illumination-spectrum intensity coming from
the sun. With the aid of semi-conductor
materials, e.g. solar cells, the illumination is
transformed directly into electricity.
 WIND ENERGY
The theoretical power from wind can be given by the formula:

1 3
Theoretical power, P= 𝜌𝐴𝑉
2
where: ρ = air density, 1.225 kg/m3
A = rotor area, m2
V = wind speed, m/s

However, using the Froude momentum theory, the maximum energy or power recoverable from
wind is only 16/27 or 0.593 times the kinetic energy. Of this available energy, the amount that is
actually utilized depends upon the aerodynamic efficiency of the blades, the friction losses in
gearing, power transmission, wind velocity gradient due to ground effects, vibration dampening
and other factors. For estimation purposes, the following formulas can be used:

Available power = 0.245 A V3 (for mechanical energy conversion, e. g. pumping)

Available power = 0.10 A V3 (for electric energy conversion)

 WIND ENERGY
The power coefficient, Cp, of a
windmill is the ratio of actual
power delivered to the theoretical
wind power determined. The
values given are the maximum
values that occur at certain tip
speed ratios, (blade tip
speed/wind speed). The figure
shows the power coefficients of
various wind rotors.
 WATER POWER
The movement of masses of water is a form of kinetic energy which can be
converted into mechanical energy through the use of water wheels or water turbines.

In general, two types of water masses movement can be used:

(a) the falling/flowing of streams of water through the force of gravity, and,
(b) the rise and fall of tides through lunar (and solar) gravity.
 WATER POWER
In hp, the theoretical power available from flowing water is:

Theoretical power = ( Q × H ) / 33,000 where: H – head, ft

Q – mass flow rate, lbs/min
The mass flow rate Q can be expressed as:

Q=VAρ where: V – velocity of water, ft/min

A – cross sectional area of water stream, ft2
ρ – density of water, 62.4 lbs/ft3

In kW, the theoretical power available is:

Theoretical power = ( Q × H ) / 102 where: H – head, m

Q – mass flow rate, kg/sec
The mass flow rate Q can be expressed as:

Q=VAρ where: V – velocity of water, m/sec

A – cross sectional area of water stream, m2
ρ – density of water, 1000 kg/m3
 WATER POWER
Inefficiencies of various elements in the hydropower generation include:

a. hydraulic losses in conduits and turbines

b. mechanical losses in bearings and power transmission system
c. electrical losses in generator, station use and transmission

The overall effect is to reduce the theoretical power by a factor of 0.6-0.8.

 WATER POWER
Classification of water power generating devices:

a. Hydraulic rotating prime movers

1. Waterwheel includes overshot wheel,
breast wheel and undershot wheel
2. Water turbine includes Francis, Pelton,
Nagler, Kaplan, Michell or Banki, and Plata
turbines

b. Hydraulic rams
c. Hydraulic air compressors
 BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass refers to all organic materials that originate from living organisms such
as wood, agricultural residues, animal wastes and others. Large proportion of
biomass, mainly fuelwood, is being used in developing countries.

A. Sources of biomass available for energy

1. Livestock manure (cattle, pigs, poultry, etc.)
2. Crop residues (rice straws and hulls, corn stalks and cobs, sugarcane
bagasse
3. Fuelwood (ipil-ipil, hardwoods)
4. Sugar crops (for ethanol production)
5. Rural and municipal wastes
6. Aquatic plants (water hyacinth)
7. Energy farms (fast growing trees, oil and hydrocarbon crops, etc.)
Sus scrofa, Sus domesticus; (Southeast Asian wild swine = Sus vittatus)
BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass conversion processes
BIOMASS ENERGY
 HEAT ENGINES
Engines are mechanical devices that convert heat energy of fuels into
mechanical energy.

In external combustion engines (ECE), the fuel is ignited and burned outside a
cylinder and the heat energy is applied indirectly to a piston by an intermediate
medium, usually water vapor. A steam engine is an external combustion engine.

In internal combustion engines (ICE), the fuel is ignited and burned inside a
cylinder and the resulting explosion causes an instantaneous application of
pressure to a piston. Internal combustion engines have completely replaced the
steam engine for all types of agricultural power applications.
 HEAT ENGINES
a. They are used as stationary power sources for milling, grinding, water pumping,
generation of electricity, etc.

b. They are used as power units of (1) portable farm equipment such as sprayers,
and threshers, and (2) self-propelled machines such as tractors, combines and
harvesters.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
Main engine components
a. cylinder h. piston rings
b. cylinder block i. piston pin
c. cylinder head j. flywheel
d. valves k. crankcase
e. piston l. intake manifold
f. connecting rod m. exhaust manifold
g. crankshaft Exhaust valve
Spark plug Intake valve

Combustion
chamber
Piston rings

Piston

Connecting
rod

Crankshaft

Main components of an SI engine

 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
Physical nomenclature
a. bore (d) – the diameter of the engine cylinder
b. stroke (l) – distance the piston travels in one direction
c. piston displacement (Pd) – volume displaced by the piston in one stroke

𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝒍
𝐏=
𝟒
d. clearance volume ( Cv ) – the space inside the cylinder when the piston is at top dead
center position
e. cylinder volume – the sum of piston displacement and clearance volume, Pd + Cv
f. compression ratio ( Cr ) – ratio of cylinder volume to the clearance volume

Pd + Cv
𝐂𝐑 =
Cv
g. engine efficiency – a measure of the ability of an engine to convert fuel into useful work
 HEAT ENGINES
Engine cycles and principles of operation

• Intake Stroke – fuel and air or air alone is sucked in

the combustion chamber as the piston moves in a
downward direction
• Compression Stroke – fuel and air or air is
compressed by the piston as it moves in an
upward direction
• Power Stroke – fuel and air is ignited to produce
power at the downward movement of the piston
and transmitted it into the crankshaft of the
engine
• Exhaust Stroke – burn fuel and gases is discharged
from the combustion chamber
 The table below summarizes the differences between spark-ignition and
compression- ignition engines.
Comparison of diesel and gasoline engines
Characteristics CI SI
Ignition heat of compression spark
Compression ratio 14-22 to 1 5-8 to 1
Thermal efficiency 30-36% 25-30%
Fuel induction injector carburetor
Fuel used diesel gasoline
Air-fuel ratio 15-100 to 1 12-15 to 1
Fuel consumption low high
Exhaust gas temperature 900˚F 1300˚F
Starting characteristic hard easy
Engine wt/hp high low
Initial cost high low
 HEAT ENGINES
a. Based on the number of strokes to complete the engine cycle, engines
can be classified as:

1. Four-stroke cycle engines require four movements of the piston to complete

the cycle.
2. Two-stroke cycle engines require two movements of the piston to complete
the cycle.
 HEAT ENGINES
The table below gives a comparison between four- and two-stroke cycle engines.
Comparison of 4-stroke cycle and 2-stroke cycle engines
Characteristics 4-stroke 2-stroke
Number of power strokes 1 per 2 rev. of crankshaft 1 per 1 rev. of crankshaft

Power small Large (1.5 times)

Valve mechanism required absent
Construction/design complicated simple
Fuel consumption less more (15% more)
Durability good good
Stability of rpm high with large flywheel low with small flywheel
Lubrication independent of oil circuit mixed with fuel

Oil consumption little much

Carbon deposit inside cylinder and little much
contamination of spark plug
Self-weight and size heavy and large light and small
Market price expensive cheap
 HEAT ENGINES
From the above classification, there are four different types of engines:
Four-stroke cycle spark ignition engine
Four-stroke cycle compression ignition engine
Two-stroke cycle spark ignition engine
Two-stroke cycle compression ignition engine
Turbochargers
This uses heat from exhaust
gases to power a turbine that
forces additional air and fuel
into the cylinders when the
engine is running at high speed
providing a power boost of up
to 30 percent. A gate directs
exhaust gases to the turbo
charger when extra power is
needed and away from the
turbo charger once maximum
power has been achieved.
Supercharger
They do the same with the
turbo charger except that they
are engine driven rather than
exhaust gas driven
 ENGINE POWER
a. Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP). It is the average net pressure on the piston
during the power stroke. It is expressed either in kPa or lb/in2.

b. Indicated horsepower (IHP). It is the total horsepower generated in the cylinder and
received by piston.

IHP = ( P × L × A × N × n ) × ½ × C for 4-stroke-cycle engine

or IHP = ( P × L × A × N × n ) × C for 2-stroke-cycle engine

where, P – indicated mean effective pressure

L – piston stroke
A – piston area
N – number of revolutions per minute
n - number of cylinders
C - a suitable conversion constant
c. Brake horsepower (BHP). It is the power available at the crankshaft. It is
measured using a suitable dynamometer.

d. Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP). It is calculated from the brake

horsepower of the engine.

BMEP = BHP / ( L × A × N × n ) × C

BMEP can not be measured. It is merely a value for comparing the mean
pressures in the engine cylinders.

e. Mechanical efficiency. It is the ratio of the brake horsepower to the indicated

horsepower.

Mechanical efficiency = ( BHP / IHP ) × 100 %

 HEAT ENGINES
f. Volumetric efficiency. It is the ratio of the actual weight of air inducted by the
engine during the intake stroke, to the theoretical weight of air that should have
been inducted by filling the piston displacement volume with air at atmospheric
temperature and pressure.

g. Specific fuel consumption. It is the quantity of fuel consumed by an engine on

the basis of its horsepower-hour performance.

h. Thermal efficiency. It is the ratio of the horsepower output of an engine to the

fuel horsepower.
 HEAT ENGINES
Example 1.
A 4-cylinder,100 mm × 100 mm [4 in × 4 in] engine turns 1600 rpm.
(a) What is the total engine displacement?
(b) If the instantaneous piston head pressure is 690 kPa [100 psi] when the shaft has
rotated 90º after top dead center position, what is the torque on the crankshaft?
(c) If the mean effective pressure per power stroke is 550 kPa [80 psi], what is the
indicated power of the engine?
(d) If the individual cylinder’s clearance volume is 130 cm3 [8 in3], what is the engine’s
compression ratio?
ENGINE CYCLES
Electric (spark) ignition engine.

This engine utilizes an

electric spark produced by a spark
plug located inside the combustion
chamber to ignite the compressed
air and fuel mixture. Fuel used is
gasoline, and metering is done by a
device called carburetor.

In the figure showing ideal

conditions, ignition begins at C. It is
assumed that combustion is
instantaneous and that the rise in
pressure CD occurs at constant
volume V2.
Compression (injection) ignition
engine.

This engine utilizes the

heat of compressed air to ignite
the fuel as it is being injected
inside the combustion chamber.
Fuel used is diesel and metering
is accomplished by the fuel
injection system.

In the figure showing

ideal conditions, combustion
takes place during the interval
CD which occurs at constant
pressure.