Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
Lesson 2:
Overview of Introduction to
Linguistics
INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, you will be learning about how language is acquired.
Moreover, it deals with theories of language acquisition and the influences of these
theories on language teaching. This lesson will further help you understand better
how one acquires a language with respect to theories of varied scholars. You will
further see the link between these theories to the various teaching approaches and
methods which are being utilized and deemed effective in the classroom. Moreover,
you will be introduced on the macro-skills of language and an introduction to the
components of grammar.
Time Frame: 1 week; 9 hours
At the end of the lesson, you can:
name the theories of language acquisition
compare and contrast the given theories of language acquisition
determine the influences of theories on language teaching
define, compare and contrast the macro-skills of language as well as the
components of grammar
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
Engage
What word/s can you create from the term LANGUAGE and ACQUISITION? In 5
minutes, write as many words as you can (2 syllable words or up) in an A4 size bond
paper with your name, year and section, and date. Don’t forget to label it “Lesson 2,
Engage L2 Activity”.
Place your activity paper in your folder after.
How was the activity? How many words were
you able to create out of the terms
LANGUAGE and ACQUISITION?
These terms will be further explored in the
topics in Lesson 2.
Explore
Online Checking
Instructions:
1. In your notebook or notepads in ENLING, have the definitions of the following
terms by checking the internet or other related resources:
a. Behaviorism
b. Cognitivism
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
c. Monitor Model
Explain L2
Pay attention to the study notes provided below because they will help you
answer the following questions:
1. What are the theories of language acquisition?
2. What are the similarities and differences of these theories?
3. How do these theories influence language teaching?
4. What are the macro-skills of language?
5. How do you define, compare and contrast the components of grammar?
What are the theories of language acquisition?
1. Behaviorist learning theory
This theory is derived from a general theory of learning. The behaviorist view
states that the language behavior of the individual is conditioned by sequences of
differential rewards in his/her environment.
It regards language learning as a behavior like other forms of human behavior,
not a mental phenomenon, learned by a process of habit formation. Since language is
viewed as mechanistic and as a human activity, it is believed that learning a language
is achieved by building up habits on the basis of stimulus-response chains.
Behaviorism emphasizes the consequences of the response and argues that it is the
behavior that follows a response which reinforces it and thus helps to strengthen the
association.
According to Littlewood (1984), the process of habit formation includes the
following:
a.The child imitates the sounds and patterns which s/he hears around her/him.
b. People recognize the child’s attempts as being similar to the adult models
and reinforce (reward) the sounds by approval or some other desirable
reaction.
c. In order to obtain more of these rewards, the child repeats the sounds and
patterns so that these become habits.
d. In this way the child’s verbal behavior is conditioned (‘shaped’) until the
habits coincide with the adult models.
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
The behaviorists claim that the three crucial elements of learning are: a stimulus,
which serves to elicit behavior; a response triggered by the stimulus, and
reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or
inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response.
2. Cognitive learning theory
Chomsky argues that language is not acquired by children by sheer imitation
and through a form of conditioning on reinforcement and reward. He believes that all
normal human beings have an inborn biological internal mechanism that makes
language learning possible. Cognitivists/ innatists claim that the child is born with an
‘initial’ state’ about language which predisposes him/her to acquire a grammar of that
language. They maintain that the language acquisition device (LAD) is what the child
brings to the task of language acquisition, giving him/her an active role in language
learning.
One important feature of the mentalist account of second language acquisition
is hypothesis testing, a process of formulating rules and testing the same with
competent speakers of the target language.
3. Krashen’s Monitor Model (1981)
Probably this is the most often cited among theories of second language acquisition;
considered the most comprehensive, if not the most ambitious,
consisting of five central hypotheses:
The five hypotheses are:
a. The acquisition/ learning hypothesis. It claims that there are two
ways of developing competence in L2:
Acquisition - the subconscious process that results from
informal, natural communication between people where
language is a means, not a focus nor an end, in itself.
Learning - the conscious process of knowing about language and
being able to talk about it, that occurs in a more formal
situation where the properties or rules of a language are
taught. Language learning has traditionally involved
grammar and vocabulary learning.
Acquisition parallels first language development in children
while learning approximates the formal teaching of grammar in
classrooms. Conscious thinking about the rules is said to occur in
second language learning while unconscious feeling about what
is correct and appropriate occurs in language acquisition.
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
b. The natural order hypothesis. It suggests that grammatical
structures are acquired in a predictable order for both children and
adults, that is, certain grammatical structures are acquired before
others, irrespective of the language being learned. When a learner
engages in natural communication, then the standard order below
will occur.
Group 1: present progressive -ing (She is reading)
plural -s (bags)
copula ‘to be’ (The girl is at the library.)
Group 2: auxiliary ‘to be’ (She is reading.)
articles the and an (That’s a book.)
Group 3: irregular past forms (She drank milk.)
Group 4: regular past -ed (She prayed last night.)
third-person-singular -s (She prays every day.)
possessive -s (The girl’s bag is new.)
b. The monitor hypothesis. It claims that conscious learning of
grammatical rules has an extremely limited function in language
performance: as a monitor or editor that checks output. The monitor
is an editing device that may normally operate before language
performance. Such editing may occur before the natural output or
after the ouput.
Krashen suggests that monitoring occurs when there is sufficient
time, where there is pressure to communicate correctly and not just
convey meaning, and when the appropriate rules are known.
d. The input hypothesis. Krashen proposes that when learners are
exposed to grammatical features a little beyond their current level
(i.e., i + 1), those features are ‘acquired’. Acquisition results from
comprehensible input, which is made understandable with the help
provided by the context. If learners receive understandable input,
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
language structures will be naturally acquired. Ability to communicate
in a second language ‘emerges’ rather than indirectly put in place by
teaching.
c. The affective filter hypothesis. Filter consists of attitude to
language, motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Thus learners
with favorable attitude and self-confidence may have a ‘low filter’
which promotes language learning. Learners with a low affective filter
seek and receive more input, interact with confidence, and are more
receptive to the input they are exposed to. On the other hand,
anxious learners have a high affective filter which prevents
acquisition from taking place.
d. Implications for teaching:
1. Teachers must continuously deliver at a level understandable
by learners.
2. Teaching must prepare the learners for real life
communication situations. Classrooms must provide
conversational confidence so that when in the outside world,
the student can cope with and continue learning.
3. Teachers must ensure that learners do not become anxious
or defensive in language learning. The confidence of a
language learner must be encouraged in a language
acquisition process. Teachers should not insist on learners
conversing before they feel comfortable in doing so; neither
should they correct errors nor make negative remarks that
inhibit learners from learning. They should devise specific
techniques to relax learners and protect their egos.
4. Teachers must create an atmosphere where learners are not
embarrassed by their errors. Errors should not be corrected
when acquisition is occurring. Error correction is valuable
when learning simple rules but may have negative effects in
terms of anxiety and inhibitions.
5. Formal grammar teaching is of limited value because it
contributes to learning rather than acquisition. Only simple
rules should be learned.
6. Teachers should not expect learners to learn ‘late structures’
such as third person singular early.
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
How do these theories influence language teaching?
1. Applied linguists claim that theories of language learning as well as theories
of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching
approach/method. To illustrate, the linking of structuralism and behaviorism
has produced the audiolingual method (ALM), oral approach/situational
language teaching, operant conditioning approach, bottom-up text
processing, controlled-to-free writing, to cite a few. These methods
underscore the necessity of overlearning, a principle that leads to endless
and mindless mimicry and memorization (‘mim-mem’). They are also
characterized by mechanical habit-formation teaching, done through
unremitting practice: sentence patterns are repeated and drilled until they
become habitual and automatic to minimize occurrences of mistakes.
Grammar is taught through analogy, hence, explanations of rules are not
given until the students have practiced a pattern in a variety of contexts.
2. The cognitive learning theory has given birth to the cognitive approach to
learning that puts language analysis before language use and instruction
by the teacher, before the students practice forms. It is compatible with the
view that learning is a thinking process, a belief that underpins cognitive-
based and schema-enhancing strategies such as Directed Reading
Thinking Activity, Story Grammar, Think-Aloud, to name a few.
3. The functional view of language has resulted in communication-based
methods such as Communicative Language Teaching/Communicative
Approach, Notional-Functional Approach, Natural Approach, Task-Based
Language Teaching. These methods are learner-centered, allowing
learners to work in pairs or groups in information gap tasks and problem-
solving activities where such communication strategies as information
sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction are used.
4. The view that is both cognitive and affective has given rise to a holistic
approach to language learning or whole-person learning which has
spawned humanistic techniques in language learning and Community
Language Learning. In these methods, the whole person including emotions
and feelings as well as language knowledge and behavior skills become
central to teaching. The humanistic approach equips learners “vocabulary
for expressing one’s feelings, for sharing one’s values and viewpoints with
others, and for developing a better understanding of their feelings and
needs.”
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
What are the Macro-skills of Language?
When we learn a language, there are 4 macro skills that we need for success
communication. These are reading, writing, speaking and listening. We need to
learn these 4 skill in order for us to communicate with other people. We usually
listen first, then we will learn to speak, then we will learn how to read then
write.
1. Listening
The first one in the 4 macro skills of communication. The process of using the
sense of hearing, in order for the person to know what is happening around him.
There are 3 types of listening, the passive, active, and competitive.
a. Passive listening happens when a person listens to the speaker without
any response at it. He/she will only listen to the speaker without giving any
feedbacks.
b. Active listening happens when a person listens to the speaker while also
acknowledging the information given by the speaker. Active listeners also give their
brief or short response to the given information of the speaker.
c. Competitive listening happens when a person listens to the speaker in
order for them to give their own opinion to the speaker, he also promotes his/ her
own ideas as if they are arguing with each other. This kind of listening usually
happens during a court hearing or a debate between two parties.
2. Speaking
The second communication skill in language. The process of conveying a
message to a receiver verbally, or a process where the listener applies to him/herself
the information he/she have heard. Speaking can be a tool in order for an individual
to express his/her feelings towards what he heard.
A listener applies all the information he received while listening in order for
him to communicate with other persons, or to share their feeling and thought with
each other. Communication will fail if the receiver didn't understand what the sender
is saying. Possible causes are; the sender don't know how to construct sentence
properly or the receiver can't decode the message given to him by the sender.
3. Reading
The third communication skill in language. It is the process of analyzing
symbols for you to understand the message conveyed by the sender. A person
learns to read by memorizing the alphabets, analyzing the sounds per letter make
and applying it in order for him to decode the message given to him by the sender.
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
Reading takes a lot of practice in order for an individual to decode the
message given by the sender. If the scenario is like this, the receiver decodes the
message successfully, but he/she didn't understand what he/she is reading,
communication will fail.
4. Writing
The last and probably the most complex skill in communication. Writing takes
time and practice for you to master the said skill. Writing can be practiced by
knowing the strokes of each letter in the alphabet. Writing is also a process in which
a person can share his thoughts and feelings through symbols. Writing can also be a
tool to develop and strengthen human connections and the society.
What are the Components of Grammar or the major Branches of Linguistics?
1. Phonology and Phonetics
Phonology is the branch of linguistics that deals with both phonemics and
phonetics emphasizing the study of speech sounds, especially of the theory and
development of sound changes in a given language. It also relates to the study of
phonetics of a particular language that is primarily concerned with production of
speech sound and sound patterns.
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that basically deals with the study of speech
production and perception. It also covers the analysis, description, and classification
of speech sounds. It is basically concerned with the sounds of language – how the
speech sounds are articulated, pronounced or enunciated and how the speech sounds
are perceived by the hearers.
2. Morphology
Morphology is the study of word structure, the way words are formed and the way
their form interacts with other aspects of grammar such as phonology and syntax. It
also deals with the arrangement and the interrelationship of morphemes in words.
3. Syntax
Syntax can be understood as the set of principles that defines the order of
words, clauses and phrases to form a proper sentence in a particular language.
Such order is closely and syntactically related to grammar.
Syntax is simply referring to the study of sentence structure. Syntax further calls
for the study of the eight parts of speech. Likewise, it also entails the logical
relationship of words,
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
4. Semantics
Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences; at its simplest, it
concerns with the relation of linguistic forms to non-linguistic concepts and mental
representations in order to explain how sentences are understood by the speakers of
a language.
We can start by thinking of semantics as the “magic” that happens when people
communicate and, most importantly, when they understand each other.
5. Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of meaning in language in a particular context. This
includes the place where the thing is said, who says it, and the things that you have
already said. Also, pragmatics studies how people speak when they both know
something
Elaborate
Think, Pair, Share! (Activity in Class)
Evaluate
In Class
References
Black Box of the Mind. Retrieved August 25, 2020 from:
http://thecognitivehorse.com/2012/07/24/if-a-horse-could-open-up-the-black-box-of-skinner/
Lemetyinen, Henna. (2012). Language Acquisition. Retrieved August 20, 2020 from
https://www.simplypsychology.org/language.html
https://www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html
https://edtechtheory.weebly.com/cognitivism.html
Villada, Juan Carlos P. Krashen’s Monitor Model. Retrieved August 25, 2020 from
https://www.scribd.com/document/81509083/Krashen-s-Monitor-
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
Lesson 2: Overview of Introduction to Linguistics
Model#:~:text=The%20Monitor%20Model%20is%20a%20theory%20of%20Second,by%20adults%3A
%20The%20The%20The%20The%20The%20
Module In ENLING: Introduction To
10
Linguistics
