TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

HIGHWAY MATERIALS AND PAVEMENTS

Introduction
Good quality construction materials make superior pavement. The thickness, the performance and
the efficiency of the pavement depend upon the quality of highway materials.
Highway materials include:
1. Sub grade soil
2. Aggregates
3. Bituminous material
4. Cement and cement concrete
Subgrade soil
Subgrade soil is an integral part of load bearing structure, as it provides the support to the pavement
from beneath. The subgrade soil and its properties are important in the design of pavement structure
.The main function of the subgrade is to give adequate support to the pavement and for this
subgrade should possess sufficient stability under adverse climate and load condition.

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The formation of waves, corrugations, rutting and shoving in black top pavement and the
phenomenon of pumping, blowing and cracking of cement concrete pavements are generally
attributed to the poor subgrade condition.
Desirable properties of subgrade soil
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The desirable properties of soil as highway material are:
1. Stability: The soil should posses adequate stability or resistance to permanent deformation under
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load and should possess resistance to weathering, thus retaining the desired subgrade support.
2. Incompressibility: Incompressibility is an important property to avoid differential settlement of
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soil. This property is particularly essential and is indispensable in embankment construction.

Otherwise, the subgrade may fail due to differential settlement.
3. Permanency of strength: The subgrade soil should possess resistance against weathering. It
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should be able to retain characters under adverse rain, temperature and frost action.
4. Minimum change in volume: This is a very important property. Bulging and shrinking under
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adverse weather conditions should be minimum. This property will help the soil to retain its
property.
5 Good drainage: Good drainage is essential to avoid excessive moisture retention and reduce
potential frost action. It also improves the stability of soil.
6. Ease of compaction: This ensures higher dry density and strength under particular type amount
of compaction.

Aggregates
The aggregates form major part of the pavement structure and it is prime material used in pavement
construction. Aggregate primarily bear stress occurring from loads have to resist wear due to
abrasive action of traffic. These are used in pavement construction
Desirable Properties of Aggregates
1. Strength
2. Hardness
3. Toughness
4. Durability
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5. Shape
6. Adhesion with bitumen
Strength: The aggregates to be used in road construction should be sufficiently strong to withstand
the stresses due to traffic wheel load. The aggregates which are to be used in top layers of the
pavements, particularly in the wearing course have to be capable of withstanding high stresses in
addition to wear and tear. Hence they should possess sufficient strength resistance to crushing.
Hardness: the aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion
due to moving traffic. Hence they should be hard enough to resist the wear due to abrasive action of
traffic.
Toughness: Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel loads.
Sever impact like hammering is quite common on water bound macadam roads where stones
extend beyond or above a surface especially after the monsoons.
Durability The stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist
disintegration due to the action of weather. The property of the stones to withstand the adverse
action of weather may called soundness.

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Shape of Aggregates The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve
opening through which an aggregate may pass, and not by the shape. Aggregates which happen to
fall in a particular size range may have rounded cubical, angular flaky or elongated shape of
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particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and durability
when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same Stone. Hence too flaky and
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too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
Adhesion with Bitumen The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity
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with water when compared with bituminous materials; otherwise the bituminous coating on the
aggregate will be stripped off in presence of water.
Test on road aggregates
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In order to decide the suitability of the road stones for use in construction, the following tests are
carried out:
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1. Crushing test
2. Abrasion test
3. Impact test
4. Soundness test
5. Shape test
6. Specific gravity and water absorption test
7. Bitumen adhesion test
Note: Refer Concrete and Highway Materials Laboratory manual or laboratory record for
explanation, test procedure and standard values

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Bituminous material
BITUMEN
It is a petroleum product obtained by the distillation of petroleum crude.

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It is a thermoplastic material obtained from the destructive distillation.

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Requirements of Bitumen
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction.
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a) Mixing: type of materials used, construction method, temperature during mixing, etc.
b) Attainment of desired stability of the mix
c) To maintain the stability under adverse weather conditions
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d) To maintain sufficient flexibility and thus avoid cracking of bituminous surface and
e) To have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in the mix in presence of water
Desirable Properties of Bitumen
1. Viscosity: The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be
adequate. This is achieved by heating the bitumen and aggregate prior to mixing or by use of
cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grade.
2. Temperature Susceptibility: The bituminous material should not be highly temperature
susceptible. During the hottest weather of the region the bituminous mix should not become
too soft or unstable. During cold weather the mix should not become too hard and brittle,
causing cracking. The material should be durable.
3. Adhesion Property: In presence of water the bitumen should not strip off from the
aggregate. There has to be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and
aggregate used in the mix.
Tests on bitumen: The various tests on bituminous material are:
1. penetration test
2. ductility test

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3. viscosity test
4. float test
5. specific gravity test
6. softening point test
7. flash fire point test
8. solubility test
9. spot test
10. loss on heating test
11. water content test

Application of bituminous emulsion or Uses of Emulsions:

* They are more tolerant than penetration grade bitumen, of the presence of dampness,
although they should not be used in the presence of free water on the road surface or on
aggregate.

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* Because emulsion is of relatively low viscosity at normal temperature, they eliminate the
need to heat the aggregate and binder and thus they conserve energy.
* They can be used when the weather is relatively cold
* They are ideal for patching and repairing work, particularly they do not require heating before
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use.
* They are used for surface dressing, grouting, pre-mixing, sealing, and soil stabilization with
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cement.
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Desirable properties of Bituminous Mixes

Desirable properties of a good bituminous mix are:
a) Stability
b) Durability
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c) Flexibility
d) Skid resistance
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e) Workability
a) Stability
Stability is the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under the load. It is the stress to which
specified strain is produced (load at which specified deformation). Depending upon the
specification or field condition, it is influenced by density of the mix or percentage voids in the
compacted mix or viscosity of bituminous binder. If the voids are less, stability will be more and
strength will be more. But there must be minimum voids which would provide space on necessary
densification which takes place under the traffic movement and expansion of bitumen at high
temperature in the atmosphere. If there are no sufficient voids, the bituminous binder bleeds over
the surface and causes skidding.
b) Durability
It is the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions. Due to weathering
bituminous mix gets harden which is due to loss of volatiles and oxidation. The tensile strain is
induced due to heavy wheel loads and excessive strain may be developed which may cause cracks
or plastic failure.
c) Flexibility
It is the property of the mix that measures the level bending strength.

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d) Skid Resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends upon the surface
texture and bitumen content of mix. If the bitumen content is more, the surface of the pavement is
smoothen or slippery. Therefore the bitumen content must be optimum to have better skid
resistance.
e) Workability
It is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted to maximum density. It is the function
of gradation of aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen content and its type.

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

PAVEMENT DESIGN
Factors Controlling design of highway pavements,

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Pavement types

The portion of the road provide with aggregates is called pavement or carriage way. Based on the
structural behaviour of the pavement over the prepared subgrade the pavements are generally
classified as

1. Flexible pavements
2. Rigid pavements

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

Component parts of flexible pavement

Cross section of a typical flexible pavement

Component parts of rigid pavements

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Cross section of a typical flexible pavement
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The components of flexible and rigid pavement are

1. Soil subgrade
2. Sub base course
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3. Base course
4. Wearing surface
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Soil Subgrade
It is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the loads from layers of pavement materials. The
wheel loads of the pavement are ultimately received by the soil subgrade. Hence it is essential that
the stress induced on the top of subgrade is within allowable limits. To improve the strength of
subgrade it is desirable that maximum dry density at optimum moisture content.
Functions of soil subgrade are:
1. To receive the stress generation from the above layers.
2. To receive the materials of the above layers and act as a bedding layer.
Sub base course
It is the layer provided next to the subgrade. It is generally made up of soils like gravel, moorum
etc. which are stronger than the subgrade soil. Sub base is necessary when subgrade is week. The
subgrade provides additional help to base course in distributing the load.
Functions of Sub-base course are:
1. Act as a support for base and wearing course.
2. To improve drainage condition.

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

3. To remove heave.
4. To protect above layers from bad qualities from under laying soils
Base course
It is the layer provided next to the sub base. It is generally made up of crushed or broken stones
with some binder. The main function of base course is to act as a structural portion of the pavement
and distribute the wheel loads.
Functions of base course are:
1. To prevent horizontal shear stresses and vertical pressure produced by moving or standing
wheel load.
2. To provide density and resistance to weathering.
3. Distribution of higher wheel load pressure.
Wearing surface
It is the top most layer of the pavement. The main functions of wearing surface are.
1. To provide resistance against wear and tear due traffic movements.
2. To provide smooth and dense riding surface to resist the pressure exerted by vehicle and to

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resist surface water infiltration

Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavements

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Sl.No. Flexible pavement Rigid pavement
1 A flexible pavement consists of a relatively A rigid pavements generally made up of
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thin Wearing course built over a base and plain cement concrete and may or may not
sub base resting upon the compacted have a sub base course between the
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subgrade pavement and subgrade.

The load carrying capacity of a flexible The rigid pavement because of its rigidity
pavement is brought about by the load and high modulus of elasticity distributes
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distribution characteristics of the layered the load over a relatively wide area
system by grain to grain contacts points
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The flexible pavement has stability due to The stability of rigid pavement is provided
3 aggregate inter lock particle friction and by the pavement slab due to its flexural
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cohesion strength
The flexible pavement deflects Rigid pavement is able to bridge over
4 deformations of subgrade and subsequent localised failure
layers on to the surface
The thickness requirement of a flexible The major factored considered in this design
5 pavement influenced by the strength of of rigid pavement is the flexural strength of
subgrade concrete
The life of flexible pavement for the The life of rigid pavement for the purpose of
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purpose of design is taken as 10 years design is taken as 20 years
The initial cost of flexible pavement is less The initial cost of rigid pavement is more.
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but its maintenance is regular and costly but a well designed rigid pavement needs
Flexible pavement is best suited for stage These are not suited for stage construction
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construction.
Immediately after the construction it can be requires 28 days for curing before opening to
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opened to traffic traffic

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Types of joints used in rigid pavement.

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-soil water
within the right of way this includes interception and diversion of water from the road surface and
subgrade. The installation of suitable surface and sub-surface drainage system is an essential part of
highway design and construction.

IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

1. Significance of Drainage
2. Requirements of Highway Drainage System
Significance of Drainage
1. Excess moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its stability the pavement
is likely to fail due to subgrade failure.
2. Increase in moisture cause reduction in strength of many pavement materials like stabilized
soil and water bound macadam.

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3. In some clayey soils variation in moisture content causes considerable variation in volume
of subgrade. This sometimes contributes to pavement failure.
4. The prime cause of pavement failure by the formation of waves and corrugations in flexible
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pavements is due to poor drainage.
5. The contact of water with bituminous pavements causes failures due to stripping of
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bitumen from aggregates like loosening or detachment of some of the bituminous pavement
layers and formation of pot holes.
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6. The prime cause of pavement failures in rigid pavement by mud pumping is due to
presence of water in subgrade soil.
7. Excess water on shoulders and pavement edge cause considerable damage.
8. Excess moisture causes increase in weight and thus increase in stress and simultaneous
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reduction in strength of the soil mass

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Requirements of Highway Drainage System

1. The surface water from the carriageway and shoulder should effectively be drained off
without allowing it to percolate to subgrade.
2. The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering the roadway.
3. The side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry away all the
surface water collected.
4. Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes should not cause
formation of cress ruts or erosion.
5. Seepage and other sources of underground water should be drained off by the subsurface
drainage system.
6. Highest level of GWT should be kept well below the level of subgrade, preferably at leat
1.2 m.

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Surface drainage :- Removal and diversion of surface water from the road Way and adjoining land
is termed as surface drainage.
Design of surface drainage system :-
The design of surface drainage system may be divided into two phases,
1. Hydrological analysis
2. Hydraulic analysis
Hydrological design or analysis
The main objective of hydrological analysis is to estimate the maximum quantity of water
expected to reach the element of drainage system under consideration, and is given by
Q = C i Ad
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Where, Q = run off, m /sec
C = run off coefficient, expressed as a ratio of run off to rate of rainfall.
i = Intensity of rainfall, mm / sec [obtained from rainfall intensity duration curve]
Ad = Drainage area in 1000 m2.
Note :

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1. C = 0.8 to 0.9 for bituminous and cc pavements.
C = 0.35 to 0.7 for gravel and WBM pavements.
C = 0.4 to 0.65 for impervious soil.
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C = 0.3 to 0.55 for sale covered with turf.
C = 0.05 to 0.3 for pervious soils.
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2. When the drainage area consists of several type of surfaces with run off coefficients with
their respective areas , the weighted value of C is determined from,
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𝐴1 𝐶1 + 𝐴2 𝐶2 + 𝐴3 𝐶3…….
𝐶=
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 … . .
3. The allowable velocity of flow in the drain generally ranging from 0.3 to 1.8 m/ sec.
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Hydraulic design or analysis

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Once the design run off ‘Q' is determined, the next step is the hydraulic design of drains. The side
drains are designed based on the principles of flow through open channels and is given by,
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
Where, Q = quantity of surface water, m3/sec
V = allowable velocity of flow in the side drain, m / sec
A = Area of cross-section of the channel, m 2
Note : V = 0.3 to 0.5 m/sec for Sand and silt, 0.6 to 0.9 for loam, 0.9 to 1.5 for clay, 1.2 to 1.5 for
gravel and 1.5 to 1.8 for good soil covered with grass.
The slope of the longitudinal drain of a known or assumed cross-section and death of flow, may be
determined using Manning's formula
1 2 1
𝑉 = . 𝑅3 . 𝑆 2
𝑛
Where, V = Average velocity, m / sec)
R = Hydraulic radius, m [cross-sectional area of flow divided by wetted perimeter]
S = Longitudinal slope of channel.
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient.

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Note : The roughness coefficient depends on the type of soil

In unlined channels, n = 0.2 for ordinary earth
n = 0.05 to 0.1 for earth with heavy vegetation or grass
In lined channels, n = 0.013 for well finished concrete
n = 0.04 for rough rubble and riprap.
Design steps of surface drainage system
Simplified steps for the design of longitudinal drains are given below.
1. The frequency of return period such as 10 years, 25 years etc is decided based on finances
available and desired margin of safety, for the design of the drainage system.
2. The values of coefficients of run off C1, C2, C3 etc ,. from drainage areas A1, A2, A3 etc are
found and waited value of C is computed, using
𝐴1 𝐶1 + 𝐴2 𝐶2 + 𝐴3 𝐶3…….
𝐶=
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 … . .
3. Inlet time T1 is estimated from the distance, slope of the ground and the type of the curve. Chart
(Time of flow to inlet) may be used for this purpose.

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4. Time of flow along the longitudinal drain T2 is determined using the following relation,
L
T2 =
V
C
where, L = length of longitudinal drain from the Inlet of the cross drainage.
V = allowable velocity of flow in the drain
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5. Duration or time of concentration, T = T 1 + T2
6. From the rainfall intensity duration curves, the rainfall intensity ‘i’ is found in mm/sec.
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corresponding to duration 'T' and frequency of the return period.

7. Total area of drainage ‘Ad’ is found in units of 1000 m2.
8. The run-off quantity is computed using the following formula,
Q = C i Ad
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9. The cross-sectional area of flow ‘A’ of the drain is calculated,

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Where, V = allowable velocity of flow in the drain.

10. The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a convenient bottom width and side
slope of the drain. The actual depth of the open channel drain may be increased slightly to give
a free board. The hydraulic mean radius of flow ‘R' is determined.
11. The required longitudinal slope ‘S’ of the drain is using Manning’s formula.

Problems
1. The distance between the farthest point in the turf covered drainage area (with an average slope
of 1.5% to words the drain) and the point of entry to side train is 200 m. The weighted average
value of the run off coefficient is 0.25. The length of the longitudinal drain in a sandy clay so il
from the inlet point of the cross drainage is 540 m. The velocity of flow in the side drain maybe
assumed as 0.6 m/sec, so that silting or erosion are prevented. Estimate the design quantity of
flaw on the side drain for a 10 years period of frequency of occurrence of the storm.
Solution
For - Distance between the farthest point and point of entry to the side drain = 200 m
Slope the ground = 1.5%

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Type of cover = average. Turf

From chart, T1= 31 min. for 2.0% slope
T1= 35 min. for 1.0% slope
(35 −31)
∴ 𝑇1 = 31 + (1.5 − 1) for 1.5 % slope
(2−1)
T1 = 33 mins.
If length drain, L = 540 m and velocity of flow in the drain V = 0.6 m/sec = 0.6× 60 m/min.
L
T2 =
V
540
T2 = = 15 mins.
0.6 × 60
∴ Duration T = T1 + T2 = 33 + 15 = 48 mins.
For frequency of occurrence = 10 years and T = 48 min,
From rainfall intensity duration curve i = 70 mm/hr.
70 70
∴ 𝑖 = 60×60 = 3600 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

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Drainage area, Ad= L × distance between the farthest point and the point of entry to the side drain
Ad = 540 × 200 = 108000 m2 = 108 in 1000 m2
Q = C i Ad
70
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Q = 0.25 × × 108
3600
∴ Q = 0.525 m3/sec
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2. The maximum quantity of water expected in one of the open longitudinal drains on clayey soil
is 0.9 m3/sec. Design the cross-section and longitudinal slope of trapezoidal drain assuming the
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bottom width of the trapezoidal section to be 1 m and cross slope to be 1 vertical to 1.5
horizontal. The allowable velocity of flow in the drain is 1.2 m/sec and Manning’s roughness
coefficient is 0.02.
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Solution
i) Cross section
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Q = 0.9 m3/sec and V = 1.2 m/sec

Q 0.9
Area of drain, A = = = 0.75 m2
V 1.2
For trapezoidal section,
Assume bottom width, b = 1 m & side slope 1:1.5
Cross sectional area of drain, A = 2 × Area of triangle + Area of rectangle
1
0.75 = 2 × × 𝑑 × 1.5 𝑑 + 𝑏 × 𝑑
2
2
0.75 = 1.5 𝑑 + 𝑑
1.5 𝑑 2 + 𝑑 − 0.75 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for d,
−1 ± √12 − 4 × 1.5 (−0.75)
𝑑= = 0.45 𝑚
2 × 1.5
Provide free board of 0.15 m. ∴ Total depth = 0.6 m.

ii) Slope
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Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2 𝑑 (√1 + 𝑁 2 )

Where, b = bottom width = 1 m, d = depth of drain, and N = slope = 1.5.
∴ 𝑃 = 1 + 2 × 0.45 (√1 + 1.52 ) = 2.62 𝑚
𝐴 0.75
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = = = 0.286 m
𝑃 2.62
1 𝑉 𝑛 1.2 × 0.02
𝑆2 = 2 = 2 = 0.0553
𝑅3 0.2863
Slope S = 0.0031 or 1 in 322.5,
∴ provide a longitudinal slope of 1 in 320.
3. The surface water from road side is drained to the longitudinal side drain from across one half a
bituminous pavement surface of total width 7.0 m, shoulder and adjoining land of width 8.0 m
on one side of the drain & on the other side of the longitudinal drain, water flows across from
reverse land with grass and 2% cross slope towards the side drain, the width of this strip of land
being 25 m. The run off coefficients of the pavement, shoulder and reverse land with grass

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surface are 0.8, 0.25 and 0.35 respectively. The length of the stretch of land parallel to the road
from where water is expected to flow to the side drain is about 400 m. Estimate the quantity of
run off flowing in the drain assuming 25 years period of frequency. Also design the cross
section and slope of the side drain in loamy soil with Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.022
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and suitable speed of flow is 0.8 m/sec.
Solution :
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i) Quantity of run off
Drainage consists of
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a) Pavement area, A1 = 3.5 × 400 = 1400 m2, with C1 = 0.8

b) Area of shoulder and adjoining land, A2 = 8 × 400 = 3200 m2, with C2 = 0.25
c) Area of land on the other side of the drain, A3 = 25 × 400 = 10000 m2, with C3 = 0.35
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∴ Total drainage area, Ad = A1 + A2 + A3 = 1400 + 3200 +10000 = 14600 m2

Ad = 14.6 in terms of 1000 m2
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A1 C1 + A2 C2 + A3 C3
C=
A1 + A2 + A3
1400 × 0.8 + 3200 × 0.25 + 10000 × 0.35
C=
1400 + 3200 + 10000
∴ C = 0.371
For - Distance between the farthest point and point of entry to the side drain = 25 m
Slope the ground = 2%
Type of cover = average. Turf
From chart, T1= 11 min. for 2.0% slope
If length of drain, L = 400 m and velocity of flow in the drain V = 0.8 m/sec = 0.8 ×60 m/min.
L
T2 =
V
400
T2 = = 8.33 mins.
0.8 × 60
∴ Duration T = T1 + T2 = 11 + 8.33 = 19.33 mins.

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For frequency of occurrence = 25 years and T = 19.33 min,

From rainfall intensity duration curve i = 125 mm / hr.
125 125
∴ 𝑖 = 60×60 = 3600 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Q = C i Ad
125
Q = 0.371 × × 14.5
3600
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∴ Q = 0.188 m /sec

ii) Cross section

Q = 0.188 m3/sec and V = 0.8 m/sec

Q 0.188
Area of drain, A = = = 0.235 m2
V 0.8
For trapezoidal section,
Assume bottom width, b = 0.5 m & side slope 1:1.5

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Cross sectional area of drain, A = 2 × Area of triangle + Area of rectangle
1
0.235 = 2 × × 𝑑 × 1.5 𝑑 + 𝑏 × 𝑑
2
2
0.235 = 1.5 𝑑 + 𝑑
C
1.5 𝑑 2 + 0.5 𝑑 − 0.235 = 0
Solving this quadratic equation for d,
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−1 ± √12 − 4 × 1.5 (−0.235)
𝑑= = 0. 263 𝑚
2 × 1.5
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Provide free board of 0.14 m. ∴ Total depth = 0.4 m.

iii) Slope
Wetted perimeter, 𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2 𝑑 (√1 + 𝑁 2 )
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Where, b = bottom width = 0.5 m, d = depth of drain, and N = slope = 1.5.

∴ 𝑃 = 0.5 + 2 × 0.263 (√1 + 1.52 ) = 1.448 𝑚
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𝐴 0.235
Hydraulic radius, 𝑅 = = = 0.162 m
𝑃 1.448
1 𝑉 𝑛 0.8 × 0.022
𝑆2 = 2 = 2 = 0.0672
𝑅3 0.1623
Slope S = 0.00452 or 1 in 221,
∴ provide a longitudinal slope of 1 in 220.
Sub-surface drainage
Diversion or removal of excess soil water on ground water is termed as sub-surface drainage. Sub-
surface drainage system includes the following methods.
1. Lowering of water table.
2. Control of seepage flow.
3. Control of capillary rise.

Lowering of water table.

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

When the formation is to be at or below the general ground level, it would be necessary to lower
the water table. If the soil is relatively permeable, it may be possible to lower the high water table
by construction of drainage trenches with drain pipe and filter sand. The following figure 1shows
the method by which the water table can be lowered to the desired depth.

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If the soil is relatively less permeable, in addition to longitudinal trenches transverse drains may
have to be provided in order to effectively drain off the water and thus to lower the water table upto
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the level of transverse drains, see figure 2.
N
SY
U
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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

Control of seepage flow.

When the general ground as well as the impervious strata below are sloping, seepage flow is likely
to exit. If the seepage zone is at depth less than 0.6 to 0.9 m. Figure 3 shows the method by which
the seepage line can be lowered to the desired depth.

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C
N
Figure 3. Control of seepage flow
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Control of capillary rise.

If the water reaching the sub-grade due to capillary rise is likely to be deter-mental, it is possible to
solve the problem by control of capillary rise. The capillary rise may be checked by any one of the
following two types.
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1. Granular capillary cut-off

A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during the construction of
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embankment b/w the sub-grade and the highest level of sub-surface water table, see figure 4.

2. Impermeable capillary cut-off -

Another method of providing capillary cut-off is by inserting an impermeable or a bituminous layer
in the place of granular blanket, see figure 5.

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

Design of sub-surface drainage system.

The size and spacing of the sub-surface drainage system would depend on the quantity of water to
be drained off, the type of soil and type of the drains. Mostly this is decided based
on experience and other practical considerations.
Design of filter material
The filter material used in subsurface drains should designed based on two criteria of permeability
and piping. The procedure for design of filter is briefly discussed below.

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1. On a grains size distribution chart (percent passing vs particle size on log scale) plot the grain
size distribution curve for the foundation soil.
2. Find the value of D15 size of foundation material and plot a point of particle size 5D15 of
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foundation to represent the lower limit of D15 size of filter. This is to fulfil the permeability
condition is given by,
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D15 of filter
should be > 5
D15 of foundation
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3. To fulfil the condition to prevent piping

D15 of filter
should be < 5
D85 of foundation
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Hence plot a point to represent the upper limits of D15 size of filter given by 5D85 of foundation.
4. Find the size of the perforation in the drain pipe or the gap in the open jointed pipes and let this
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be = Dp. Plot a point to represent D85 size of filter given by the size 2Dp. Refer figure 6. The
shaded area thus obtained represents the region within which the grain size distribution curve of
satisfactory filter material should lie.

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TRANSPORTATIONENGINEERING Module - 2

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C
N
SY
U
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