NVSU Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Licensure Examination In-house Review 2025

in a known height that propels a water turbine.

AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS POWER (kg-m, ft-lb)
ENGINEERING
3. Heat Energy– energy associated with random
INTRODUCTION to AB POWER molecular motion within a medium and usually
related to an increase or a decrease in
This refers to power and machinery used in the
temperature of a substance -e.g., steam
farm for producing, harvesting, processing,
generation for process and power applications,
storing, manufacturing, preserving, transporting,
burning of fuel for crop drying and food
and distributing agricultural and biological
processing, etc.
products. materials.
4. Chemical Energy – energy stored in certain
POWER-rate at which energy is used or work is
materials that can be released through chemical
performed. Energy divided by time
reactions– e.g., combustion of diesel and gasoline
fuel electrical energy released from batteries, etc.
P = Work / time
5.Magnetic Energy – electrical energy produced
The standard metric unit of power is the Watt.
when the magnetic field is cut during the process
Watt is equivalent to a Joule/second.
of producing electricity.
-For historical reasons, the horsepower is 6. Electrical Energy –energy generated by
occasionally used to describe the power delivered friction or by chemical change having magnetic
by a machine. One horsepower is equivalent to chemical and radiant effects.
approximately 746 Watts.
7. Sound Energy –energy associated with the
ENERGY–capacity of physical system to perform vibration or disturbance of matter.
work. Consists of molecule mass that produces
power either heat, mechanical, electrical, 8. Nuclear Energy –part of energy of an atomic
chemical, or any of their combination.(1J=1N*m) nucleus, which can be released by union or
radioactive decay.

I .CLASSIFICATION OF
AGRICULTURAL OPERATION III. UNITS OF ENERGY AND POWER

•Tractive work-requiring pulling or drawing Joule – metric unit of energy which is equal to
efforts. one metric of force acting through one metric
unit of distance. 1 J =. 1 N-m = 0.0737 ft-lb
1. Land preparation: plowing, harrowing, land
leveling 2.Cultivation 3. Harvesting British Thermal Unit – amount of heat energy
4. Transport required to raise the temperature of one pound
•Stationary work-usually accomplished by means of water one degree Fahrenheit. 1 BTU = 1.055
of belt, gears, pto, direct drive, s kJ = 778.17 ft-lb
1. Threshing 2. Water pumping 3. Milling
Calorie–amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of one gram of water by one degree
II. FORMS OF ENERGY Celsius. 1 cal. = 4.187J

1. Kinetic Energy –mass in motion such as wind Foot-Pound–force in pound acting on a

on wind pump rotor, moving water on an impulse distance of 1 foot. Foot-pound =. 0.00128 BTU =.
1.355 N-m
water turbine etc.
Power –rate of using energy usually expressed
Kinetic Energy=WV2/2g either in horsepower, watts, , etc. 1 hp = 745.7 w
Where: W- weight of body = 76.2 kg-m/sec = 2544.4 BTU/hr
v- velocity
g- acceleration of a free falling body Fundamental Physics terms

2. Potential Energy – position of mass of energy Mass- a quantity of matter a body contains
irrespective of the kind of material of wich it
in position to the force field such as mass of water
id composed (g, kg, or lb)

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Inertia- property of matter by virtue of which Spark Plug Heat to Creates spark ignition to
a body tends to remain at rest or continue in Electricity burn the fuel injected
motion in a straight line into the combustion
chamber of an engine
Momentum- a term applied to a body in Piston Heat to Produces torque and
motion, it is the product of its mass and Mechanical rotary motion to drive
agricultural machines
velocity at any instant
and equipment
Control
Force- ia an action, exerted upon an body,
that changes or tends to change its natural
state at rest or uniform motion in a straight IV. SOURCES OF FARM POWER
line
1. Human power
Torque- a turning or twisting effort or action A mature human being can continuously develop
an output of 0.10 hp if he is in good physical
Horsepower- a unit measurement of power
condition, well-fed and working in a favorable
equal to doing work at the rate of 33,000ft-
environment. As a poor source of mechanical
lb/min or 550 ft-lb/sec.
power, he is most suited to operations which
First Law of Thermodynamics require judgment and skill.
Energy is always conserved, it is neither created Pg = 0.35 – 0.092 log t
nor destroyed. Its total amount remains constant,
merely changing from one form to another. where: Pg - generated power, (hp)
Second Law of Thermodynamics t - time, min
In all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or
leaves the system, the potential energy of the 2. Animal power
state will always be less than that of the initial Draft or work animals can develop an output of
state. 0.7-1.3 horsepower.. The horse working
ENERGY CONVERSION continuously for several hours and walking at 2.5
EQUIPMENT/DEVICES mph should not pull more than 1/10 to 1/8 of its
Equipment Conversion Agricultural body weight. The horse can travel up to 20
/Devices Application miles/per day without undue fatigue. A carabao is
Generator Mechanical Generates power for 10 times over the power of human.
to Electrical farmstead such as
lighting, driving motor, drawbar horsepower:
heating, etc.
Motor Electrical to Provides power for
DHP = F x V / 76.2
Mechanical various stationary where: DHP - draft horsepower, hp
farmstead equipment
Engine Heat to Provides power for both F - draft, kg
Mechanical stationary and mobile
agricultural machines V - velocity of travel, m/s
and equipment
Turbine Kinetic to Supplies energy to - It is the power required to pull an implement at a
Mechanical propel high speed given force and velocity of travel of the animals and
equipment used to drive implement.
small generators and
milling machines 3. Wind Power
Boiler Heat to Provides steam for
Kinetic power generation and A form of renewable Energy that utilizes the
Energy for various food kinetic energy of wind to generate Electricity.
processing operation Confined largely for water pumping and electric
Solar Solar Supplies energy for
Collector Radiation to drying, space heating,
generation.
Heat Energy and others Classification of windmills:
Solar Cell Light to Provides power for
Electricity lighting, water pumping, • according to shaft orientation –vertical or
etc.
horizontal.
Peltier Heat to Runs small fan, cooling,
Chip Electricity etc. • according to blade material –sail, metal,
Combustio Fuel to Heat Burns fuel to produce wooden.
n Chamber heat for drying grains, • according to shaft speed –
kiln firing, tobacco ❖ high speed (2 to 4 blades);
curing, and others
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❖ < 300 rpm or low speed (multi-bladed and 7. Heat engines

high torque for water pumping)
Engines are mechanical devices that convert heat
Power (theoretical) = ½ Þ*A*V3 energy of fuels into mechanical energy.

where: • In external combustion engines (ECE)- the

fuel is ignited and burned outside a cylinder
Power = watts
and the heat energy is applied indirectly to a
Þ = air density, 1.25 kg/m3
piston by an intermediate medium, usually
A = area of rotor, m2
water vapor. A steam engine is an external
V = wind speed, m/s
combustion engine.
4. Water Power ADVANTAGES OF ECE
The use of water to generate electricity. Solely for • These engines have the capability to use all
stationary works and electric generation. In hp, types of fuels.
the theoretical power available from flowing • The external combustion engines generate very
water is: low noise.
• They have a low emission rate.
Theoretical power(Hp) = ( Q × H ) / 33,000
• They are best suitable for high power
where: generation applications
H – head, ft
DISADVANTAGES OF ECE
Q – mass flow rate, lbs/min
The mass flow rate Q can be expressed as: • They are not ideal for low power generation
applications.
Q=VAρ • They have working fluid leakage issues.
where: V – velocity of water, ft/min • The EC engine has more size than the IC engine.
• They consume more lubricant than the IC
A – cross sectional area of water stream, ft2
engines.
ρ – density of water, 62.4 lbs/ft3 • These engines have a high operational
Power, (KW) = (Q * H)/102 temperature

where: • In internal combustion engines (ICE)- the

Q = mass flow rate, kg/s = ρ VA fuel is ignited and burned inside a cylinder
ρ =density of water, kg/m3 and the resulting explosion cycle causes an
V = velocity, m/s instantaneous application of pressure to a
A = Area, m2 piston. Internal combustion engines have
H = head or vertical drop of water, m completely replaced the steam engine for all
types of agricultural power applications.
5. Electric Power
-Based upon the action of a riffle or canon
Used extensively for supplying heat, light and
power for heating water, operating brooders, a. They are used as stationary power
water pumps, dairy and refrigeration equipment. sources for milling, grinding, water pumping,
generation of electricity, etc.
Power (watt) = Voltage (volt)*current(amp)
b. They are used as power units of
6. Solar Energy
• portable farm equipment such as sprayers, and
Unlimited supply, lighting, heating are the most threshers, and
common applications.
• self-propelled machines such as tractors,
• Solar collector -a device that collect solar combines and harvesters.
radiant energy and transform it to some
other useful form of energy. In agriculture and fishery mechanization, small
• Photovoltaic cell –a device used to convert single-cylinder engines are commonly used by
solar energy directly to electricity. Most farmers, ranging from 3hp to 16hp gasoline and
common type is single crystal silicon solar up to slightly higher hp diesel engines. Multiple-
cell (16% efficiency). cylinder diesel engines are commonly adopted
for large applications like tractors, self-propelled
combine harvester, and many others.

Internal combustion engines (ICE)

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Main engine components Physical nomenclature

a. bore (d) – the diameter of the engine cylinder

b. stroke (l) – distance the piston travels in one
direction from top-dead-center and bottom-
dead-center or vice versa

c. piston displacement (Pd) – volume displaced

by the piston in one stroke
Pd = ( π × bore2 / 4 ) × stroke

d. clearance volume ( Cv ) – the space inside the

cylinder when the piston is at top dead center
position

e. cylinder volume – the sum of piston

displacement and clearance volume, Pd + Cv

Main Engine Parts f. compression ratio ( Cr ) – ratio of cylinder

volume to the clearance volume
1. Cylinder Head–houses the valves, spark plug
or fuel injector and serves as cover for the c. r. = ( Pd + Cv ) / Cv
cylinder block. g. engine efficiency – a measure of the ability of
2. Cylinder Block –encloses the piston and an engine to convert fuel into useful work.
confines the expanding gases.
3. Valve – allows the flow of fuel and exhaust Engine Efficiency= (Output power/Input
gases. power)*100%
4. Piston–hollow cylinder with closed top upon
h. Top Dead Center (TDC) -uppermost position
which the expanding gases act and transmits
of the piston during the compression and exhaust
force to the crankshaft.
stroke.
5. Camshaft–actuates the valves through a rocker
arm to open and close during engine operation. i. Bottom Dead Center (BDC) –lowest position of
6. Crankshaft –receives the power from the the piston during intake and power stroke.
piston and transmits it to the other parts of the
j. Mean Effective pressure (MEP) – amount of
engine to do useful work.
pressure generated during the power stroke of an
7. Piston Rings (compression and oil rings) –
engine
retain compression, reduce cylinder wall contact
thereby reduce friction losses and wear. k. Cycle–series of events occurring one after the
8. Piston Pin –joins the connecting rod and the other in a definite order and repeating the event
piston. It is removable to facilitate replacement of after the last one has occurred.
piston.
9. Connecting Rod –connects the piston and the l. Indicate Horsepower (IHP) – power
crankshaft. It transmits power from the piston to generated at the combustion chamber of the
the crankshaft. engine.
10. Flywheel–energy storage device of an engine m. Brake Horsepower (BHP) – power available
to keep it at uniform speed when the crankshaft at the drive shaft or crankshaft of the engine.
is not receiving power from the piston.
11. Crankcase– encloses and supports the n. Friction Horsepower (FHP) –power loss due
crankshaft and serves as reservoir for the to friction of piston and other components of the
lubricating oil. engine.
12. Governor –control device of an engine. It
o. .Rated Horsepower –power of the engine as
governs or controls the engine speed at some
specified by the manufacturer.
fixed value while power output changes to meet
the demand. p .Mechanical Efficiency - ratio of the brake
13. Oil Pan –contains the oil used to lubricate an horsepower to the indicated horsepower.
engine.
q. Brake Thermal Efficiency – ratio of the brake
14. Dip Stick – is used in measuring the level of
horsepower to the power available in the fuel.
lubricating oil in an engine.

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r. Specific Fuel Consumption – rate of fuel F. Volumetric Efficiency. It is the ratio of the
consumed per unit brake power actual weight of air inducted by the engine
during the intake stroke, to the theoretical
s. Idle Speed – minimum speed the engine runs
weight of air that should have been inducted
at no load, usually around 900 rpm.
by filling the piston displacement volume with
t. Optimum Throttle Opening – opening air at atmospheric temperature and pressure.
adjustment of the engine throttle at the best
G. Specific Fuel Consumption. It is the
operating condition, which is usually 75% of the
quantity of fuel consumed by an engine on the
total opening.
basis of its horsepower-hour performance.
HORSEPOWER OF ENGINE
H. Thermal Efficiency. It is the ratio of the
A. Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP). horsepower output of an engine to the fuel
It is the average net pressure on the piston horsepower.
during the power stroke. It is expressed either
Thermal Efficiency, % = (bhp/power value of fuel)
in kPa or lb/in2.
x 100
B. Indicated Horsepower (IHP). It is the total
output (1hp = 42.42BTU/min = 2545BTU/hr)
horsepower generated in the cylinder and
input (gasoline = 20,000BTU/lb) (diesel =
received by piston.
19,000BTU/lb)
IHP = ( P × L × A × N × n ) × ½ × C for 4-
stroke-cycle engine I. Friction Hp (Fhp) – power the engine consumes
in operating itself at a given speed without any
or IHP = ( P × L × A × N × n ) × C for 2- load. Due to the moving parts of the engine, i.e.
stroke-cycle engine rotation and sliding
where, Ihp-bhp=fhp
P – indicated mean effective pressure J. Drawbar Hp – the power developed at the hitch
L – piston stroke or drawbar and available for pulling, dragging or
A – piston area similar efforts
N – number of revolutions per minute
n - number of cylinders Sample Problem:
C - a suitable conversion constant
*Suppose a 4-cylinder engine has a bore of 3.5 in.
and a stroke of 4.0 in., what is the piston
C. Belt Or Brake Horsepower (BHP). It is the
displacement of the engine?
power available at the crankshaft. It is
measured using a suitable dynamometer. Given:
Available to be delivered to the transmission No. of cylinders - 4
drive of the machine Piston diameter - 3.5 in.
-is power generated in the belt pulley and Stroke - 4.0 in
available for useful work. Required: Piston displacement
Hp = (force on scale due to friction only (lb) x 2π Solution:
r(ft)x rpm)/33000 PD = / =
BHP π (3.5 in.)2
hp = (net load (lb) x lba (ft) x 2π rpm)/33000
= ---------------- --------
D. Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP). It is 4 x 4.0 in. x 4 cylinders
calculated from the brake horsepower of the =153.9 in.3
engine.
The indicated power of an engine is 69
BMEP = BHP / ( L × A × N × n ) × C horsepower. The brake horsepower is 54. What
BMEP can not be measured. It is merely a is the mechanical or engine efficiency?
value for comparing the mean pressures in the Given: IHP - 69 Hp
engine cylinders.
BHP - 54 Hp
E. Mechanical Efficiency. It is the ratio of the
brake horsepower to the indicated horsepower. Required: Mechanical Efficiency

Mechanical efficiency =( BHP / IHP ) × 100%

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Solution metering is accomplished by the fuel injection

system.
BHP
Mech. Eff. = -------- x 100 -produces power in two revolutions of the
IHP crankshaft
54 Hp -fuel is burned inside the combustion chamber
= ------------- x 100 -relatively low speed and heavy in weight
69 Hp In actual practice, it is not higher, because the
= 78.26% compression ratio of Otto-cycle engine is limited
A motor delivers 2 hp and receives 1.8 kw of by the fuel characteristics. Diesel engine normally
energy. Find its efficiency. uses higher compression pressures than Otto-
cycle engine and, therefore, higher fuel-
E= output/input
utilization efficiency.
= (2hpx 0.746kw) / (1.8 kw)
= 0.829 or 82.9%

V. ENGINE CYCLES AND PRINCIPLES

OF OPERATION
In the operation of internal combustion engines,
four events repeatedly takes place inside the
combustion chamber one after the other in a
definite order. These cycle of events are the
following:

A. Cycle
1.Intake (suction) – This event is characterized by
the taking in of combustible materials.
2. Compression – The air or air-fuel mixture which
have entered during the intake event is trapped
into a small combustion chamber.
The figure shows the comparative efficiency
3. Power – The air-fuel mixture is ignited
values of ideal Otto and Diesel cycles. At first, the
resulting to a very rapid expansion of the burning
efficiency increases rapidly with compression
mixture.
ratio but the rate of increase decreases as
4. Exhaust – The burned gases are removed from compression ratio becomes high. Otto cycle gives
the combustion chamber. a higher theoretical efficiency than Diesel cycle.

B. Classification of engines: C. According to Number of Cylinders

Based on the manner of igniting the fuel: (a) Single-Cylinder -one piston -appropriate for
small engines commonly used in the farm
1. Electric (spark) ignition engine. This engine
utilizes an electric spark produced by a spark plug (b) Multiple Cylinder -more than 1 piston (2, 3, 4,
located inside the combustion chamber to ignite 6, 8, 12, etc.) -appropriate for use when relatively
the compressed air and fuel mixture. Fuel used is higher power is required such as tractors and
gasoline, and metering is done by a device called self-propelled equipment.
carburetor.
Terminologies
-produces power in one revolution of the
crankshaft Firing Order
-fuel and oil are mixed in the combustion
chamber Sequence of movement of the piston as it
-usually high speed and light in weight produces power. It is an order in which the engine
cylinders deliver power stroke at best engine
2. Compression (injection) ignition engine. This performance. It is also related to engine
engine utilizes the heat of compressed air to balancing.
ignite the fuel as it is being injected inside the Three cylinder engine-(1-3-2)
combustion chamber. Fuel used is diesel and Four cylinder engine-(1-2-4-3),(1-3-4-2)

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Six cylinder engine-(1-5-3-6-2-4),(1-4-2-6-3- 4th stroke- exhaust of the product of

5),(1-3-2-6-4-5),(1-2-4-6-5-3) combustion
8-cylinder engine –(1-8-7-3-6-5-4-2)
Advantage: Disadvantage :
Firing Interval More torque Complicated
More fuel efficient design
The arc of travel of the crankshaft between
More durable Less powerful
successive explosion in an engine.
Less pollution Expensive
Firing interval= 360/no. of cylinder-for 2 SCE No extra additional oil

=720/no. of cylinder- for 4 SCE

2. Two-stroke cycle engines require two
Running Mates movements of the piston to complete the cycle.

Pistons that go up and down together in the same

position but of different function. One of them is
performing compression or power stroke and the
other is on the intake or exhaust stroke. To find Advantage: Disadvantage :
the running mate, simply take the firing order and Lighter in weight per Fuel mixture is
split it in half. Example, if firing order is 153624, horsepower controlled difficulty
split into half (153-624) then put the second Simple in Inefficient fuel
number under the first to get the running mate. construction consumption
Hence, 1/6, 5/2, and 3/4. Greater frequency of Do not operate
working stroke or satisfactory under
Fuel Injection
power impulse fluctuating load
Fuel feeding method for most diesel engines and
newer model of gasoline engines where high-
pressure electric pump precisely mixes measured
amount of filtered fuel and air.

Turbo Charger
Improves the power output of an engine beyond
its normal operating capacity by increasing the
amount of air injected into the engine to allow
more fuel to be injected and increase power
output by 30%.
Super Charger VI. Fuel systems (Fuel and Combustion)

Functions the same as turbo charger, except that Fuel-material that stores energy which is
it is engine driven rather than exhaust-gas driven. subsequently extracted to perform mechanical
This is usually used for spark-ignition engines work in a controlled manner. It undergoes
since the power from exhaust gases is low as a combustion in which a combustible substance
result of low compression. releases energy (exothermic process) after it
Inter Cooler ignites and reacts with the oxygen in the air

Cools the gases coming out of the compressor Classification and composition of fuel
which then reduces the volume of the inlet gases
➢ Gaseous or liquid fuels – according to physical
and increases the volumetric efficiency.
state before going into the cylinder.
D. Based on the number of strokes ➢ Artificial or natural – according to whether the
1.Four-stroke cycle engines require four fuel is obtained from natural sources or as a
movements of the piston to complete the cycle. manufactured product.
Heating value of fuels – is the amount of heat
1st stroke – taking in air and gasoline mixture
energy contained in any fuel (BTU)
2nd stroke-compression of fuel mixture and
ignition of mixture a the end of compression
CLASSIFICATIONS OF FUEL
3rd stroke-expansion of burned gases producing
Solid Fuel is mainly classified into:
the power
(a) natural fuel such as coal, wood, etc.; and

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(b) manufactured fuel such as charcoal, coke, fuels derived from biomass conversion as
briquette, etc. well as solid biomass, liquid fuel and biogases.
• Coal, Coke, and Peat c. Bioethanol –alcohol derived by
• Wood and Wood Charcoal fermentation of carbohydrates produced in
• Agri and Forest Wastes sugar and starch from crops such as corn,
Liquid Fuel is classified into: sugarcane and cassava. Ethanol can be used
(a) Natural or crude oil; and as fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is
(b) Artificial or Manufactured Oil. usually used as gasoline additive to increase
• Crude Oil (gasoline, diesel, and kerosene) its octane content and improve emissions of
• Bunker Oil vehicles.
• Biofuel (bio-ethanol, vegetable oil, bio-oil, and Common gaseous fuels derived from
biodiesel) nature:
Gaseous fuel occur in nature besides from being 1. Natural gas (methane – CH4) / producer
manufactured from solid or from liquid gas
.• LPG 2. Propane or butane or lpg
• Natural Gas ➢Liquid fuels:
• Producer Gas (CO, H2 , and CH4 ) • diesel (1D, 2D, 4D)
• Biogas (CH4 & CO2 ) • alcohol (ethanol, methanol)
3. gasoline (regular, premium, unleaded,
A. Sources of Fuel
super unleaded) CLS
Non Renewable Sources of Fuel
a. Crude Oil -naturally occurring flammable Alcohol sources:
liquid consisting of a complex mixture of ➢Ethanol (C2H6O) – from grain crops such as
hydrocarbons with varying molecular corn, wheat, sorghum sugar crops such as
weights and other liquid organic compounds sugarcane, sugar beets, sweet sorghum
that are found in geologic formation beneath starches such potatoes crop residual such as
the earth’s surface. Gasoline, kerosene and corn stalks. This is known as grain alcohol.
diesel are derived from crude oil. Crude oil is ➢Methanol (CH4O) – can produced from coal,
made mainly from Hydrocarbons natural gas, petroleum or wood. It is
b. Natural Gas -naturally occurring commonly known as wood alcohol.
hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting (Denatured alcohol is a mixture of ethanol with
primarily of methane, other hydrocarbons, little methanol and pyridine which gives its
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen distinct color and odor.)
sulfide.
c. Liquefied Petroleum Gas(LPG) flammable Advantage of adding alcohol to gasoline:
mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as fuel in 1. It raises the octane rating of the fuel.
heating appliances and vehicles. It consists of 2. It forms no soot or odor in the engine.
propane and butane. 3. Burns without producing smoke or
d. Coal-combustible black or brownish black disagreeable odor.
sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock 4. The exhaust is free of nitrogen oxides
strata in layers or veins called coal beds or without special clean up devices because
coal seams. alcohol burns cooler.
e. Nuclear Energy (Uranium) referred to the 5. Cool burning reduces the possibility of
part of energy of an atomic nucleus which can burning valves.
be released by fusion or fission or by 6. A higher compression ratio can be utilized
radioactive decay. thereby increasing engine efficiency

Renewable Sources of Fuel B. Fuel Characteristics

a. Solid Biomass Wood fuel–wood intended
1. Density–ratio of the mass of fuel to its
for use as fuel. Agri-Residue–includes field
volume at a reference temperature of 15°C.
and processed residues from agriculture such
It is important in quantitative calculation
as hay, stalks, husks, shells, etc.
and in assessing ignition quality of fuel.
b. Biofuel - its energy is derived from
2. Specific Gravity –ratio of weight of a
biological carbon fixation. Biofuels include
given volume of fuel to the weight of the
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same volume of water. It is important in such as chimney or stock, air pre-heater

the calculation involving weight and and economizer.
volume. The gravity of liquid fuel is usually 12. Ash Content -impurity in the fuel which
expressed in API (American Petroleum does not burn. It reduces handling and
Institute) degrees. burning capacity of the fuel and increases
API = (141.5 / specific gravity at 15°C) - handling cost.
131.5 (Specific gravity of gasoline is 0.69 - 13. Octane Number –measures the ignition
0.77) quality of fuel in the engine. The higher
3. Flash Point –lowest temperature at the number, the lesser the fuel is
which liquid fuel is heated in order to give susceptible to 'knocking' (i.e., explosion
off sufficient vapor forming a flammable caused by its premature burning in the
air-gas mixture. combustion chamber) when burned in a
4. Pour Point –lowest temperature at spark-ignition engine.
which liquid fuel flow under prescribed 14. Cetane Number - measures the ignition
condition. It is a very rough indication of quality of diesel fuel. The higher the
the lowest temperature at which fuel is number, the easier it is to start a
ready to be pumped. compression-ignition engine. Also, fuel with
5. Cloud Point – temperature at which the higher cetane number has shorter ignition
sample has visibly shown cloudiness. delay periods than fuel with lower cetane
6. Vapor Pressure- pressure of a vapor in number. They are used only for the
contact with its liquid or solid form. Too relatively light distillate diesel oils.
low vapor pressure may cause liquid fuel 15. Corrosion–process of corroding metals.
to undergo vapor lock problem. Sulfur compounds are corrosive to metals.
7. Thermal Stability –resistance of fuel to 16. Existent Gum -Fuels have a tendency
thermal degradation measured by heating to form viscous liquids or solids called
the fuel to a specified temperature, filtering gum. Large quantities of gum usually cause
and comparing residue with standard sticking of the intake valve and heavy
coloration filters. deposit at the intake manifold of the
8. Viscosity– measure of the resistance of engine.
liquid fuel to flow. It decreases as the 17. Proximate Analysis– provides a good
temperature increases. It is important in indication about heating and burning of
the storage and in the use of fuel. Too fuel. It gives the composition of fuel with
viscous fuel is difficult to pump, hard to respect to moisture, volatile matter, fixed
ignite the burner, and difficult to handle. carbon, and ash content.
9. Specific Heat – amount of heat in kcal 18. Ultimate Analysis –determines the
needed to raise one kilo of fuel one °C. It compounds contained in a mixture. It
determines the amount of electrical energy indicates the various elemental and chemical
needed to heat the fuel to a desired constituents of the fuel such as carbon,
temperature. Usually, light oil has lower hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, etc. It is useful in
specific heat than heavy oil. determining the amount of air required for
10. Volatility –tendency of a substance to combustion and the volume and composition
evaporate at normal temperatures. Gasoline of combustion gases.
is more volatile than diesel oil or kerosene
not only because of the base constituents, PRE-IGNITION occurs when the fuel charge
but also because of additives. In hot is fired too far ahead of the compression TDC
weather, less volatile fuel is needed to of the piston. Owing too excessive spark
minimize vapor lock, which is the failure advance or to premature spontaneous
of the fuel to start, for liquid fuels tend to ignition resulting from excessive heat in the
become vapor in fuel lines. In cold weather, cylinder.
on the other hand, low volatile fuel is DETONATION occurs in the process of
difficult to start. combustion of the mixture within the cylinder
11. Sulfur –determines the risk of after ignition takes place in high compression
corrosion as a result of sulfuric acid formed engine
during and after combustion and IGNITION QUALITY It refers to ease of
condensation in cool parts of the machine burning the oil in the combustion chamber.
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Octane number and cetane number are the 1. VENTURI -Narrowed part of the carburetor
measures of ignition quality of the fuel. tube where suction is created and the velocity
of the incoming air is increased
Methods to control detonation: 2. MAIN DISCHARGE TUBE -A tube, one end of
1. Using especially designed cylinder heads which is connected to the venturi and the
and pistons to so shape the combustion space other in the fuel container
that the last to burn portion of the charge will 3 FUEL CONTAINER - Holds the fuel for use by
be spread out into a thin sheet and its the different metering circuits in the
temperature held down more effectively. carburetor.
2. Providing more effective water circulation 4 FUEL SUPPLY INLET -The fuel supply inlet
and cooling around the cylinder head and is where fuel enters the fuel container from
exhaust valve. the engine's fuel tank
3. Using cylinder head and piston materials 5 FLOAT -The float is used to control the level
such as aluminum alloys that provide more of fuel in the fuel container
heat dissipation. INLET NEEDLE/FLOAT VALVE - Opens as the
4. Using properly designed spark plugs and float level drops and the fuel is allowed to
locating it on the “hot region” preferably near enter the bowl area. As the fuel level rises, the
the exhaust valve. float pushes it back and shuts off the incoming
5. Eliminating or reducing carbon deposits. fuel.
6. Maintaining the correct mixture of fuel and 8 THROTTLE PLATE -The throttle plate
air and the proper spark setting and valve controls the air flow through the venture
adjustment. 9 CHOKE PLATE - The choke plate partially
7. Using especially treated or so called blocks off air flow.
“doped” or antiknock fuels (tetraethyllead or
ethylene dibromide)
D. Fuels Commonly Use in Powering
Agricultural Operation
Antiknock (Octane Rating) – it is the
antiknock value of fuel determined by
comparing it with a mixture of isooctane
(C8H18) and heptane (C7H16). The rating is
based on the percentage by volume of
isooctane in an isooctane-heptane mixture.
Isooctane – 100 (excellent antiknock quality)
Heptane – 0 ( excessive knocking quality)

C. FUNCTION OF FUEL SUPPLY

SYSTEM

• Store sufficient amount of fuel.

• Deliver fuel to the engine
• Filter the fuel and the air
• Prevent fuel to vaporize
• Prevents fuel to escape to the
atmosphere

CARBURETOR- Atomizes the fuel and mixes it

with the correct amount of
FUNCTION OF CARBURETOR
• Assist in properly vaporizing the fuel
• Mix the vaporized fuel in the correct
proportions with air
• Supply the correct air-fuel mixture to the
engine
1. Gasoline -product of the distillation of
PARTS OF CARBURETOR crude oil. It is a transparent, petroleum-
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derived liquid that is used primarily as fuel 6. Biodiesel-biomass-derived fuel which

for small internal combustion engines can be used as direct substitute for diesel
commonly used in agriculture operations. oil in compression ignition (CI) engines.
It consists mostly of organic compounds However, biodiesel is more expensive than
2. Diesel-obtained between 250°C to 320°C diesel fuel
during fractional distillation of crude oil. It 7. Producer Gas -mixture of combustible
generally contains 85% C and 12% H. gases containing carbon monoxide and
Density is around 0.82 0.89 g/cc while the hydrogen with non-combustible gases such
calorific value is about 11,000 kcal/kg. as N2, CO2, etc. It is produced by burning
Diesel includes the heaviest oils used in fuel with little amount of air or with the
compression ignition internal combustion use of steam in a reactor called “gas
engine. It is commonly used in larger producer.”
engines since it is cheaper than gasoline or 8. Biomass -is a living matter used as fuel
kerosene fuel. either grown for that purpose or recovered
Ignition characteristic (cetane number) from farming, forest and food industries
takes place in an engine in three stages: wastes. They can be directly burned either
i.e., ignition lag, burning injection, and in furnaces or in boilers but they are
burning after injection. Excessive ignition transformed into gas to minimize pollution
lag results in the accumulation of unburned and to facilitate handling and
fuel which, when subjected to high transportation. Biomass is bulky and it has
pressure and temperature, may detonate low calorific value of around 5,000 kcal per
giving rise to diesel knock. kg.
3. Kerosene-heavier product in the
distillation of crude oil than gasoline. It is VII. ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEM
obtained between 180°to 250°C during
fractional distillation of crude oil. The VALVES AND VALVE OPERATION
density is 0.78 - 0.84 g/cm3 while INTAKE VALVE - Allows the fuel mixture to enter
theNumber =30–40 Spark-ignition engines the combustion chamber on the intake stroke.
cannot start with kerosene fuel only Larger in diameter than exhaust valves.
because the initial point of kerosene is
A. VALVE CONSTRUCTION
higher than that of gasoline.
• Gas engine valves are of poppet or mushroom
4. LPG -hydrocarbon which is gaseous at
type.The valve itself consist of a flat head with
normal atmospheric pressure and, by the
a beveled edge called the face, and the stem.
application of moderate pressure, may
• A strong spring held in place by a retainer and
condense to liquid state at normal key or wedge, holds the valve face tightly
temperature. LPG consists of propane and against the seat.
butane and is used as fuel for cooking, A. The usual face and seat angle is 45 degrees.
baking, drying, and other heating However, a 30-deg angle is frequently used
applications. As engine fuel, the fuel supply for intake valves
system for LPG engines differs from that of B. The four-cycle engines have inlet and
gasoline engines. . Liquid LPG evaporates exhaust ports at each combustion chamber
about 250 times than the volume of gas. at the upper section of the cylinder
Its vapor is denser than that of air. Butane C. The inlet and exhaust ports are
is about twice the weight of air while equipped with inlet valves and exhaust
propane is one and a half times heavier B. VALVE MECHANISM
than that of air which allows the gas to
flow on the ground making it possible to TIMING GEAR - Drives the camshaft that opens
be ignited even at a considerable distance. and closes the valves.
5. Bioethanol(C2H5OH) -ethanol obtained CAMSHAFT - Driven by the camshaft gear. Held
from biomass and is used as a gasoline by the camshaft bearings so that it can
blend (E10 up to E20) Bioethanolis smoothly rotate between the camshaft
produced from fermentation of biomass journals and bearings
which is rich in sugar, carbohydrates and TAPPET - Used to convert camshaft rotation
cellulosic materials followed by distillation into reciprocating movement. The overhead
process valve type tappet is cylindrical or cup-
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shaped, and includes a push rod which Perfect Combustion –occurs when the amount
connects the cam to the rocker arm of air (stoichiometric air) needed is supplied to
PUSH ROD - Push rods are simply hollow steel the fuel.
pipes machined at both ends. The bottom
Complete Combustion –occurs when excess air
contacts the tappet interior, and the top
is provided into the fuel. Too much excess air
contacts the rocker arm
will result in heat losses which may quench
ROCKER ARM - One end is pushed up by the
combustion of fuel. The amount of excess air
push rod which is moved by cam rotation.
depends highly on the type of fuel and the
The other end directly contacts the end of
firing system.
the valve stem, and functions as a lever to
push the Incomplete combustion –occurs when too
VALVE SPRING -Keep the valve pressed firmly little air is supplied into the fuel resulting in
on the valve seat to maintain airtightness the production of unburned carbon, which
when the valve is closed. - Quickly return the forms CO instead of CO2.
valve to its original position after it has been
pushed down by the rocker arm Spontaneous combustion-occurs by self-
VALVE TIMING - The timing of any valve is heating (increase in temperature due to
specified with respect to the instant it begins exothermic internal reactions), followed by
to open and the instant it closes in relation to thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly
the crankshaft rotation and the piston accelerates to high temperatures) and
position. It would be assumed, ordinarily finally,ignition.
that a valve would start to open at the
beginning of its stroke and be completely Stoichiometric Air - amount of air needed to
closed at the end. completely burn the fuel and turn its by-
product into ash.
VIII. COMBUSTION PROCESS
Vapor Lock/gas lock/ air lock is the partial or
Internal combustion efficiency =20-30% complete interruption of the fuel flow in the fuel
feed system as a result of vaporization of the fuel
Combustion-rapid oxidation of fuel and the formation of vapor or gas bubbles at
accompanied by the production of heat and some point.
light. Rapid fuel oxidation results in a large
amount of heat. Solid or liquid fuel must be Combustion is applied to the process by which a
converted to gas before it is burned. Heat is fuel unites chemically with oxygen, producing of
required to change liquid or solid fuel into gas. what is known as oxide and often generating heat
Gaseous fuel burns if enough air is present. of considerable intensity and sometimes light. It
may be very slow or very rapid action.
Three Elements of Combustion:
Rich mixture – is a fuel mixture containing less
(a) Fuel; (b) Oxygen (Air is 21% O2); and (c) than the required amount of air.
Heat.
Indications of rich mixture
Complete combustion of fuel is possible if 1. black smoke at the exhaust
there is adequate air. Nitrogen in the air 2. lack of power and
reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing the 3. over heating of the engine.
heat from the combusting fuel and by diluting
flue gases. It also combines with oxygen at a Lean mixture – is a fuel mixture containing more
high flame temperature producing nitrogen than the required amount of air (slow burning).
oxide (NOx). Indication of lean mixture
1. uneven firing
Good combustion can be attained by: (a) High 2. lack of power
temperature enough to ignite and maintain 3. overheating
ignition of fuel; (b) Turbulence or intimate
mixing of fuel and oxygen; and (c) Sufficient 1) Functions of the fuel system of compression
time to complete combustion. ignition engines

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• To meter the correct amount of fuel as b.) Thermosiphon system - In addition to the water
demanded by the load jacket about the cylinder, it includes a separate
• To accurately time the beginning and ending reservoir connected at the top and bottom by a
of the fuel injection pipe leading to the upper and lower parts of the
• To inject fuel against very high pressure in cylinder. In tractors, it is replaced by what is
the cylinder known as radiator, this being nothing more than
a tank
2) Functions of the fuel system of spark c.) Forced circulation system - In this method, a
ignition engines water pump is used to force water from the
• To assist in properly vaporizing the fuel radiator to the water jacket of the engine. After
circulating the entire run of water jacket, hot
• To mix the vaporized fuel in the correct
water goes to the radiator, where it passes
proportions with air
through tubes surrounded by air.
• To supply the engine with the proper
quantity of mixture • Composition of the forced circulation system

➢ water pump, It is a centrifugal type pump

IX. COOLING SYSTEM
➢radiator-Radiator is a device for cooling the
Without the cooling system, at least three
circulating water in the engine. It holds a large
major troubles could arise:
volume of water in close contact with a large
• The piston and cylinder would expand such volume of air so that heat is transferred from the
that the piston would seize in the cylinder; water to the air easily.
• Lubricating properties of the oil will be
➢ thermostat valve-It is a control valve, used in the
destroyed by the temperature;
cooling system to control the flow of water when
• Pre-ignition of the fuel will take place resulting
activated by a temperature signal.
in knocking and loss of power.
Function of cooling systems: ➢ Water jackets are cored out around the engine
• To maintain engine temperature within cylinder so that water can circulate freely
optimum levels; around the cylinder as well as around the valve
• To assists in rapid engine warm up. opening.

➢The fan is usually mounted on the water pump

Engine parts that absorbs heat
shaft.
1. Cylinder
2. Cylinder head It is driven by the same belt that drives the pump
3. Piston and the dynamo.
4. Piston Rings
The purpose of the fan is to provide strong draft
5. Valves
of air through the radiator to improve engine
6. Other part
cooling.
Engine normal operating temperature range 73ºC
to 93 ºC (170 ºF to 200 ºF) X. Lubrication system
A. Methods of cooling Functions:
1. Air Cooling Air cooling - Air cooled engines are • reduces friction and wear by separating
those engines, in which heat is conducted from rubbing parts
the working components of the engine to the • assists in cooling the engine by absorbing
atmosphere directly
heat from parts
.2. Liquid/Water Cooling - Cooling systems using • acts as the final seal between the piston and
liquids, usually water are employed for all types cylinder walls
of engines • assists in cleaning the engine
a.) Open jacket or hopper method - The simplest
Engine Oil (Motor Oil)
system of liquid cooling. It consists of a hollow
space around the cylinder and the cylinder head, The most important physical property of
known as the water jacket, and a cast iron lubricating oil is the viscosity. It is internal
reservoir, usually cast with the cylinder and resistance of fluid as one layer is moved in
opening directly into this jacket. relation to another layer
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Gear Oil needed to maintain the desired engine speed

Gear oil is used for gear transmission lubrication. and power output.
Greases
are semifluid or semisolid lubricants and are used The control of the diesel engine speed and
primarily for moving moving parts when load involves the control of the charge of fuel
pressure are high and for parts that are concealed injected. The mechanism is connected and
or inaccessible such as wheel bearings, spring becomes a part of the injection pump. No
shackles, axle bearings, universal joints, and attempt is made to vary the air charge, and it
water pumps. remains constant at all loads.
Grease is a mixture of a metallic soap and mineral
A. Types of Governing System
oil. Certain chemicals maybe added to provide
stabilization, oxidation, resistance, rust
1. Centrifugal governor (parts include ; ball-
prevention, and other desirable characteristics.
thrust collar, throttle control arm, throttle rod,
governor control spring) – used extensively on
A. Classification of lubrication systems: diesel engines

a. Splash system. The lubrication of all the 2. Vacuum governor (it’s a compact unit that
principal engine parts depends directly on the consist of a housing and the necessary operating
splashing of the oil by a dipper on the bottom mechanism – spring loaded diaphragm s well as
side of the connecting rod cap that dips into the throttle butterfly). Used on stationary units
the crankcase oil each time the piston reaches operating at uniform speed and load.
the bottom dead center.
3. Pneumatic or air-vane governors (flywheel
b. Pressure-feed and splash system. Oil is blades, hinged metal blade, spring, linkages).
forces directly to the main crankshaft, Used on small, air cooled, single cylinder engines
connecting rod, and camshaft bearings. Drilled such as lawn mowers.
passages in the crankshaft carry the oil from
ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS FOR
the main bearings to the connecting-rod
EFFICIENT ENGINE OPERATION
bearings. The oil oozing out of these bearings
creates a spray that lubricates the cylinder The following conditions must exist if the
walls, pistons and piston pins. The valve engine is to operate efficiently:
mechanism is oiled by the pressure from the A. The cylinder should have good compression.
crankcase. To ensure good compression:
1. valves must sit properly on the valve seat;
c. Full-pressure system. Oil is forces not only
2. good fit must exist between piston rings and
in the crankshaft, connecting rod, and camshaft
cylinder wall;
bearings but also to the piston pin bearings
3. use of recommended oil to enable it to seal
through passages. Cylinders and pistons
minute gaps between the piston rings and
receive oil from the piston pins and from the
cylinder wall;
mist creates by the oil issuing from various
4. cylinder head gasket must be tightly
bearings. The valve mechanism is also oiled by
secured.
pressure.
B. The valves must be correctly timed. Engine
XI. GOVERNING SYSTEM manufacturers fix the opening and closing
points of the valves with respect to the
A governor is a device that automatically position and direction of motion of the piston.
regulates the speed of an engine. In general, It is fixed by: 1. providing timing marks
governors are of centrifugal spring-loaded type. between the crankshaft and camshaft timing
gears;
For electric ignition engines, the governing 2. fixing the clearance between the valve and
mechanism is connected to the throttle tappet.
butterfly of the carburetor in such a manner
that it controls and varies the throttle opening C. The correct air-fuel mixture must be
according to the amount of fuel mixture supplied to the cylinder. A 15:1 air-fuel ratio
can be provided by an efficiently air cleaner
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and properly adjusted carburetor. In general, When trouble shooting a small engine, first
there are two carburetor adjustments, the high check the three things any engine must have
speed and the low speed adjustments, neither to start and run:
of which should affect the other. Carburetor
adjustments should always be made on hot (1) Compression; (2) Ignition (spark at the
engine and operating and generally, the low plug); (3) Carburetion (fuel and air into the
speed is made first. cylinder)

D. The occurrence of the spark must be Check the compression by cranking the engine
correctly timed. The combustible mixture must to the point of strongest resistance, and note
be ignited at the right moment so that its whether the engine snaps back. If there seems
maximum effect would be felt when the piston to be no resistance, check to see if the spark
is at TDC. If the maximum effect of ignition plug is tight and its gasket is in place. There
occurs before TDC, there will be knocking and are other reasons for lack of compression but
appreciable loss of power. The piston needs to the checking of these are beyond the capability
reach TDC but the expanding gases is resisting of the ordinary user.
it. If the maximum expansion occurs after TDC,
Check the ignition by removing the cable from
the maximum effect will not be felt resulting
the spark plug, holding the cable about 3/16
in considerable power loss.
inch away from some metal surface on the
There is definite time, though short, between engine and cranking the engine. If a bluish
the ignition of the charge with maximum spark will jump a 3/16-inch gap, the trouble
expansion. If the engine is at low speed, the is not in the ignition but may be in the spark
spark may occur at TDC. However, as engine plug.
speed increases, the spark must occur before
Remove the spark plug and reconnect it with
TDC so that maximum expansion will be felt
the cable. Place the threaded portion of the
at TDC. The higher the speed, the earlier the
plug in contact with some metal surface of the
spark should occur before TDC. This is referred
engine and crank the engine. If a bluish spark
to as spark advance and designated in degrees
is produced at the spark plug gap, the trouble
rotation of the crankshaft.
is not in the spark plug.
E. The moving parts must be properly
Check the carburetion by holding a thumb over
lubricated. Lubricating oil does not only reduce
the spark plug hole while cranking the engine
friction by separating rubbing parts but also
a few turns. Your thumb should be moist with
assists in cleaning the engine of carbon and
gas if fuel is reaching the cylinder. If there is
dirt. This is one reason why there is a need
no gas getting to the cylinder, check the vent
for periodic oil changes.
in the gas tank cap, check for fuel in the tank
F. The temperature of the engine must be and check the fuel lines to see that the fuel is
maintained at optimum level. The main bulk getting to the carburetor.
of the heat rejected by the engine is dissipated
Antiknock (Octane Rating) – it is the antiknock
through the cooling system. For air-cooled
value of fuel determined by comparing it with a
engines, it is necessary that the passages are
mixture of isooctane (C8H18) and heptane
free from dirt for most efficient heat transfer.
(C7H16). The rating is based on the percentage by
For liquid-cooled engines, there should be
volume of isooctane in an isooctane-heptane
sufficient amount of water available in the
mixture.
cooling system to carry away or dissipate the
unwanted heat.
Isooctane – 100 (excellent antiknock quality)
Heptane – 0 ( excessive knocking quality)
XII. TROUBLESHOOTING SMALL
ENGINES Small Diesel Engine

Small Gasoline Engine When trouble shooting a small diesel engine,

first check the two things a diesel engine must

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have to start and run: (1) Compression; (2) • permits shifting of gears without stopping
Fuel injection. the engine

Check the compression by following the b. gear box

procedure for checking compression of small • supplies different speeds of travel
gasoline engines. • supplies necessary torque at different loads
• used for idling
Check the flow of fuel by opening the bleeder
located at the low pressure side of the fuel c. differential
injector. If no fuel flows out of the bleeder, the • allows different speeds of ground wheel
fuel filter is probably clogged assuming that when turning
there is fuel in the tank and the fuel shut-off • acts as second speed reduction point in the
valve (fuel cock) is turned on. If air and fuel power train
flow out of the bleeder, continue bleeding the d. brake system
system. This occurs when the engine runs out • used to slow down or stop the vehicle
of fuel during operation. Tighten the bleeder
and the engine should now start. If the engine XIII. MOTOR
still does not start, there is probably something
wrong with the injector nozzle. However, a Motor- machine that converts electrical to
competent mechanic is required to perform the mechanical power producing rotational motion
repair. and torque.

Methods to control detonation: 1. Using Electric motor- lectric motors are machines that
especially designed cylinder heads and pistons to convert electrical energy to mechanical power
so shape the combustion space that the last to by producing rotational motion and torque.
burn portion of the charge will be spread out into Maximum ambient temperature – 400C
a thin sheet and its temperature held down more Most common speed- 1700-1750 rpm
effectively. If a motor will replace or can be operated by man
use, ¼ hp
2. Providing more effective water circulation and To replace a gasoline engine multiply 2/3 tp
cooling around the cylinder head and exhaust gasoline hp
valve.
Motor Applications in Agriculture
3. Using cylinder head and piston materials such
as aluminum alloys that provide more heat 1. Pumping of water for farm household, crop
dissipation. irrigation and others. 2. Driving size reduction
equipment such as hammer mill, attrition mill,
4. Using properly designed spark plugs and roller mill, etc. 3. Powering material handling
locating it on the “hot region” preferably near the equipment such as bucket elevator, screw
exhaust valve. conveyor, belt conveyor, etc.

5. Eliminating or reducing carbon deposits. 4. Supplying mechanical power to various grain

processing equipment such as rice mill, corn
6. Maintaining the correct mixture of fuel and air
mil, etc.
and the proper spark setting and valve
adjustment. 7. Using especially treated or so 5. Powering agricultural-waste processing
called “doped” or antiknock fuels (tetraethyllead equipment such as shredder, grinder,
or ethylene dibromide) decorticator, etc.

Power transmission system 6. Providing power for fans and blowers

including compressors.
a. clutch
• transmits power from flywheel Commonly Available Sizes of s for Agriculture
• absorbs impact load Applications
• allows for gradual application of load to
engine

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1. Horsepower –¼, ½, ¾, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, etc. 2. 2. Stator–stationary part of the motor

Voltage –110, 220, 330 3. Phase – single, three sometimes referred to as windings. It consists
phase of slotted cores made of thin sections of soft
iron which are wound with insulated copper
Terminologies wire to form one or more pairs of magnetic
pole.
1. Ampacity– current, in amperes, a conductor
can carry continuously under the condition of 3. Rotor –rotating part of the motor where
use without exceeding its temperature rating. the magnetic field from the stator induces an
opposing magnetic field onto the rotor causing
2. Disconnecting Means – switch or group of
it to push away from the stator field.
devices or other means by which the can be
disconnected from the power supply. 4. Cooling Fan –used to aid in cooling the
motor. It is directly coupled into one end of
3. Duty Rating -how frequent the motor is
the shaft of a motor.
started and how long it runs each time it is
started. 4. Phase–number of individual voltages 5. Bearings-support the shaft of the motor. The
applied to the motor. sleeve bearing is standard for most motors.
The roller bearing supports the shaft at any
5. Three -Phase –three individual voltages
position with less maintenance. 6. Terminal
applied to the motor.
Box –is where the power source is connected
to the motor windings. It is also where wiring
6. Single-Phase– one voltage applied to the
connection can be interchanged to reverse the
motor in the shape of a sine wave.
direction of the motor shaft rotation. 7. Eye
7. Rotor– armature winding or rotating part of Bolt –used for heavy motors with a hoist or
the motor which is typically constructed of a crane to prevent motor damage. 8. Drive Shaft
laminated steel core containing current –is where the brake power of the motor is
carrying copper wire. available to drive machines

8. Stator–field poles or stationary part of the Motor Classifications

motor consisting of copper windings which is
1. According to Source of Current Used
placed in a laminated iron core.
a. Alternating-Current Motor –type of motor in
9. Service Factor –indicates the maximum load
which current is sent into the stationary
that can be successfully carried by the motor
windings which are placed in a stationary
if it is to be operated continuously and remain
laminated iron core. The rotating element may
within safe temperature range.
or may not be a set of magnet poles.
10.Torque – twisting and turning force
b. Direct-Current Motor – type of motor in
produced by the motor.
which the current is sent into the armature
11.Breakdown Torque –maximum torque a windings which are placed between the set of
motor can develop during overload without radially supported magnet poles.
stalling. 12.Starting Torque –motor torque at
2. According to Construction
zero speed or maximum torque required to
start a load.
a. Shunt-Wound Motor –type of DC motor in
which the field windings are connected in
Motor Parts
parallel with the armature and are commonly
1. Enclosure -holds parts of the motor together used in constant speed application.
and protects internal components from the
b. Series-Wound Motor – type of DC motor in
environment. It also helps in dissipating heat
which the field winding is connected in series
which may destroy the components of the
with the armature and is commonly used in
motor, especially the wiring.
application where high starting torque is
required. c. Compound-Wound Motor -type of

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DC motor that has a series field and shut field plough capable of plowing 1 hectare farm
windings that can be adjusted to the required within 11 to 14 hours.
load.
Farm Tractor – four-wheel tractor with 20hp
d. Synchronous Motor – type of AC motor and above for massive agricultural task such
capable of raising the power factor of systems as plowing, harrowing, seeding and planting,
having large induction motor load. and other operations

e. Wound-Rotor Motor –type of AC motor Special-Types Tractors

wherein the secondary windings are wound
with discrete conductors with the same 1. Tract-Type Tractor –consists mainly of two
number of poles as the primary winding on heavy duty endless link device known as tract
the stator. for traction purposes. It is used for heavy duty
operations such as earth moving and other
f. Squirrel-Cage Motor –type of AC motor industrial jobs requiring higher power
wherein the rotor or secondary winding
consists merely of 28 identical copper or cast 2. All-Purpose or Row-Crop Tractor –
aluminum bars solidly connected to the designed to handle field and belt jobs,
conducting end wings of each end thus forming including planting and inter tillage activities.
a squirrel cage structure.
3. Orchard Tractor –small- and medium-sized
3. According to Starting and is designed to be operated with
advantages under trees. It is built with lower
a. Split-Phase Motor –type of motor with low and fewer projecting parts and has fenders for
starting load. protection purposes.

b. Capacitor Induction Motor – type of motor 4. Industrial Tractor -machine of any size
capable of starting heavier load than split- designed for various industrial operations and
phase motor. heavy hauling. It has hoisting, excavating,
and/or power loading attachments.
c. Repulsion-Start Induction Motor– type of
motor that develops high starting torque. TRACTOR SIZE DETERMINATION
1. Weight –The heavier the tractor, the bigger
XIII. AGRICULTURAL TRACTOR is the capacity
2. Horsepower–The higher the tractor capacity,
Tractor -engineering vehicle specifically the bigger is its size and the more it is capable
designed to deliver a high tractive effort at of doing heavier and wider operation.
slow speed for the purpose of hauling a trailer 3. Implement Capacity – The more implement
or machinery used in agriculture. A machine the tractor can draw, the bigger is the size and
primarily for traction or pulling an implement. the faster it can finish the operation.

A great number of them are mounted on I. Tractor power

tractors. Tractors can classified into:
a. 2-wheel tractor (hand tractor) Tractors deliver power in several ways. Pulled
b. compact 4-wheel tractor or towed implements are powered through the
c. combination wheel type and track type traction of drive wheels and the pull or draft
d. tract type or crawler from the drawbar. Rotary power is obtained
e. combination wheel type and tract type from the power-take-off (PTO) shaft of from a
belt pulley. Both linear and rotary power can
Agricultural Tractors be produced by a tractor’s hydraulic system.
Some implements require electric power from
1. Compact Tractor–four-wheel tractor of less tractors.
than 20 hp. It is used for landscaping
gardening rather than for massive agricultural Some tractor power equations:
tasks. Equipped with a single 12in. moldboard
Drawbar power (DBP) = F S / c
where: DBP – drawbar power, kW or HP
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– force, kN or lb differential and the driving wheels used to

S – forward speed, km/hr or MPH transmit the power of the engine at low speed
C – suitable constant, 3.6 or 375 and large torque to the rear axle and to the
wheel of the tractor.
PTO power (PTOP)
Ballast –added weight to the tractor that
2 π F R N / c = 2 π T N / c serves as a counter balance to a heavy load
that is usually found at the rear of the tractor.
where: PTOP – PTO power, kW or HP
F – tangential force, kN or lb 3. Chassis –framework that supports the
R – radius of force rotation, m or ft tractor frame and guts including the engine,
N – revolutions per minute transmission, suspension, etc.
T – Torque, N-m or lb-ft
C – suitable constant, 60 or 33,000 4. Drawbar –bar on the rear of the tractor
used for towing.

Drawbar Pull 5. Fast Hitch or Quick Hitch – attachment to

the tractor 3-point hitch allowing the operator
Most important factor in determining the to easily hook onto implements without leaving
performance of a tractor. Plowing and other the tractor seat.
operations are affected by the drawbar pull of
the tractor. Drawbar pull is affected by the 6. Front-End Loader –large bucket-like
wheel slip and by the engine power. It is also implement attached to the front of the tractor
affected by the tractor weight and type, the for lifting materials.
type and shape of the running gears or wheel,
the condition of the ground surface, the 7. Horsepower–amount of energy an engine
inflation pressure of tires, and others. takes to lift 550 pounds one foot in one
second.
Turbo Charger -increases the output of the
tractor engine by about 20%. 8. Hydro Static Transmission – alternative
CLASSIFICATION OF TRACTOR form of power transmission that functions
COMPACT TRACTOR < 32 HP most like the automatic transmission of an
STANDARD LIGHT 32-49 HP automobile.
STANDARD LIGHT- MEDIUM 50-69 HP
9. Hydraulic Transmission – hydraulically-
STANDARD MEDIUM 70-89 HP
driven transmission that offer variable speed
STANDARD HEAVY >90HP
with the use of a foot pedal.
Power Transmission -transmits the engine 10.Implement –rugged highperformance work
power to the wheel axle and to the PTO shaft tools that can be added to the tractor to
of the tractor. It is also used to change the increase its job functions.
torque and the speed of the engine tractor to
high torque and low speed as required by the Terminologies
wheel axle and by the PTO.
1. Three-Point Hitch –consists of two lift arms
Clutch–connects and disconnects the tractor and one top link where pins are attached to
engine from the power train so the gear can the implement. It is used to attach rear-
be shifted or the tractor can be stopped mounted attachments like mowers, blades,
without stopping the engine. scrapers, posthole digger, tiller, and backhoes.

Differential – special arrangement of gears . Power Train –transfers the power from the
that permits one driving member to rotate engine to the drive wheels and to the power
faster than the other and permits operation of take off.
the driving wheel at different speed.
12. Power Take Off -powers an attachment,
Final Drive – gear reduction mechanism the PTO allows the attachment to draw energy
located at the power train between the from the tractor’s engine.
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NVSU Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Licensure Examination In-house Review 2025

13. Roll-Over Protective Structure – frame Suministrado D., Agricultural Engineering Board
on open station (non-cab) tractors that provide Review Materials Farm Power and Energy.,
a safe environment for the operator in an (September 2009)., Agricultural Machinery
event of a rollover. Division Institute of Agricultural Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial
14. Synchronized Transmission – allows for Technology University of the Philippines Los Baños
the shifting of gears on the move without the College, Laguna
gears clashing.

15.Transmission – gear system that

determines the speed of direction of the
tractor.

16. Zero Turning Radius –ability of tractor to

turn on a dime adding more maneuverability.

READ !!!
PAES 130:2002-ELECTRIC MOTOR SPECS
PAES 104:2000- Location and Method of Operation
of Operator’s Controls – Control for Agricultural
Tractors and Machinery
PNS/BAFS 325:2022- Walking-Type Agricultural
Tractor — Specifications — Part 1: Pull-type
PNS/BAFS PABES 301:2020
PNS/BAFS 396:2024 OR PAES 116:2000-
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

References:
Power (Physics).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(physics)
Energy. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy
Non-Renewable Resource.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonrenewable_reso
urce
Human Power.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_power
CIGR. Plant Production Engineering. Volume III.
CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering.
American Society of Agricultural Engineer. USA.
pp. 22-40
UNEP. Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia.
www.energyefficiencyasia.org
PSME. 2008. Philippine Mechanical Code.
Philippine Society of Mechanical Engineers. The
PSME code and Standard Committee. Rm 300B,
3/F Don Lorenzo Bldg., 889 P. Paredes Street,
Sampaloc, Metro Manila, Philippines. 414pp
http://www.kenrockwell.com/190d/index.htm
Engine. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine
Firing Order.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firing_order
Fajardo Jr. M. 1988. Simplified Construction
Estimate . Quezon City, Philippines
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