The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to

moving traffic . They should be enough to resist the wear due to abrasive action of traffic. Abrasive
action may be increased due to the presence of abrasive material like sand between the tyres of
moving vehicles and the aggregates exposed at the top surface. This section may be severe in the
case of steel tyred vehicles .Heavy wheel loads can also cause deformations on some types of
pavement resulting in relative movement of aggregates and rubbing of aggregates with each other
within the pavement layer. The mutual rubbing of stones is called attrition, which also may cause a
little wear in the aggregates; however attrition will be negligible or absent in most of the pavement
layers .

Toughness
Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due moving wheel loads. Sever impact like
hammering is quite common When heavily loaded steel tyred vehicles move on water bound
macadam road Where stones protrude out especially after the monsoons .Jumping of the steel tyred
Wheel form one stone to another at different levels causes severe impact on the stones . The
magnitude of impact would increase with the roughness of the load surface, the speed of the vehicle
and other vehicular characteristics. The resistance to impact or toughness is hence another desirable
property of aggregates.

Durability
The stone use in pavement construction should be durable and should resist disintegration due to
the action of weather .The property of the stones to withstand the adverse action of weather may be
called soundness. The aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and
ground water, the impurities there-in and that of atmosphere. Hence it is desirable that the road
stones used in the construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action.

Shape of Aggregates
The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve opening through which an
aggregate may pass, and not by the shape . Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range
may have rounded, cubical, angular flaky or elongated shape of particles. It is evident that the flaky
and elongated particles will have less strength and durability when compared with cubical, angular
or rounded particles of the same stones .Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should
be avoided as far as possible .Rounded aggregates may be preferred in cement concrete mix due to
low specific surface area and better workability for the same proportion of cement paste and same
water cement ratio, e=whereas rounded particles are not preferred in granular base course, WBM
construction and bituminous construction as the stability due to interlocking of rounded particles is
less. In such construction angular particles are preferred. The voids present in a compacted mix of
coarse, aggregates depends on the shape on the shape factors, Highly angular flaky and elongated
aggregates have more voids in comparison with rounded aggregates

Adhesion with Bitumen

The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when compared
with bituminous materials; otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in
presence of water.
Requirements of Bitumen
The desirables properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and the construction. The general
problems while using bitumen in paving mixes are:

(i) mixing
(ii) Attainment of desired stability of the mix
(iii) To maintain the stability under adverse weather conditions
(iv) To maintain sufficient flexibility and thus avoid cracking of bituminous surface and
(v) To have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in the mix in presence of water.

In view of the above problems, the bitumen should possess the following desirable
properties:
(i) The viscosity of the bitumen at the time mixing and compaction should be adequate. This is
achieved by heating the bitumen and aggregate prior to mixing or by use of cutbacks or
emulsions of suitable grade.
(ii) The bituminous material should not be highly temperature susceptible . During the hottest
weather of the region the bituminous mix should not become too soft or unstable . during
cold weather the mix should not becomes too hard and brittle, causing cracking of surface.
The material should be durable.
(iii) In presence of water the bitumen should not strip off from the aggregate. There has to be
adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregate used in the mix.

Desirable properties
The desirable properties of soil as a highway material are
(i) Stability
(ii) Incompressibility
(iii)Permanency of strength
(iv) Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse conditions of weather and ground
water
(v) Good drainage, and
(vi) Ease of compaction.
The soil should possess adequate stability or resistance to permanent deformation under loads, and
should possess resistance to weathering, thus retaining the desired subgrade support. Minimum
variation in volume will ensure minimum variation in differential expansion and differential strength
values . Good drainage is essential to avoid excessive moisture retention and to reduce the potential
frost action . Ease of compaction ensures higher dry density and strength under particular type and
amount of compaction.
BITUMINOUS PAVING MIXES
Requirements of Bituminous Mixes
The mix design should aim at an economical blend, with proper gradation of aggregates and
adequate proportion of bitumen so as to fulfil the desired properties of the mix .Bituminous concrete
or asphaltic concrete is one of the highest and costliest types of flexible pavement layers used in the
surfacing course . The desirable properties of a good bituminous mix are stability , durability ,
flexibility , skid resistance and workability.
Stability is defined as resistance of the paving mix to deformation under load and thus it is a stress
which causes a specified strain depending upon anticipated field conditions. Stability is a function of
friction and cohesion. Frictional resistance is a function of both inter-particle friction and friction
imparted by bituminous materials. Cohesion is mainly offered by the factors that influence the mass
viscosity of bitumen binder. Density is directly related to voids in the compacted mixture. Stability
and density in general are correlated terms. If voids are restricted, the resulting strength property of
the paving mixer improve. Minimum voids requirement qualified for given mix should be so
selected which provide space for necessary densification that may develop under traffic movements
and expansion of bitumen at high temperatures. In the absence of this ,the bitumen bleeds over the
surface and causes skidding.
Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions.
Weathering causes hardening and this depends upon loss of volatiles and oxidation . Tensile strain is
introduced in the top layer consisting of bituminous mix when wheel loads ply over it. Excessive
strain causes cracking or plastic failure.
Flexibility is a property of the mix that measures the level bending strength .Thus suitability of the
given bituminous paving mix need the consideration of all the factors listed above . Skid resistance is
defined as the resistances of the finished pavement against skidding and is a function of surface
texture and bitumen content. Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted.
It is function of gradation of aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen content and its type
INTRODUCTION
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and subsoil water
within the right of way. This includes interception and diversion of water from the road
surface and subgrade. The installation of suitable surface and sub-surface drainage system is
an essential part of highway design and construction.

During rains part of the rain water flows on surface and part of it percolates through the soil
mass as gravitational water until it reaches the ground water below the water table. Removal
and diversion of surface water from the roadway and adjoining land is termed as surface
drainage . Diversion or removal of excess soil-water from the subgrade is termed as sub-
surface drainage. Some water is retained in the pores of the soil mass and on the surface of
soil particles by surface tension and adsorptive forces, which cannot be drained off by
normal gravitational methods and this water is termed as held water.

RAINAGEIMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

Significance of Drainage
An increase in moisture content causes decrease in strength or stability of soil mass; the
variation in soil strength with moisture content also depends on the soil type and the mode
of stress application. Highway drainage is important because of the following reasons :
(i) Excess moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its stability. The
pavement is likely to fail due to subgrade failure as discussed in Article 10.1.
(ii) Increase in moisture cause reduction in strength of many pavement materials like
stabilized soil and water bound macadam.
(iii) In some clayey soils variation in moisture content causes considerable variation in
volume of subgrade. This sometimes contributes to pavement failure.
(iv) One of most important causes of pavements is due to poor drainage .
(v) Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavements causes failures due to
stripping of bitumen from aggregates like loosening or detachment of some the
bituminous pavement layers and formation of pot holes.
(vi) The prime cause of failures in rigid pavements by mud pumping is due to the
presence of water in fine subgrade soil .
(vii) Excess water on shoulders and pavements edge causes considerable damage .
moisture causes increase in weight and thus increase in stress and simultaneous
reduction in strength of the soil mass. This is one of the main reasons of failure of
earth slopes and embankment foundations.
(viii) Excess In places where freezing temperatures are prevalent in water, the presence
of water in the subgrade and a continuous supply of water from the ground water
can cause considerable damage to the pavement due in frost action.
(ix) Erosion of soil from top unsurfaced roads and slopes of embankment, cut and hill
side is also due to surface water.

Requirement of highway Drainage systems

(i) The surface water from carriageway and shoulder should effectively be drained off
without allowing it to percolate to subgrade.
(ii) The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering the
roadway.
(iii) The side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope should not
cause formation of cross ruts or erosion.
(iv) Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and long slopes should not
cause formation of cross ruts or erosion.
(v) Seepage and other sources of under ground water should be drained off by the
subface drainage system.
(vi) Highest level of ground water table should be kept well below the level of subgrade,
preferably by at least 1.2 m.
(vii) In waterlogged areas special precautions should be taken, especially if detrimental
salts are present or if flooding is likely to occur.