Physics for Engineers I

Lecture 2: Kinematics in One-Dimension (1D)

Gottlieb Uahengo Jr., Ph.D.
 Study of Mechanics
• The study of motion of object, and the concepts of force and energy, broadly
form the field of mechanics.

• Mechanics is divided into two parts:

1. Kinematics
2. Dynamics

Kinematics → the description of motion without regard for the underlaying forces;
specifically, the properties of motions (viz. velocity, position, and acceleration, etc.)

Dynamics → the determination of the underlaying causes of motion (viz. forces)

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 Frames of Reference
• Any measurement of position, speed, or distance is relative.
• It is made with “reference” to something else.

A person walks towards the front of a train at a speed of 5 km/h. The train is moving at 60 km/h with
respect to the ground, so the person’s speed, ‘relative’ to the ground, is 65 km/h.
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 Frames of Reference
• In physics, we use a coordinate axes to represent a frame of reference

• Origin is where 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
Origin: (x=0, y=0)

• Positions to right of origin are positive (+ve)

• Positions to left of origin are negative (-ve)

• Thus, the position of an object at any time is given by its 𝑥 & 𝑦 coordinates
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 Frames of Reference
• We must make a distinction between distance and displacement:
• Distance (dashed line) → the distance an object has traveled
• Displacement (blue line)→ how far an object has traveled from its starting
point

Distance = 70 m + 30 m = 100 m
Displacement = 40 m East
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 Displacement
• Suppose at some initial moment in time, call it 𝑡1 , an object is on the
𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is at position 𝑥1 . Some time later, 𝑡2 , the object has moved to
𝑥2

• The object’s displacement 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

• It is convention to write:
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Where Δ (Greek letter delta) means “change in”

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 Types of Displacement
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝐏𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒗𝒆 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑵𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 30.0𝑚 − 10.0 𝑚 = 20.0 𝑚 Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 10.0𝑚 − 30.0 𝑚 = −20.0 𝑚

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 Speed vs. Velocity
• How fast an object is moving is – its speed or velocity?

Speed → refers to how fast an object is moving in a given time interval.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

Velocity → refers to both the magnitude of how fast an object is moving, and the
direction of motion.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑
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 Example 1
• Total distance traveled is 70 m + 30m =100 m, but displacement is 30 m.
Suppose this walk took 70 s to complete. Find the both the average
speed and velocity, respectively.

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 Example 1: Solution

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 100 𝑚
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = = 1.4 𝑚/𝑠
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 70 𝑠

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 40 𝑚
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 0.57 𝑚/𝑠 𝐸𝑎𝑠𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 70 𝑠

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 Average Velocity
• To define velocity more precisely, we can define the “time elapsed” as
follows:
Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

• Thus,
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 Δ𝑥
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡

Δ𝑥
𝑣ҧ =
Δ𝑡
𝑣 stands for velocity, and the bar ഥ over 𝑣 is a standard symbol for “average” 11
 Example 2
The position of a runner [Christine Mboma] is plotted as moving along
the x axis of a coordinate system. During a 3 second time interval, the
runner’s position has changed from 𝑥1 = 50.0m to 𝑥2 = 30.5 m.

What is the runner’s average velocity?

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 Example 2: Solution
• Find the displacement:
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Δ𝑥 = 30.5 𝑚 − 50.0 𝑚
Δ𝑥 = −19.5 𝑚

• Solution:
Δ𝑥 −19.5 m
𝑣ҧ = = = −6.50 𝑚/𝑠
Δ𝑡 3.00 𝑠

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 Example 3

How far can a cyclist travel in a 2.5 h along a straight line if her average
velocity is 18 km/h?

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 Example 3: Solution
Δ𝑥
𝑣ҧ =
Δ𝑡

We want to find the distance traveled therefore we can solve for Δ𝑥 in the equation
above. Multiply both side by Δ𝑡:

Δ𝑥
𝑣ҧ Δ𝑡 = Δ𝑡
Δ𝑡

𝑣ҧ Δ𝑡 = Δ𝑥

Δ𝑥 = (18 𝑘𝑚/ℎ)(2.5 ℎ)

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 Example 4

A car travels at a constant speed of 50 km/h for 100 km. It then speeds
up to 100 km/h and drives another 100 km. What is the car’s average
speed in the 200 km trip?

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 Example 4: Solution
Insight: at a speed of 50 km/h, the car take 2 hours to cover 100km. At
a speed of 100 km/h, it only takes 1 hour to cover 100 km.

Δ𝑥 200 𝑘𝑚 − 0 𝑘𝑚
𝑣ҧ = = = 67 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
Δ𝑡 2.0 ℎ + 1.0 ℎ

A common misconception:

(50 𝑘𝑚/ℎ + 100 𝑘𝑚/ℎ)

𝑣ҧ = = 75 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
2
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 Instantaneous Velocity
• You drove from Ongwediva to Windhoek for a music festival in 4.0-
hours. The distance the two towns is 707 km, assuming the road is a
straight line, your average velocity is:

707
𝑣ҧ = = 176.8 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
4.0 ℎ

• However, it is very unlikely that you are moving at 176.8 km/h at

every instance/moment of the 4-hour journey. Can you tell why?

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 Instantaneous Velocity
• Instantaneous velocity → the velocity at any instance of time
• The speedometer on a car indicates the instantaneous velocity

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 Instantaneous Velocity
• More precisely, instantaneous velocity is described as the average velocity over
an infinitesimal time interval.

• Concisely, it is the average velocity in the limit of 𝛥𝑡 approaching zero!

Δ𝑥
𝑣 = lim
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

• We use 𝑣 for instantaneous velocity, and 𝑣ҧ for average velocity.

• Thus, going forward, when we use the term “velocity” it will refer to
instantaneous velocity. When we speak of average velocity, it will be made clear
by use of the word “average.”
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 Instantaneous Velocity
• What is a limit in the mathematical sense?

• The description of a function near a point, instead of at the point

• Notice: the instantaneous speed always equals the magnitude of the

(instantaneous) velocity. Why?
• Answer: because the distance traveled, and the magnitude of the
displacement become the same when they become infinitesimally
small.

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 Instantaneous Velocity
• If an objects moves at a uniform (constant) velocity during a
particular time interval, then its instantaneous velocity at any instant
is the same as its average velocity.

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 Instantaneous Velocity
• However, in most scenarios, the preceding is not the case. Can you
tell why?

• Answer: During your trip to Windhoek, you start from rest speed up to 50
km/h, remain at this velocity for a time, then slow down to 20 km/h when
you see a donkey on the road, finally you stop because the donkey refuses
to get out of the road. See below

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 Acceleration
• Acceleration → specifies the rate of change of an object’s velocity.

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 Acceleration
• Average acceleration → is defined as the change in velocity divided
by the time taken to make this change

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑

𝑣2 − 𝑣1 Δ𝑣 𝛿𝑣
𝑎ത = = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡 𝛿t

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 Acceleration
• Instantaneous acceleration → is defined in analogy to instantaneous
velocity; as the average acceleration over an infinitesimal time
interval, at a given instant.

Δ𝑣
𝑎 = lim
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡

• Here, Δ𝑣 is the infinitesimal change is velocity during the infinitesimal

time Δ𝑡.

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 Example 5

A car accelerates on a straight road from rest to 75 km/h in 5-seconds.

What is the magnitude/size of its average acceleration?

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 Example 5: Solution
• Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the
elapsed time (5 s).

• Thus;

𝑣2 −𝑣1 75 −0 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑎ത = = = 15 𝑘𝑚/ℎ / s
𝑡2 −𝑡1 5.0 𝑠

Explain here…
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 Example 6
• An automobile is moving to the right along a straight highway, which
we choose to be the positive x axis (shown below). Then the driver
steps on the brakes. If the initial velocity (when the driver hits the
brakes) is 𝑣1 = 15.0 mΤs and it takes 5.0 s to slow down to 𝑣2 =
5.0 mΤs . What was the car’s average acceleration?

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 Example 6: Solution
Recall:
𝑡1 = 0
𝑡2 = 5.0 s

5.0 mΤs − 15.0 mΤs

𝑎ത =
5.0 s

𝑎ത = −2.0 mΤs

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 Acceleration
• When an object is slowing down, it is said to be “decelerating.”
• However, this does not imply that the acceleration is negative

• We have acceleration whenever the magnitude of the velocity is

decreasing; thus, the velocity and acceleration point in opposite
directions when there is deceleration

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 Motion at Constant Acceleration
• Let’s examine motion in a straight line when the acceleration is
constant.

The instantaneous and average acceleration are equal

𝑎 = 𝑎ത

• We can use average velocity and acceleration to define a set of

kinematic equations that relate 𝑥, 𝑣, 𝑎 and 𝑡 when 𝑎 is constant!

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 Motion at Constant Acceleration
• We choose the initial time in any discussion to be “zero,” and we call it 𝑡0:

• Effectively we are setting 𝑡1 = 𝑡0 = 0;

→ starting the stopwatch at 𝑡0 = 0

• We can then let 𝑡2 = 𝑡 or 𝑡3 = 𝑡;

→ 𝑡 is effective just the “time elapsed” since 𝑡0

• The initial position (𝑥1) and initial velocity (𝑣1) of an object are now:
→ 𝑥0 and 𝑣0 - since they represent the 𝑥 and 𝑣 @ 𝑡0 = 0

• Thus, at time, 𝑡, we express position and velocity as:

→ 𝑥 and 𝑣 (rather than 𝑥2 and 𝑣2 )

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 Motion at Constant Acceleration
• This, from the preceding slide 𝑣ҧ during the time interval 𝑡 − 𝑡0 :

Δ𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0
𝑣ҧ = = =
Δ𝑡 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑡
0

Similarly for acceleration, assumed constant in time:

Δ𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑎= =
Δ𝑡 𝑡

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 Motion at Constant Acceleration
• Given the acceleration, we can find the velocity as follows:

𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑣0

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (Eq. 1)

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 Motion at Constant Acceleration
• Under constant acceleration the velocity increases uniformly, thus 𝑣ҧ is
midway between the initial and final velocities.

𝑣0 + 𝑣
𝑣ҧ = (Eq. 2)
2

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 Motion at Constant Acceleration
• How to calculate the position (𝑥) of an object after a time (𝑡) under
constant acceleration.
• Our starting point
𝑥 − 𝑥0
𝑣ҧ =
𝑡

𝑣𝑡ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑥0

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑡ҧ
• Substitute 𝑣ҧ with Eq. 2
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 Motion at Constant Acceleration
𝑣0 + 𝑣
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡
2
𝑣0 + 𝑣
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡
2

• Substitute 𝑣 with Eq. 1:

𝑣0 + 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡
2

• Expanding & reducing:

𝑎𝑡 2
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + (Eq. 3)
2

𝑠 ≔ 𝑥 − 𝑥0
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 Motion at Constant Acceleration
• When time is unknown, we can substitute 𝑣ҧ in the following:

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑡ҧ

𝑣0 + 𝑣
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡
2

• From Eq. 1 we can solve for 𝑡:

(𝑣 − 𝑣0 )
𝑡=
𝑎

• The substituted this value for 𝑡 into the earlier equation.

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 Motion at Constant Acceleration
𝑣0 + 𝑣
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡
2

𝑣0 + 𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑥 = 𝑥0 +
2 𝑎

𝑣 2 − 𝑣02
𝑥 = 𝑥0 +
2𝑎
Solve for 𝑣 2 :
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (Eq. 4)

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Motion at Constant Acceleration
The kinematic equations for constant acceleration.

These equation are valid when 𝑎 is constant. 41

 Example 8
• You are designing an airport for small planes. One type of airplane
that might use this airfield must reach a speed before takeoff of at
least 27.8 m/𝑠 (100 km/ℎ) and can accelerate at 2.00 m/s 2 .

(a) If the runway is 150 m long, can this airplane reach the required
speed for takeoff?

(b) If not, what minimum length must the runway have?

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 Example 8: Solution
a) 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

𝑣 2 = 0 + 2(2.0 𝑚/𝑠 2 )(150 𝑚)

𝑣 2 = 600 m2 /s 2

𝑣= 600 m2 /s 2

𝑣 = 24.5 m/s

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 Example 8: Solution Cont.
b)
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

𝑚 2
2
2
𝑣 − 𝑣02 27.8 − 0
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = = 𝑠 = 193 𝑚
2𝑎 2(2.0 𝑚/𝑠

Therefore, a runway >200 m would be more appropriate.

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 Free Falling Objects
• Close to the surface of the Earth, all object experience approximately
the same acceleration; due to gravity.
• An apple falling to the ground is a classical example of motion under constant
acceleration.

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 Free Falling Objects
• One of the most common examples of uniformly accelerated motion is that
of an object allowed to fall freely near the Earth’s surface.
• It is not readily obvious that a falling object is accelerating.

• NB: the speed of a falling object is not proportional to it mass.

• In the absence of air or other resistance, all objects would fall with the
same constant acceleration.

• For an object falling from rest, the distance travelled is proportional to the
square of the time:
𝒅 ∝ 𝒕𝟐

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 Free Falling Objects
• Galileo postulated that for an object falling from rest, the distance
travelled is proportional to the square of the time:

𝑑 ∝ 𝑡2

• Galileo’s thought experiment: a heavy stone dropped from a height

of 2 m will drive stake into the ground much farther than will the
same stone dropped from a height of only 0.2 m. Clearly, the stone
much b moving faster in the former case.

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 Free Falling Objects
• He went on to claim, and rightly so, that all object, light or heavy, fall
with the same acceleration, at least in the absence of air.

Released at the same time: Released at the same time:

𝑎) → heavier object will 𝑏) → two object will reach
reach the floor 1st the floor nearly the same
time

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 Free Falling Objects
• Galileo postulated correctly that air act as air resistance to very light
objects that have a large surface area.
• However, in many ordinary circumstances this air resistance is negligible.

• In a vacuum, a horizontally held piece of paper or a feather will fall at

the same accelerations as any other object.

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 Free Falling Objects
• Galileo’s contributions can be summarized as follows:

“at a given location on the Earth an in the absence of air resistance,

all objects fall with the same constant acceleration.”

• We call this acceleration the acceleration due to gravity at the surface

of the Earth. Its magnitude is approximately;
acceleration due to gravity at
g = 9.80 mΤs the surface of the Earth

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 Free Falling Objects
• When dealing with freely falling object, we can also make use of the
kinematics equation, where 𝒂 becomes 𝐠. The value given in the
preceding slide.

• Since the motion I vertical, we substitute 𝒚 in place of 𝒙, and 𝒚𝟎 in

place of 𝒙𝟎 .
• Unless otherwise specified, 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎. Implying the object starts from rest.

• NB: it is arbitrary whether we choose y to be positive in the upward

direction or in the downward direction; but we must be consistent
about it throughout the problem’s solution.
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 Free Falling Objects
• Kinematics equation adapted for vertically falling objects:

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡

1 2
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡
2

𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎 𝑦 − 𝑦0

𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑣ҧ =
2

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 Example 10
Suppose a ball is dropped from the leaning
tower of Pisa. How far will it have fallen after
the following times? Ignore air resistance.

a) 𝑡1 = 1.00 s
b) 𝑡2 = 2.00 s
c) 𝑡3 = 3.00 s

53
 Example 10: Solution
We set, 𝑡 = 𝑡1 = 1.0 s:
𝑎𝑡 2
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 +
2

1 2
𝑦1 = 0 + 0 + 𝑎𝑡1
2

1 2
𝑦1 = 9.80 mΤs 1.00 s
2

𝑦1 = 4.90 m
The ball has fallen ad distance 4.90 m during the time interval 𝑡 = 0, to 𝑡 = 1.00 s. 54
 Example 10: Solution
• Similarly, after 2.00 s (= 𝑡2 ), the ball’s position is:

1 2 1 2 2
𝑦2 = 𝑎𝑡2 = 9.80 mΤs 2.00 s = 19.6 m
2 2

• Finally, after 3.00 s (= 𝑡3 ), the ball’s position is:

1 2 1 2 2
𝑦3 = 𝑎𝑡3 = 9.80 mΤs 3.00 s = 44.1 m
2 2

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 Free Falling Objects
• The acceleration of fast-moving objects such as rockets, airplanes &
F1 is often given as a multiple of g = 9.80 m/s2

• A plan pulling out of a dive and undergoing 3.00 g’s would have an
acceleration calculated as follows:

2
3.00 9.8 mΤs 2 = 29.4 mΤs

56
 Graphical Analysis of Linear Motion
• The graph show the position (𝑥) vs. time (𝑡) of an object moving at
constant velocity. The slope (gradient) of this curve represents the
velocity.

Δ𝑥 𝛿𝑥
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = Δ𝑡
= 𝛿𝑡

• The slope of a 𝒙 vs 𝒕 graph is equal to the

velocity.

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 Graphical Analysis of Linear Motion
• The average velocity of an object during any time interval Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 −
𝑡1 is equal to the slope of the straight line (or chord) connecting the
two point (𝑥1 , 𝑡1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑡2 ) on an 𝑥 vs. 𝑡 graph.
Δ𝑥
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑣ҧ = Δ𝑡

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 Graphical Analysis of Linear Motion
• The instantaneous velocity equals the slope of the tangent to the
curve of 𝑥 vs 𝑡 at any chosen point.

Δ𝑥
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑣 = lim Δ𝑡
𝑡→𝑡1

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 Graphical Analysis of Linear Motion
• Similarly, the same analysis can be carried out on a 𝑣 vs. 𝑡 graph.

• The slope of this graph is the average acceleration.

Δ𝑣
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑎ത =
Δ𝑡

• The instantaneous acceleration is the slope of the

tangent line at a particular instant (i.e., 𝑡1 )

Δ𝑣
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑎 = lim
𝑡→𝑡1 Δ𝑡

60
 Graphical Analysis of Linear Motion
• Figure (a) shows the velocity (𝑣) 𝑣𝑠 time (𝑡) graph of an object with
varying velocity. Figure (b) shows the resulting position (𝑥) vs time (𝑡)
graph. The instantaneous velocity (𝑣) is tangent to the curve at each
point.

61
Graphical Analysis of Linear Motion
• The displacement (𝑥) is the area under the 𝑥 vs
𝑡 graph

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The End.

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