Bachelor of Computer Applications

(BCA)

Elementary Mathematics
(OBCACO103T24)

Self-Learning Material
(SEM 1)

Jaipur National University

Centre for Distance and Online Education
_________________________________________
Established by Government of Rajasthan
Approved by UGC under Sec 2(f) of UGC ACT 1956
&
NAAC A+ Accredited
 PREFACE

Mathematics plays a crucial role in the curriculum of a Bachelor of Computer

Applications (BCA) program. It provides a foundation for various concepts and
principles that are essential in the field of computer science. In this introduction to
mathematics in BCA, we will explore the key areas of mathematics covered in the
program and their relevance to computer science.

The book covers topics like Discrete Mathematics, Calculus, Linear Algebra,
Probability and statistics

By studying mathematics in BCA, students extend critical thoughts, problem-solving,

and analytical skills that are essential for achievement in the field of computer
science. Mathematics provide a solid foundation for understanding the theoretical
underpinnings of computer science and enables students to tackle complex
computational problems.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Unit Topic Page No.

1 Matrix 01 – 16

2 Trigonometry 17 – 25

3 Coordinate Geometry 26 – 40

4 Limit & Function 41 – 47

5 Derivatives 48 – 54

6 Integration 55 – 76

7 First Order and First Degree Differential Equations 77 – 87

8 Homogenous and non-Homogenous Differential Equations 88 – 96

9 Central Tendency 97 – 106

 UNIT : 1

MATRIX

Learning Objectives:

 To understand Revision of equations reducible to quadratic form.

 To understand the concept of accounting
 To understand the Users of Accounting Information

Structure:

1.1 Revision of equations reducible to quadratic form Simultaneous equations

(linear and quadratic) up to 2 variables only.
1.2 Determinants and their six important properties
1.3 Solutions of simultaneous equations by Cramer’s rules
1.4 Users of Accounting Information
1.5 Arithmetic operation on matrices
1.6 Solution of Simultaneous Equations Using Matrices
1.7 Summary
1.8 Keywords
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions
1.10 Case Study
1.11 References

1
1.1 Revision of equations reducible to quadratic form Simultaneous equations
(linear and quadratic) up to 2 variables only.

Revision of Equations Reducible to Quadratic Form:

Quadratic equations are equations in the form , where , and

are constants. However, it is occasionally possible to simplify equations that are not
initially quadratic by putting them in quadratic form. When solving equations with
square roots or variables raised to powers greater than two, this method is especially
helpful.

To reduce an equation to quadratic form, you can use substitution or other algebraic
techniques. Here's an example:

Example:

Consider the equation . To reduce this equation to

quadratic form, we can make a substitution. Let's substitute .

By substituting y into the equation, we get:

This equation is now in quadratic form, and we can solve it using various methods
such as factoring, completing the square, or via the quadratic formula. After finding
the solutions for , we replace the values back into the original substitution to find the
values of .

Simultaneous Equations (Linear and Quadratic) up to 2 Variables:

Simultaneous equations involve two or more equations with the same variables. When
one of the equations is linear (involving variables to the power of 1) and the other is
quadratic (involving variables to the power of 2), solving the system of equations
requires finding values that satisfy both equations simultaneously.

2
There are several techniques to solve simultaneous equations, including substitution,
elimination, and graphical methods.

Example:
Consider the equations:
Equation (1):
Equation (2):

We have two options for solving this system: the substitution approach and the
elimination method..

Using the substitution method:

1. Solve Equation (1) for one variable. Let's solve for .

2. Substitute this expression for y in Equation (2):
3. Simplify and solve the resulting quadratic equation.
4. Replace the obtained values of back into Equation(1) to find the
corresponding value(s) of .

Using the elimination method:

1. Multiply Equation (1) by a suitable factor to make the coefficients of y the same
in both equations. In this case, multiplying Equation (1) by 1 gives: .
2. Subtract Equation (1) from Equation (2) to eliminate y.
3. Simplify and solve the resulting linear equation for x.
4. Replace the obtained values of back into Equation(1) to find the corresponding
values of .

1.2 Determinants and their six main properties

Below are some basic characteristics of determinants:
If is the identity Matrix of the order , then is equal to1.
If the Matrix is the transpose of Matrix , then .

3
If Matrix is the inverse of Matrix , then
.
In the event where X and Y, two square matrices, have the same size, then
.
if Matrix X maintains size and is a constant.
The following equation applies if , , and are three equal-sized positive
semidefinite matrices. Additionally, the corollary
for , , and
holds.
The modulo in a triangular matrix is the multiplication of the diagonal components.
If every member in a matrix is equal to zero, the matrix's determinant is zero.
Crucial Characteristics of Determinants
Ten often used and significant features of determinants. These characteristics
facilitate computations and aid in the resolution of several issues. Below is a
description of each of the ten significant characteristics of determinants.

 Reflection Property
 All-zero Property
 Proportionality
 Switching property
 Factor property
 Scalar multiple properties
 Sum property
 Triangle property
 Determinant of cofactor Matrix
 Property of Invariance

We go into further depth on each of these attributes below:

1. Reflection Property

4
Determinants reflection property states that when rows are converted into columns
and vice versa, Determinants remain unchanged.

2. All- Zero Property

If all of the terms in the rows and columns are zero, then the Determinants will also be
zero.

3. Proportionality (Repetition Property)

The Determinant is equal to zero if every term in a row or column is comparable to
the column of another row (or column).
4. Switching Property
Any two rows or columns of the determinant that are switched around alter the sign of
the result.
5. Factor Property
(x -α) is regarded as a factor of Δ if a determinant Δ reaches 0 while taking the value
of x = α into consideration.
6. Scalar Multiple Property
A comparable constant multiplies the determinant if every element in a row or
columns is multiply by a non-zero constant.
7. Sum Property

8. Triangle Property
A Determinant is equal to the product of diagonal terms if every term, whether above
or below the main diagonal, consists of zeroes, i.e.,

9. Determinant of Cofactor Matrix

5
In the above modulo of the co-factor Matrix, depicts the co-factor of the element
in
.
10. Property of Invariance

It suggests that Determinant does not alter when the phrase is

used.
where and are not equal to , or when and are not equal to in a mathematical
operation of the expression .

1.3 Solutions of simultaneous equations by Cramer’s rules

Cramer's Rule is a technique utilized to crack systems of simultaneous linear

equations using determinants. It presents a systematic approach to find out the
matchless result for each variable in the system. Let's explore how Cramer's Rule
works:

Consider linear equations:

To solve this system using Cramer's Rule:

6
Compute the mod of the coefficient matrix, often denoted as , which is specified by:

| |

Compute the determinants of the matrices obtained by replacing each column of the
coefficient matrix with the column of constants, denoted as D₁ , D₂ , and D₃ . These
determinants represent the solutions for x, y, and z, respectively:

| |

| |

| |

Calculate the values of x, y, and z by dividing the determinants D₁ , D₂ , and D₃ by

the determinant D:

Replace the computed values of x, y, and z back into the original equations to verify
the solution.

Cramer's Rule provides a method to find out the unique solutions for each variable in
a system of linear equations without the need for row operations or matrix inverses.
Yet, it is significant to note down that Cramer's Rule is not efficient for large systems
due to the computational complexity involved in calculating determinants.

1.4 Users of Accounting Information

7
In mathematics, special matrices are matrices that possess certain distinctive
properties or exhibit specific characteristics. These matrices often have special names
and play important roles in various mathematical applications. Here are definitions of
some commonly encountered special matrices:
1. Identity Matrix (I):
The identity matrix, often denoted as or , is a square matrix with ones on the chief
diagonal and zeros in another place. Specifically, the element in the row and
column is 1 if , and 0 otherwise. The identity matrix serves as the
multiplicative identity for matrix multiplication, similar to how 1 is the multiplicative
identity for real numbers.

2. Zero Matrix (O):

The zero matrix, denoted as O or Oₘₘ, is a matrix in which all elements are zeros.

[ ]

3. Diagonal Matrix:

A diagonal matrix is one in which there are zeros for each non-diagonal member. A
rectangular array of integers organized in rows and columns is called a matrix.

8
 4. Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix that is equal to its transpose matrix is said to be symmetric. Any
given transpose matrix of matrix may be expressed as . Thus, the requirement
is satisfied by a symmetric matrix .
5. Skew-Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix that is equal to its transpose matrix's negative is known as a skew
symmetric matrix in mathematics. The transpose matrix for every square matrix is
denoted by . Therefore, the representation of a skew-symmetric or antisymmetric
matrix is .

6. Orthogonal Matrix:
If the transpose of a square matrix is equal to its inverse, then matrix is an
orthogonal. For example, , where is the inverse of and is the
transpose of .

9
1.5 Arithmetic operation on matrices
Arithmetic operations on matrices involve various mathematical operations such as
addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication, matrix transpose, adjoint, and matrix
inverse. These operations allow us to manipulate matrices and derive new matrices
based on specific rules. Let's explore each operation in more detail:

1) Addition:
If we have two matrices and of the same size m x n, their sum , denoted as
, is obtained by adding corresponding elements: ,
here and stand for the row and column.

2) Subtraction:
If we have matrices and of the same size , their difference , denoted as
, is obtained by subtracting corresponding elements: .

10
 3) Scalar Multiplication:
If we have a matrix of size and a scalar , the scalar multiplication is
denoted as .

4) Transpose Matrix:
A transposed matrix is the original matrix reversed. By flipping the rows and columns
of a matrix, we can transpose it. We signify transposition of matrix A by .

11
5) Adjoint (or Adjugate) Matrix:
The adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of the co-factor matrix of . The adjoint of
a square matrix B is denoted by . Let be a square matrix of order

n.

6) Inverse Matrix:
To find the inverse of A, several methods can be used, such as Gauss-Jordan
elimination, matrix of cofactors, or using the adjoint and determinant. Not all matrices
have inverses, and for a matrix to be invertible, its modulo must not be zero.

12
1.6 Solution of Simultaneous Equations Using Matrices
Step-1 Write the equations in matrix form: Convert the system of simultaneous
equations into matrix form. For example, consider the system:

This can be represented in matrix form as AX=B, where:

Step-2 Find the inverse of matrix A: If the matrix A is invertible, find its inverse
.
Step-3 Compute the solution: Multiply both sides of the equation to
solve for
Step-4 Verify the solution: Plug the values of x and y back into the original
equations to ensure they satisfy all equations.

13
1.7 Summary
There are many algebraic topics that involve dealing with matrices and solving
problems. We begin by revising equations reducible to quadratic form, which entails
converting equations into quadratic equations and solving themutilising techniques
like factoring or the quadratic formula. We also research simultaneous equations with

14
a maximum of two variables, both linear and quadratic. This enables us to resolve
equation problems with several variables.

We investigate determinants and their characteristics before moving on to matrices.

When it comes to square matrices, determinants are numerical values that are
connected to crucial characteristics including linearity, multiplicative property, and
inverse determinant. We also study Cramer's laws, which offer a way to resolve linear
equation systems using determinants.

Next, we delve into matrices and their operations. Special matrices, such as unit
matrices, singular matrices, and diagonal matrices, are defined. These matrices have
distinct qualities that make them helpful in a large range of applications. Arithmetic
operations on matrices, such as adding, subtracting, and scalar multiplicating, enable
us to handle and calculate with matrices.

1.8 Keywords
 Quadratic Equations: Quadratic equations are polynomial equations of
the second degree, typically in the form of , here , , and
are invariants and represent the variable. Square roots are frequently used in the
solutions to quadratic equations, which can be cracked by factoring, completing the
square, or using the quadratic formula. They are essential in various fields, including
physics, engineering, and finance.
 Simultaneous Equations: Simultaneous equations refer to a system of
equations that are cracked together to find the values of multiple variables. These
equations represent relationships between different variables and are typically written
in the form of equations involving multiple variables. Simultaneous equations can be
linear or quadratic and are used to solve problems involving multiple unknowns. They
have applications in various fields, such as physics, economics, and optimization.

1.9 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are the steps concerned in solving a quadratic equation that can be reduced
to quadratic form? Explain the methods used to solve such equations.

15
2. How do you solve a system of simultaneous equations involving linear and
quadratic equations with up to two variables? Provide an example.
3. What are the six important properties of determinants in linear algebra? Explain
each property briefly.
4. Explain Cramer's rules for solving simultaneous equations. When are Cramer's
rules applicable?
5. Define special matrices and provide examples of each type.

1.10 Case Study

Product A and Product B are the two kinds of products manufactured by XYZ
Manufacturing Company. The business wishes to reduce production costs by
calculating the optimal amounts of each product. Raw material availability, labour
costs, and equipment utilisation are all aspects of the manufacturing process. The firm
has gathered information on the costs and restrictions of manufacturing both products.
As a data analyst, you use determinants and Cramer's rules to determine the ideal
production quantities that minimise total production costs.
Questions:
1. Suppose the given system of equations represents the production costs and
constraints for Product A and Product B: 2A + 3B = 240 and 4A - B = 160
Calculate the determinant of the coefficient matrix and verify if Cramer's rules
can be applied in this case.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using determinants and Cramer's
rules compared to other methods of solving simultaneous equations in terms of
accuracy, computational complexity, and applicability to real-world scenarios.
3. Explain how Cramer's rules can be applied to find the optimal production
quantities of Product A and Product B.

1.11 References

● Grewal . B.S., ―Elementary Engineering Mathematics‖, Khanna publications

34th Ed., 2020.

● Gupta, S. P and Kapoor V.K, Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics, Sultan

Chand and Sons, New Delhi.

16
 UNIT : 2

TRIGONOMETRY

Learning Objectives:

 To understand Trigonometry
 To understand the concept of accounting
 To understand the Users of Accounting Information

Structure:

2.1 Trigonometry: Revision of angle measurement

2.2 T-ratios addition, subtraction and transformation formulae
2.3 T-ratio of multiple and allied angles
2.4 Summary
2.5 Keywords
2.6 Self-Assessment Questions
2.7 Case Study
2.8 References

17
2.1 Trigonometry: Revision of angle measurement

The study of the relationships between angles and triangle sides is known as
trigonometry.
It includes the study of angles, their measurements, and their qualities. There are
numerous crucial principles to comprehend while reviewing angle measuring in
trigonometry.

Degree Measurement: The most widely used unit of measurement for angles is
degrees. A circle has 360 equal segments, and a degree is the name given to each
segment. The symbol for degrees is °.

Radian Measurement: Radians are another unit used to measure angles in

trigonometry. The angle subtended in the center of a circle by an arc whose
length is equal to the circle's radius is called a radian. 2π radians make up a
full circle, where π (pi) is a mathematical constant that is roughly equivalent to
3.14159.
Converting between Degrees and Radians: Multiply the degree measure by π/180
to convert from degrees to radians. You multiply the radian measurement by
180/π to convert radians to degrees.

Special Angles: In trigonometry, certain angles have special properties and

measurements. These include the 30°-60°-90° triangle, the 45°-45°-90°
triangle, and the unit circle, which is a circle with a radius of 1 unit.

Angle Relationships: Angles have reciprocal relationships, such as

complementary angles, supplementary angles, and vertical angles. When two
lines cross, complementary angles sum up to 90 degrees, supplementary
angles add up to 180 degrees, and vertical angles are opposite each other.

18
2.2 T-ratios addition, subtraction and transformation formulae

Trigonometric ratios, or T-ratios, are the trigonometric ratios of the side lengths of a
right triangle. Sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent (tan) are the three fundamental T-
ratios. For manipulating and simplifying trigonometric formulas using these T-ratios,
addition, subtraction, and transformation formulae are useful.

Addition and Subtraction Formulae:

● Sum Formula:



● Difference Formula:



These formulas let us know the T-ratios of the individual angles and then use them to
get the sine, cosine, and tangent of the sum or difference of two angles.

Transformation Formulae:

Double-Angle Formulae:

Sine: sin(2A) = 2sin(A) . cos(A)

Cosine: cos(2A) = .
Tangent: tan(2A) = .

Half-Angle Formulae:

19
 √
⮚ Sine:

√
⮚ Cosine:

√
⮚ Tangent:
√

These formulas let us represent the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle in terms of
half the angle, making trigonometric expressions easier to evaluate.

We may simplify and modify trigonometric formulas using T-ratios by using these
addition, subtraction, and transformation formulae. These tools are extremely useful
for solving trigonometric equations, assessing complicated trigonometric functions,
and addressing issues in physics, engineering, and mathematics.

2.3 T-ratio of multiple and allied angles

● T-ratio of multiple angles

For angles that are multiples of a specific angle in trigonometry, the values of the
trigonometric functions are known as the T-ratios (trigonometric ratios) of multiple
angles.
These ratios enable us to identify the T-ratios of related angles, making it easier to
calculate and solve trigonometric issues.

The T-ratios of several angles can be described in terms of the original angle's T-
ratios. Here are some important T-ratios for multiple angles:

Double Angle Formulas:




20
Triple Angle Formulas:

These formulae allow us to calculate the T-ratios of angles that are twice or three
times the specified angle. We can compute the T-ratios for these many angles by
knowing the T-ratio of the original angle.

Multiple angle T-ratios have several uses in trigonometry, including solving

trigonometric equations, simplifying trigonometric expressions, and analysing
periodic functions. They assist us in comprehending the patterns and relationships that
exist between various angles, making it simpler to work with trigonometric functions
in a variety of mathematical and scientific situations.

T-ratio of Allied Angles

The T-ratios (trigonometric ratios) of allied angles are the values of trigonometric
functions for angles with the same T-ratios but different signs in trigonometry.
Because these angles are connected, we may simplify computations and solve
trigonometric issues more effectively.
Here are some important T-ratios for allied angles:

Complementary Angles:

Two angles are complementary if their sum is 90 degrees (π/2 radians).

For complementary angles, the cosine and sine of one angle are equivalent, and vice
versa.

21
 Supplementary Angles:
Two angles are supplementary if their sum is 180 degrees (π radians).
In the case of supplementary angles, the cosine of one angle equals the negative
cosine of the other, and the sine of one angle equals the sine of the other.

Negative Angles:
A negative angle is formed by rotating clockwise from the positive x-axis.
For negative angles, the sine and tangent functions have the same absolute value but
differ in sign, while the cosine function remains unchanged.

Understanding allied angle T-ratios helps us to identify related angle T-ratios without
having to compute them independently. These connections aid in the simplification of
trigonometric expressions, the solution of trigonometric equations, and the analysis of
periodic functions. We can work with trigonometric functions more effectively in
many mathematical and scientific applications if we recognize the patterns and
connections between associated angles.

2.4 Summary

Trigonometry is the study of angles and their links to triangle sides. It is critical to
grasp degree and radian measurements, conversions between them, special angles,
and angle connections while revisiting angle measurement in trigonometry. Degree
measurement divides a circle into 360 equal sections, whereas radian measurement
measures angles using the radius notion. Special angles with specific trigonometric
values, such as 30°, 45°, and 60°, are widely utilised. Angle connections like

22
complementary, supplementary, and vertical angles aid in the solution of
trigonometric problems.

T-ratios, often known as trigonometric ratios, are essential in trigonometry. They link
a triangle's angles to the lengths of its sides. T-ratio addition and subtraction formulae
entail using the sine, cosine, and tangent functions to get the T-ratios of the sum and
difference of two angles. By linking the T-ratios of half angles to the T-ratios of the
original angles, the transformation formulae aid in determining the T-ratios of half
angles. Trigonometric equations can be simplified and evaluated using these
formulae.

Understanding the T-ratios of numerous angles is also important in trigonometry. The

T-ratios of an angle twice the size of a particular angle are expressed using the double
angle formulae.Similarly, triple angle formulae provide T-ratios for an angle three
times the size of the provided angle. These formulas make it easier to calculate T-
ratios of numerous angles.

Aside from various angles, allied angles are also important in trigonometry. The T-
ratios of allied angles are the same, but the sign is different. Complementary angles
add up to 90°, and their T-ratios are reciprocal. The total of the supplementary angles
is 180°, and their T-ratios have the same absolute value but differ in sign. T-ratios for
negative angles have the same absolute value as positive angles but opposite signs.
Understanding trigonometric concepts like angle measurement, T-ratio addition and
subtraction, transformation formulae, T-ratios of multiple angles, and allied angles
provides a solid foundation for solving trigonometric problems, analysing geometric
relationships, and applying trigonometry in fields like physics, engineering, and
navigation.

2.5 Keywords

Angle measurement: Angle measurement is the technique of determining the size

of an angle. It entails expressing the magnitude of angles using several units of
measurement, such as degrees and radians. Understanding angle measurement

23
 is essential in trigonometry since it enables exact computations and geometric
connection analysis.
T-Ratios: T-ratios, or trigonometric ratios, relate the angles of a triangle to its
side lengths. The three basic T-ratios are sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent
(tan). T-ratios give useful information on triangle geometric features and are
often utilised in trigonometric calculations such as estimating side lengths,
angle measurements, and solving trigonometric equations. T-ratio addition,
subtraction, and transformation formulae extend their value in trigonometry.
Understanding T-ratios for various and related angles also enables the
simplification and manipulation of trigonometric formulas.

2.6 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is the difference between degree and radian measurement in trigonometry?

Explain the conversion between the two.
2. Using the addition and subtraction formulas for T-ratios, calculate the exact value
of sin (75°) in terms of known T-ratios.
3. Apply the transformation formula for T-ratios to find the value of cos(π/12) in
terms of known T-ratios.
4. Find the T-ratio of the double angle for an angle θ if sin(θ) = 3/5 and θ is in the
first quadrant.

5. Given that , and x and y are allied angles, calculate

the value of using T-ratio properties.

2.7 Case Study

A renewable energy company intends to put solar panels on a commercial building's

rooftop. To maximise energy efficiency, solar panels must be precisely positioned and
angled. You are responsible for doing trigonometric calculations as part of the
installation crew to find the ideal angles and dimensions for the solar panels. This
includes revising angle measurements, T-ratio addition, subtraction, transformation
equations, and considering T-ratios of numerous and associated angles.

24
The dimensions and specifications of the commercial building and the solar panels are
as follows:
Building height: 20 meters
Width of the rooftop: 10 meters
Solar panel dimensions: 2 meters by 1 meter

1. Calculate the slope or inclination angle at which the solar panels should be
installed to maximize energy absorption.
2. Utilizing trigonometric principles, determine the T-ratios (sine, cosine, and
tangent) for the calculated inclination angle.
3. Explain how the addition, subtraction, and transformation formulae can be
applied to adjust the solar panel angles based on specific requirements or
constraints.

2.8 References

1. Grewal . B.S., ―Elementary Engineering Mathematics‖, Khanna publications 34th

Ed., 2020.
2. Gupta, S. P and Kapoor V.K, Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics, Sultan
Chand and Sons, New Delhi.

25
 UNIT : 3

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Learning Objectives:

 To understand Analytical plane geometry

 To understand the Cartesian coordinates
 To understand the distance between two points
 To understand the area of triangle

Structure:

3.1 Cartesian coordinates

3.2 Distance between two points
3.3 T-ratio of multiple and allied angles
3.4 locus of point
3.5 Straight line
3.6 Slope and intercept form
3.7 General equation of first degree
3.8 Summary
3.9 Keywords
3.10 Self-Assessment Questions
3.11 Case Study
3.12 References

26
3.1 Cartesian coordinates

Analytical plane geometry, or Cartesian coordinates, is a discipline of mathematics

that gives a systematic method for studying and analysing geometric structures on a
two-dimensional plane. It entails representing points, lines, curves, and forms using a
coordinate system known as the Cartesian coordinate system.

An ordered pair (x, y), where x denotes the horizontal location along the x-axis and y
denotes the vertical position along the y-axis, represents each point in the plane in
Cartesian coordinates. The x-axis and y-axis are perpendicular lines that cross at the
origin (0, 0), which acts as the coordinate system's reference point.

Distances, angles, and other geometric features may be precisely measured and
represented using the Cartesian coordinate system. It provides a foundation for
executing numerous geometric operations and transformations.

Concepts in analytical plane geometry using Cartesian coordinates include:

Distance Formula: This formula can be used to determine the separation between
two points, (x₁ , y₁ ) and (x₂ , y₂ ).: √ . This
formula is derived from the Pythagorean theorem and allows us to find the
length of a line segment between two points.

Slope of a Line: Use this formula to find the slope of a line that passes through

two points, The slope indicates the

steepness or inclination of the line and provides information about its

direction.

Equation of a Line:There are other ways to represent the equation of a line: the
point-slope form (y - y₁ = m(x - x₁ )), where (x₁ , y₁ ) is a point on the line,
or the slope-intercept form (y = mx + b), where m is the slope and b is the y-

27
 intercept. We may analyze and characterize the characteristics of lines in the
coordinate plane using these equations.
Midpoint Formula:The midpoint formula can be used to find the midpoint

between two points : ( )The

midpoint (whose coordinates are the average of the x- and y-coordinates)

splits the line segment that connects the two locations into two equal halves.
Transformation: Cartesian coordinates allow for various transformations of
geometric figures, including translations, reflections, rotations, and dilations.
These transformations can be represented algebraically using coordinate
formulas and enable us to manipulate and analyse shapes in the coordinate
plane.

Cartesian coordinates in the analytical plane Geometry is a useful tool for solving
geometric issues, analysing geometric connections, and applying geometry to a
variety of subjects like physics, engineering, computer graphics, and others. It serves
as a fundamental notion in mathematics and acts as the foundation for future research
of higher issues in geometry.

3.2 Distance between two points

Finding the separation between two points in a plane is possible with the distance
formula, which is based on the Pythagorean theorem. Think about the two points (x₁ ,
y₁ ) and (x₂ , y₂ ) that have coordinates. The following formula can be used to
determine the distance, d, between these points:

√
The difference between the two points' x-coordinates is represented by (x2 - x₁ ) in
this formula, while the difference between their y-coordinates is represented by
(y2 - y₁ ). The square of the distance between the spots can be found by squaring and
adding these discrepancies. The real distance can be found by taking the square root
of this total.

28
For example, Let us take two points, A(2, 3) and B(5, 7), We enter the coordinates
into the distance formula to determine the separation between these points:

d = √((5 - 2)² + (7 - 3)²)

= √(3² + 4²)
= √(9 + 16)
= √25
=5

Consequently, there are 5 units separating points A and B.

To determine the separation between any two locations in a plane, using the distance
formula.It gives a quantitative measure of point separation, which is necessary for
many geometric applications. The distance formula is a useful tool in analytical plane
geometry for estimating the length of a line segment, computing the dimensions of a
shape, or addressing real-world problems involving distance.

3.3 T-ratio of multiple and allied angles

Techniques for Calculating a Triangle's Area
There are three ways to find the area of a triangle. The following discusses the three
distinct approaches.

Approach 1: Given the triangle's base and altitude.

The triangle's area, A = bh/2 sq units
where b and h represent the triangle's base and altitude, respectively.

Approach 2: Based on the lengths of its three sides, one can apply Heron's formula to
find a triangle's area.

Thus, the equation is used to get the triangle's area.

29
where s is the semi-perimeter and a, b, and c are the triangle's side lengths.

The value of s can be determined by this formula

Approach 3: We must first determine the lengths of the triangle's three sides if we
know its vertices. You can use the distance formula to find the length.
How to calculate a triangle's area when you know its vertices in the coordinate plane.
Assume that there is a triangle PQR, with the coordinates P, Q, and R being (x1, y1),
(x2, y2), and (x3, y3), respectivly.

Based on the triangle PQR's area in the figure, lines like QA, PB, and RC are drawn
perpendicular to the x-axis from Q, P, and R, respectively.

In the coordinate plane, three distinct trapeziums, such as PQAB, PBCR, and QACR,
have now formed.
Determine each trapezium's area now.
It follows that the formula for calculating the

— (1)

Determining the Trapezium PQAB's Area

We are aware that the formula for calculating a trapezium's area is

Since Area of a trapezium =

30
Area of trapezium PQAB =

QA =

PB =

AB = OB – OA =

Area of trapezium PQAB = — (2)

Finding Area of a Trapezium PBCR

Area of trapezium PBCR =

PB = y1

CR = y3

BC = OC – OB =x3 – x1

Area of trapezium PBCR = — (3)

Finding Area of a Trapezium QACR

Area of trapezium QACR = (1/2) (QA + CR) × AC

QA = y2

CR = y3

AC = OC – OA = x3 – x2

Area of trapezium QACR = —(4)

Substituting (2), (3) and (4) in (1),

Area of ∆PQR = + –
]

Special Case:
The formula below can be used to get the area of a triangle if the origin is one of its
vertices.

31
Area of a triangle with vertices are (0,0), P(a, b), and Q(c, d) is

A = (1/2)[0(b – d) + a(d – 0) + c(0 – b)]

A = (ad – bc)/2

If area of triangle with vertices P(x1, y1), Q(x2, y2) and R(x3, y3) is zero, then (1/2) [x1
(y2 – y3 ) + x2 (y3 – y1 ) + x3(y1 – y2)] = 0 and the points P(x1, y1), Q(x2, y2) and R(x3,
y3)are collinear.

3.4 Locus of Points

The collection of all points that meet a given condition or criterion is referred to as the
locus of points. It aids in describing the path or region that the points take in response
to a certain geometric connection. Equations or criteria that the points must fulfil
determine the location of the points.
In mathematics, a locus is a curve or other shape formed by a point, line, or moving
surface, or by all the points meeting a particular equation of the connection between
the coordinates. All forms, including ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas, and circles, are
defined by the locus as a collection of points.
In real life, you've undoubtedly heard the phrase "location." The word location is the
root of the term locus. Anything's locus is determined by it. An object's location or an
event that takes place there is described by its locus. For instance, the region is now
the center of government opposition.

What is Locus?
A locus is a group of points whose locations are determined by specific restrictions.
Take the Southwest range, which has hosted multiple campaigns for independence, as
an example. In this sense, the locus is defined as the center of any location.

In mathematics, a locus is a collection of points that is represented by a particular

rule, law, or equation.

32
The Locus of Points
In geometry, the locus of points determines a shape. Assume that a circle is the
location of all points that are equidistant from the centre. Similarly, the locus of the
points defines various forms such as an ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, and so on.

Important Locus Theorems

In geometry, six significant locus theorems are well-known. These theorems may
appear complicated at first glance, yet their concepts are simple. Let us go through the
six most significant theorems in depth.

Locus Theorem 1:
The locus is conceptualized as a circle with "p" as its center and "d" as its diameter,
located at a specific distance "d" from a point "p."
The region created by all points that are the same distance apart from a single point
can be found with the help of this theorem.
Locus Theorem 2:
A pair of parallel lines on either side of "m" at a distance "d" from the line "m" is the
definition of the locus at a given distance "d" from the line "m."
This theorem helps find the area generated by each point put at an equal distance from
a single line.
Locus Theorem 3:
The loci that are perpendicular bisectors of the line segment that connects two
locations, let's say A and B, are considered to be equally spaced from each other.
By applying this theorem, one can determine the region made up of all points that are
the same distance from points A and B. The perpendicular bisector of line segment
AB should be the produced region.
Locus Theorem 4:
A locus is considered to be parallel to both lines if it is equally spaced from them,
such as m1 and m2. It should be located midway between them.
The application of this theorem allows one to determine the region comprised of all
points that are equally spaced from two parallel lines.

33
Locus Theorem 5:
The point that lies inside an angle and is equally spaced from its sides is known as the
bisector of an angle.
This theorem allows one to determine the area generated by all points equally spaced
from both sides of an angle. The region must divide the angle in half.

Locus Theorem 6:
A pair of lines that bisects the angle created by the two intersecting lines, m1 and m2,
is defined as the locus that is equidistant from them.
The area formed by all points positioned at equal distances from the two crossing
lines can be found with the help of this theorem. Two lines that split the generated
angle should represent the created area.

3.5 Straight Line

When studying geometric shapes and their attributes, an understanding of the straight
line is essential. The shortest path between two places is a straight line, which can be
expressed in a number of ways using different mathematical representations.
Slope-Intercept Form:
One common way to describe a straight line is using the slope-intercept form, which
is Y = mx + b. In this form, m represents the line's slope, which indicates how steep or
incline it is, and b represents the y-intercept, or the point where the line crosses the y-
axis.
Point-Slope Form:
The equation provides the point-slope form, which is an
additional illustration of a straight line. In this case, m denotes the line's slope and
denotes a point on the line.
General Form:
The general form of a straight line equation is , where A, B, and C
are constants. This form allows for a more flexible representation of lines, including
vertical lines and lines with undefined slopes.
Slope-Intercept Equation:

34
A straight line' slope and intercept are represented by the equation , in
which m stands for the line's slope and b for the y-intercept. Finding the link between
the variables x and y is one usage for this form.
Properties of Straight Lines:

Parallel Lines:If two lines do not intersect and have the same slope, they are said
to be parallel. It is simple to ascertain whether two lines are parallel using the
slope-intercept form.
Perpendicular Lines:The slope of a line perpendicular to another line is equal to
its negative reciprocal, and two lines are perpendicular if the product of their
slopes equals -1.
Distance between a Point and a Line: The distance between a point and
a line is given by the formula

d=| |/√
Analysing straight lines involves studying their slope, intercepts, intersections, and
other geometric properties. These concepts are essential in various areas, such as
coordinate geometry, calculus, physics, and engineering, as they provide a foundation
for understanding and solving problems involving linear relationships and motion in
the plane.

3.6 Slope and Intercept Form

The slope-intercept form is a commonly utilized depiction for the equation of a linear
function. It offers important details regarding the line's y-intercept and slope. The
equation , where m is the line's slope and b is its y-intercept, yields the
slope-intercept form of a line.
Slope (m):
The steepness or inclination of a line is determined by its slope. For each unit increase
in the x-coordinate, it shows the amount that the y-coordinate changes. The ratio of
the vertical change (rise) to the horizontal change (run) between any two locations on
the line is known as the slope. Slope (m) can be found mathematically as follows:

, where and are any two points on the line.

35
Properties of the slope:
An upward or rising line is shown by a positive slope (m > 0).
A downhill or falling line is shown by a negative slope (m < 0).
A horizontal line is represented with a slope of zero (m = 0).
A vertical line is represented by an undefinable slope.
Y-Intercept (b):

The point on the y-axis where the line intersects is known as the y-intercept. The
constant term "b" in the equation represents the y-intercept in the slope-
intercept form. When x = 0, it indicates the y-coordinate of the place on the y-axis
where the line crosses.
We can graph a line and find its equation with ease by using the slope and y-intercept.
We may plot the y-intercept as a point on the y-axis and use the slope to locate further
points on the line given the slope and the y-intercept . We may create the line
graph by joining these points.
The slope-intercept form comes in handy especially when:
 Calculating a slope of line and y-intercept.
 Plotting the y-intercept and utilizing the slope to discover additional points
allows you to graph lines.
 Examining the correlation between variables x and y.
 Resolving issues in physics, engineering, and economics that include linear
equations and lines.
Understanding the slope-intercept form allows us to interpret the properties and
characteristics of a straight line, including its direction, steepness, and intersection
with the y-axis. It provides a versatile tool for representing and analysing linear
relationships in analytical plane geometry.

3.7 General equation of first degree

A generic first-degree equation can be used to represent a straight line. Whereas x and
y are the variables that represent a point's coordinates on the line, A, B, and C are
constants. This is the equation's expression: .
Here's a detailed explanation of the general equation of the first degree:

36
 1. Coefficients A, B, and C:
The coefficients A, B, and C in the equation determine the
properties and characteristics of the line. They represent the constants that define the
line's position and orientation in the coordinate plane.

2. A and B coefficients:
The coefficients A and B in the equation represent the slope of the line. More
specifically, the negative ratio A/B gives the slope of the line. The sign of the
coefficients determines the direction of the line:
 An upward-sloping line from left to right is represented by a positive value of
A
 An downward-sloping line from left to right is represented by a negative value
of A.
 An upward-sloping line from bottom to top is represented by a positive
number for B, and a downward-sloping line from bottom to top is represented
by a negative value for B.

3. C coefficient:
The C coefficient in the equation is the constant term. It affects the position of the line
relative to the origin (0, 0) and the distance of the line from the origin. The value of C
determines the line's intercept with the y-axis. Specifically, C/B gives the y-intercept
of the line.
Properties and applications of the general equation of the first degree:

● Intercepts: The equation allows us to determine the x-intercept and y-intercept

of the line by setting either x or y to zero and solving for the other variable.

● Slope: The equation allows us to find the slope of the line by comparing the
coefficients A and B.

● Parallel and perpendicular lines: Two lines with the same coefficients A and B
are parallel, while two lines with negative reciprocal coefficients (-B and A)
are perpendicular.

● Distance between a point and a line: Using the formula, one may determine
the distance between a and the line .

37
d=| |/√

The general equation of the first degree is a powerful tool in analytical plane
geometry, allowing us to represent and analyse straight lines. By examining the
coefficients and understanding their significance, we can gain insights into the line's
slope, intercepts, and relationship with other lines.

3.8 Summary
Geometric figures and shapes in a plane are studied using Cartesian coordinates in
analytical plane geometry, also referred to as coordinate geometry. It covers ideas like
utilizing the distance formula to determine the separation between two places.
The area of a triangle can be calculated using specific formulas based on the
coordinates of its vertices. The locus of a point refers to the set of all points that
satisfy a given condition. Straight lines can be represented by equations in slope-
intercept form or the general equation of the first degree. These concepts and formulas
are essential tools for analysing and understanding geometric properties in coordinate
geometry.

3.9 Keywords

● Cartesian Coordinates: The x- and y-axes, two perpendicular number lines,

are used to represent points in a plane in a system known as cartesian
coordinates. An ordered pair (x, y) that denotes the horizontal distance from
the y-axis and the vertical distance from the x-axis is used to represent each
point. In analytical plane geometry, cartesian coordinates offer a foundation
for exact position and measurement.

● Distance Formula: A mathematical technique called the "distance formula"

can be used to determine the separation between two points in a plane. The
formula for it is √ , where and are
the coordinates of the two points. It is derived from the Pythagorean theorem.
The distance formula is a vital tool for the analysis of geometric figures and

38
 shapes because it makes it possible to calculate the straight-line distance
between two locations in a coordinate system.

3.10 Self-Assessment Questions

In a Cartesian coordinate system, how far are the points (3, 4) and (-2, 6) apart?
Determine the area in a coordinate plane of a triangle whose vertices are at (1, 2), (4, -
1), and (-2, 3).
Determine the locus of points equidistant from the lines x=2 and y= -3 in a Cartesian
coordinate system.
In slope-intercept form, write the equation of the straight line that passes through the
points (2,5) and (4,9)
For the line with a slope of -2 and a y-intercept of 4, find the general equation of the
first degree.

3.11 Case Study

A city's urban planning department is designing a new public park. The design of the
park includes complicated geometric shapes and dimensions. As a part of the planning
team, you are responsible for precisely determining the coordinates, distances, areas,
and equations of different geometric features inside the park using analytical plane
geometry techniques. Cartesian coordinates, calculating distances between points,
finding triangular areas, identifying point loci, analysing straight lines using slope and
intercept form, and comprehending the general equation of the first degree are all
covered. The coordinates of three key points in the park: A(2, 4), B(6, 1), and C(8, 5).

1. calculate the distances between these points using the distance formula in
Cartesian coordinates.
2. Determine the area of the triangle formed by points A, B, and C using the
Shoelace formula or any other applicable method.
3. Discuss how the loci of points can be utilized to identify specific areas within
the park that satisfy certain geometric conditions or design requirements.

39
3.12 References
1. Grewal . B.S., ―Elementary Engineering Mathematics‖, Khanna
publications 34th Ed., 2020.
2. Gupta, S. P and Kapoor V.K, Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics,
Sultan Chand and Sons, New Delhi.

40
 UNIT : 4

LIMIT & FUNCTION

Learning Objectives:

 To understand Limit of functions

 To understand the differential coefficient,
 To understand differentiation of standard functions

Structure:

4.1 Limit of functions

4.2 Differential coefficient,
4.3 differentiation of standard functions
4.4 Summary
4.5 Keywords
4.6 Self-Assessment Questions
4.7 Case Study
4.8 References

41
4.1 Limit of functions
In differential calculus, the limit of a function is a fundamental concept to describe
behaviour of a function at a specific value. A limit is denoted using notation
"lim(x→c) f(x) = L," where f(x) is the function, c is the value the input is
approaching, and L is the limit value.
To calculate the limit of a function, consider values of function as the input
approaches the given value. Here are some common types of limits and their
evaluation methods:
Finite Limits:
Direct Substitution: If substituting the value of c into the function gives a finite value,
then that value is the limit.
Example: lim(x→3) (2x - 1) = 2(3) - 1 = 5.
Factorization and Simplification: Factor or simplify the expression and evaluate the
limit.
Example: lim(x→2) (x^2 - 4) / (x - 2) = lim(x→2) (x + 2) = 4.
Infinite Limits:
Division by Zero: If the function approaches infinity or negative infinity as the
denominator approaches zero, then the limit is infinite.
Example: lim(x→0) 1/x = ∞ (approaches positive infinity).

Vertical Asymptotes: If the function tends to positive or negative infinite then the
limit is infinite.
Example: lim(x→∞) (2x + 1) = ∞ (approaches positive infinity).
Limits at Infinity:
Horizontal Asymptotes: If the function approaches a specific value as the input goes
to positive or negative infinity, then that value is the limit.
Example: lim(x→∞) (3x^2 + 2x - 1) / (2x^2 - x + 1) = 3/2 (approaches 3/2).
Trigonometric Limits:
Special Limits: Certain trigonometric limits have specific values.
Example: lim(x→0) sin(x) / x = 1 (Squeeze theorem).

42
These are just a few examples of the methods used to evaluate limits. In practice,
there are various algebraic techniques, rules, and theorems that aid in evaluating limits
of more complex functions.

4.2 Differential coefficient

In differential calculus, the differential coefficient, measures the changes of function
with respect to its input variable. It denoted slope of the tangent line tograph of
function at specific point. The first differentiation denoted as f'(x), dy/dx, or df/dx.
The first differentiation of a function f(x.) is defined as:
f'(x.) = lim(h.→0) [f(x + h) - f(x)] / h
This represents immediate rate of change of f(x) at a specific of x. The difference
quotient (f(x + h) - f(x)) / h captures mean rate of change over a small interval, taking
the limit as h approaches zero gives exact rate of change at exact point.
To obtain the derivative of function, we can use various techniques, including:
Power Rule: For f(x) = ax^n, where a is constant and n is numeral, first differentiation
as f'(x) = anx^(n-1).
Ex.: If f(x.) = 5x^4  f'(x) = 6x.
Sum/Difference rule: For functions that are sums or differences of two or more
functions, first differentiation of function is the sum or difference of the
derivatives of each distinct function.
Ex.: If f(x.) = 8x^5 + 4x^3 - 5x, then f'(x.) = 4x^3 + 8x - 5.
Product Rule: For functions that are products of two or more functions, the first
differentiation obtains by product rule, in which differentiation of product of 2
functions as u(x.) and v(x.) is u'(x.)v(x.) + u(x)v'(x).
Ex.: If f(x.) = (2.x^2).(3.x), then f'(x) = (2)(3x) + (2x^2)(3) = 6x + 6x^2.
Quotient Rule: For functions that are ratios of two functions, the first
differentiationobtain using the quotient rule, in which differentiation of quotient of
2 functions as u(x) and v(x) is (u'(x).v(x) - u(x).v'(x)) / (v(x))^2.
Ex.: If f(x.) = (5x^2) / (2x), then f'(x.) = [(2)(3x) - (3x^2)(1)] / (2x)^2 = (6x - 3x^2) /
(4x^2).
Chain Rule: For functions that are structures of two or more functions, the derivative
can be found using chain rule, which differentiate of f(g(x)) is f'(g(x)) * g'(x).

43
Example: For f(x) = sin(x2) f'(x) = cos(x2)*2x

4.3 Differentiation of standard functions

Differentiation use to obtain the differentiation of a function. Here, I will provide the
differentiation formulas for some standard functions:
Constant Function: First Differentiation of constant function f(x.) = c is zero,
when c is constant.
Example: If f(x) = 5, then f'(x) = 0.
Power Rule: let f(x) = xn, where n is numeral, first differentiation is given by f'(x)
= nx(n-1).
Example: For f(x) = x3 f'(x) = 3x2.
Exponential Function: The differentiation of the exponential f(x) = ex, is equal to the
function itself.
Example: If f(x) = e^x, then f'(x) = e^x.
Natural Logarithm Function: The differentiation of the natural logarithm f(x) =
ln(x),x is positive numeral, is as f'(x) = 1/x.
Example: If f(x) = ln(x), then f'(x) = 1/x.
Trigonometric Functions:
Sine Function: First differentiation of the sine function f(x.) = sin(x.) is given by f'(x)
= cos(x).
Ex.: If f(x.) = sin(x.), then f'(x.) = cos(x).
Cosine Function: First differentiation of the cosine function f(x.) = cos(x) as
specified f'(x.) = -sin(x).
Example: If f(x) = cos(x), then f'(x) = -sin(x).
Tangent Function: 1st differentiation of the tangent f(x.) = tan(x) as specified f'(x)
= Sec2(x), where Sec(x.) represents the secant function.
Ex.:
Chain Rule
The chain ruleallows us to differentiate compound functions. It is used when we have
a function within another function.
Letcompositefunctionf[g(x)], with g(x) function of x and f(u) function of u. First
differentiation of f(g(x)) regards to x, using chain rule given as:

44
f'(g(x)) * g'(x)
Here's an example to illustrate the chain rule:
Let the f(x) = (2x + 1)^3. We can write it as f(u) = u^3, where u = 2x + 1. Now, let's
differentiate f(x) by use of chain rule:
Step 1: The derivative of f(u) = u^3f'(u) = 3u^2.
Step 2: Evaluate derivative of inner function u = 2x + 1 with respect to x. We get
du/dx = 2.
Step 3: Apply the chain rule formula: f'(x) = f'(u) * du/dx.
Substituting the values we found in steps 1 and 2, we get:
f'(x) = 3u^2 * 2
Now, substitute the value of u back into the expression:
f'(x) = 3(2x + 1)^2 * 2
Simplifying further, we obtain:

So, derivative of
The chain rule provides us to differentiate the function that involve compositions of
other functions. It is a powerful tool in calculus that helps us handle more complex
functions and analyse their rates of change. By understanding and applying the chain
rule, we can find the derivatives of functions with nested functions, exponential
functions, trigonometric functions, and more.

4.4 Summary
Differential calculus is a field of mathematics that studies derivatives and their
applications. It is an effective technique for determining the rate of changes and the
attributes of function.
The limit of a function is the first essential idea in differential calculus. The limit of a
function indicates the function's behaviour when the input approaches a specific
value. It is symbolised by the symbol "lim" and is stated in terms of the function's
values when the input approaches the provided value arbitrarily near. Limits enable us
to investigate the behaviour of functions at certain points and establish their continuity
and differentiability.

45
The differential coefficient, commonly known as the derivative, is the next crucial
notion. The derivative is represented by several notations, including f'(x), dy/dx, and
df/dx. It may be calculated using formulae and rules tailored to various sorts of
functions.
Finding the derivatives of fundamental functions like polynomials, exponential
functions, logarithmic functions, and trigonometric functions is what differentiation of
standard functions entails. Each function type has its own set of differentiation rules
and formulae.By using the proper rule depending on the function's form, we may get
the derivative of any given function.
The chain rule is an important idea in differential calculus since it allows differentiate
composite functions. It is used when one function is contained ineach other.

4.5 Keywords
Limit of functions: Represents behaviour of the function as the input approaches a
particular value. It is a fundamental concept in differential calculus and is denoted by
the symbol "lim". The limit allows us to analyse the behaviour of functions near
certain points and determine their continuity and differentiability.
Chain rule:The "chain rule" typically refers to fundamental rule, which is used for
evaluation the differentiation of composite functions. However, there isn't a specific
"chain rule of differential equations" in the same sense.
In the context of differential equations, the chain rule from calculus is often used
when dealing with functions of functions, particularly when solving ordinary or
partial differential equations involving compositions of functions.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Evaluate the limit of f(x) = (5x^3 + 7x - 3)/(5x + 2)?
2. Evaluate value of x for which f(x) = x^2 - 3x + 2 has a maximum or minimum.
3. Evaluate 2ndderivative of function f(x) = Sin(2x) + Cos(x.).

46
 4. Describe differentiation of f(x) = (2x^3 + 1)^4 by using chain rule.
5. Evaluate the derivative of f(x) = 5x2 - 2x3 + 5x - 6.

4.7 Case Study

A manufacturing business wants to optimize its production process to increase
efficiency and reduce expenses. A mathematician specializing in differential calculus
to analyse the company's operations and give ideas for improvement. It is required to
discover essential areas, determine maximum and minimum values, and find the best
operating conditions for the firm by using differential calculus principles like
derivatives and optimization procedures. The cost function associated with the
production process is written as:
C(x) = 5000 + 100x - 2x2
where x represents quantity of products produced.

Questions:
1. Calculate derivative of cost function w. r. to x and explain the significance.
2. Determine critical points of cost function and discuss their implications for the
production process.
Utilizing differential calculus, find the optimal quantity of products that
minimizes the production cost and calculate the corresponding cost value.

4.8 References
1. Grewal . B.S., ―Elementary Engineering Mathematics‖, Khanna
publications 34th Ed., 2020.
2. Gupta, S. P and Kapoor V.K, Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics,
Sultan Chand and Sons, New Delhi.

47
 UNIT : 5

DERIVATIVES

Learning Objectives:

 To understand differentiation of implicit functions

 To understand the logarithmic differentiation
 To understand parametric differentiation
 To understand successive differentiation

Structure:
5.1 differentiation of implicit functions
5.2 logarithmic differentiation
5.3 parametric differentiation
5.4 successive differentiation
5.5 Summary
5.6 Keywords
5.7 Self-Assessment Questions
5.8 Case Study
5.9 References

48
5.1 Differentiation of implicit functions

Implicit differentiation is a method used to find derivatives of functions defined

implicitly rather than explicitly. It contains differentiation eachsides of an equation
with regards to independent variable.
To differentiate an implicit function, we follow these steps:
Step 1: Identify the dependent and independent variables.
Step 2: Differentiate the equation regards to independent variable.
Step 3: Assume dependent variable as independent variable function.
In the differentiation process, we assume y = g(x), where g(x) represents the function
of y in terms of x.

Step 4: Apply the chain rule where necessary.

Step 5: Group terms containing the derivative of the dependent variable.
After differentiating both sides of the equation and applying the chain rule, we
rearrange the equation to isolate the terms containing the derivative of the dependent
variable (dy/dx).
Step 6: Solve the resulting equation for the derivative.
Finally, we solve the resulting equation to find the value of the derivative, dy/dx.
It's important to note that differentiating implicit functions can be more complex than
explicit functions since we have to consider the relationship between variables in the
equation. It may require algebraic manipulation and application of rules of
differentiation to obtain the derivative.

5.2 Logarithmic differentiation

Logarithmic differentiation is utilisedfor differentiating the functions by takingnatural
logarithm in eachsides of an equation, then differentiating implicitly, which can
simplify the process, especially when dealing with complex functions or products.

49
Logarithmic Differentiation Formula

5.3 Parametric differentiation

Parametric differentiation involves finding derivatives of parametric equations, where

both x and y (or more variables) are expressed separately as functions of a third
variable, typically denoted as t. It's useful for analyzing curves and surfaces defined
parametrically.

To differentiate a parametric equation, we follow these steps:

Step 1: Express x and y in terms of the parameter t.

50
Givesparametric equations:

Step 2: Obtain derivative of x and y individually with regards t.

Differentiate both x and y with respect to t using the rules of differentiation. Treat x
and y as separate functions of t.
Step 3: Compute dy/dx.
To find the derivative dy/dx, divide the derivative of y by the derivative of x:
dy/dx = (dy/dt) / (dx/dt)
Step 4: Simplify the expression.
After computing dy/dx, simplify the resulting expression by combining like terms and
applying any algebraic simplifications.
The derivative of a parametric curve with respect to the parameter t may be found via
metric differentiation. This is useful when dealing with curves that cannot be
described simply as functions of x or y. We may discover how the slope of the curve
varies as we go along the parameter t by decomposing x and y independently and then
determining dy/dx. This approach is extensively used in physics, engineering, and
other areas to analyse and characterise object motion and curve behaviour.

5.4 Successive Differentiation

Successive differentiation, also known as higher-order differentiation, refers to
calculate derivatives of function multiple times. It involves taking derivative of
function repeatedly, resulting in higher-order derivatives.
To perform successive differentiation, we follow these steps:
Step 1: Start with the original function.
Consider a function f(x) that we want to differentiate.
Step 2: Obtain first differentiation.
Obtain first derivative of f(x) regards x. This gives new f(x), which we denote as f'(x)
or dy/dx.
Step 3: Repeat the process for higher-order derivatives.

51
Continue taking derivatives of the function obtained in the previous step. Each time,
we differentiate with respect to x. The 2nd differentiation as f''(x) or d^2y/dx^2, the
3rdderivative as f'''(x) or d^3y/dx^3, and so on.
Step 4: Analyse the higher-order derivatives.
Once we have obtained higher-order derivatives, we can analyse the properties of the
function based on these derivatives. For example, we can determine the concavity and
inflection points of the function using the second derivative test.
Successive differentiation is useful in a variety of applications, including
optimization, curve drawing, and Taylor series expansion. It gives more precise
information about a function's behaviour, allowing us to examine its rate of change
and curvature at various points. By locating higher-order derivatives, we gain insight
into the function's local and global behaviour and can make more accurate predictions
about its properties.

5.5 Summary
Differentiation is a fundamental topic in calculus that involves determining a
function's rate of change. While traditional differentiation techniques are usually
employed for explicit functions, there are a number of specialised approaches
available for dealing with more complicated circumstances. Differentiation of implicit
functions, logarithmic differentiation, parametric differentiation, and sequential
differentiation are four such approaches.

When a function is not explicitly specified in terms of a dependent variable, implicit

function differentiation is utilised. It is instead presented as an equation that includes
both the dependent and independent variables. Each sidesin equation, differentiating
regard to independent variable by using chain rule to obtain derivative of dependent
variable are both steps in the procedure.

When working with functions including products, quotients, or powers, logarithmic

differentiation is a technique used to simplify differentiation. We may utilise the
principles of logarithms to change an equation into a form that is easier to distinguish
by convert in logarithm ofeachsides. We can reconstruct original function by
exponentiating both sides after getting the derivative.

52
When a function is defined parametrically, meaning it is stated in terms of one or
more parameters, parametric differentiation is used. We may obtain the differentiation
of dependent variables in regard to independent variable by differentiating each
parameter with respect to the independent variable and applying the chain rule.

The process of obtaining higher-order derivatives of a function is referred to as

successive differentiation. It entails taking numerous derivatives of a function to
generate second, third, and higher-order derivatives. Higher-order derivatives reveal
more about the function's behaviour and features, such as concavity and inflection
points.

These specialised procedures broaden our differentiation scope, allowing us to handle

more complicated tasks and circumstances. They are useful for addressing issues
involving implicit equations, simplifying difficult functions, dealing with parametric
equations, and analysing higher-order function behaviour. We may obtain deeper
insights into the behaviour of functions and solve a larger range of mathematical
issues by learning and implementing these strategies.

5.6 Keywords
 Implicit Differentiation
 Logarithmic Differentiation

Self-Assessment Questions
1. In x^2 + y^2 = 25, find dy/dx using implicit differentiation.
2. Given the equation y = e^(2x^2), use logarithmic differentiation to find dy/dx.
3. Consider the parametric equations x = 2t^2 and y = 3t + 1. Find dy/dx using
parametric differentiation.
4. Obtain second differentiation of f(x) = 7x^5 - 3x^2 + 5x^3 - 9x + 2 using
successive differentiation.
5. Given the equation x^2 + y^3 - 4xy = 6, use implicit differentiation to find
dy/dx.

53
5.8 Case Study
X works as a manager for a company that manufactures cylindrical cans. The
company seeks to maximize can volume while minimizing the quantity of material
needed in manufacture. The cans have a constant height of 10 centimeters, and the
radius of the can be adjusted.
Questions:

1. Using the formula for the volume of the cylindrical can, V = πr^2h, derive
an expression for the radius that maximizes the volume while keeping the
height fixed at 10 centimeters. Apply implicit differentiationto obtain
critical points and check it is maximum or minimum.
2. Suppose, manufacturing company decides to change the height of the
cylindrical cans from 10 centimeters to 12 centimeters. Using the
logarithmic differentiation technique, calculate ratio changes involume of
the cans as outcome of this height adjustment.
3. A parametric equation x = rcos(t) &y = rsin(t) for curve of cylindrical
cans, obtain an expression for curvature in standing of r, t, & their
derivatives. Evaluate the curvature at a specific point on the curve to
measure rate of change of curvature relating to the radius.

5.9 References
1. Grewal . B.S., ―Elementary Engineering Mathematics‖, Khanna publications
34th Ed., 2020.
2. Gupta, S. P and Kapoor V.K, Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics, Sultan
Chand and Sons, New Delhi.

54
 UNIT : 6

INTEGRATION

Learning Objectives:

 To understand Integration as inverse of differentiation

 To understand integration by parts, by partial and by substitution
 To understand formal evaluation of definite integrals

Structure:
6.1 Integration as inverse of differentiation
6.2 Indefinite integrals of standard forms
6.3 Integration by parts
6.4 Integration by partial and by substitution
6.5 Formal evaluation of definite integrals
6.6 Summary
6.7 Keywords
6.8 Self-Assessment Questions
6.9 Case Study
6.10 References

55
6.1 Integration as inverse of differentiation

56
57
6.2 Indefinite integrals of standard forms

58
59
60
61
6.3 Integration by Parts

62
 .

63
6.4 Integration by partial and by substitution

64
65
Integration by the Partial Fractions Method

66
67
68
6.5 Formal evaluation of definite integral

A definite integral is a specific type of integral that involves the evaluation of a

function over a given interval. It is characterised by having both the upper and lower
limits of integration specified. The interval, denoted as [a, b], represents the range
over which the function is integrated. The definite integral is also referred to as the
Riemann integral, named after the mathematician Bernhard Riemann who made
significant contributions to the theory of integration.

The definite integral has numerous applications across various fields, including
physics, engineering, economics, and probability. It is used to calculate areas,
determine the total accumulated quantity, find the average value of a function, and
solve various real-life problems. By computing the definite integral, we gain precise
information about the behaviour and properties of functions within a specific interval,
enabling us to make accurate mathematical predictions and analyses.

69
70
71
72
73
6.6 Summary
Integral Calculus addresses the process of learning integration, which is
differentiation inverted. It is concerned with determining anti-derivatives and
assessing definite integrals. Fundamental concepts in Integral Calculus include
integration as a reverse of differentiation, indefinite integrals of standard forms,
integration by parts, partial fractions, substitution, and the formal evaluation of
definite integrals.
Ruling the anti-derivative of a function is what integration as the inverse of
differentiation entails. By integrating, we may reconstruct the original function from
its derivative. The indefinite integral symbol represents this operation, and the anti-
derivative is derived by adding an integration constant.
The integration of common functions is referred to as indefinite integrals of standard
forms. For integrating standard forms, well-known formulas exist, such as power,
exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, and inverse trigonometric functions. These
formulae give a methodical approach to locating anti-derivatives.
Integration by parts is a technique for combining the results of two functions. It is
depended on the multiple rule of differentiation and entails choosing one function as
and the other as then using the integration by parts procedure to produce the integral.
Integration by partial fractions is a process for breaking down a rational function into
smaller fractions. When integrating rational functions with denominators that may be
factored into linear or quadratic terms, this approach comes in handy.
Integration by substitution, also identified as variable change, is the progression of
replacing a new variable in an integral to simplify its form. This approach allows the
integral to be transformed into a known form or a complex integral to be reduced to a
simpler one.
Calculating the value of a definite integral over a specified interval is what formal
evaluation of definite integrals entails. This is accomplished by determining the
function's anti-derivative and evaluating it at the upper limit and lower limit of
integration, then subtracting the two results to produce the numerical value of the
definite integral.

74
6.7 Keywords
 Anti-derivative: The anti-derivative, also recognized as the indefinite
integral, is the reverse procedure of differentiation. It represents the original
function from which the derivative is obtained.

 Integration Techniques: Integration techniques refer to various methods used

to evaluate integrals, for example integration by parts, by partial fractions, and
by replacement. These techniques provide tools for solving a wide range of
integration problems.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Evaluate the indefinite integral of the function .
2. Apply integration by parts to evaluate the definite integral over the
interval [0, 1].
3. Find the indefinite integral of the function .
4. Use the method of partial fractions to evaluate the definite integral
over the interval [-2, 2].
5. Apply the substitution method to evaluate the definite integral
√ over the interval [-1, 2].

6.9 Case Study

X is a civil engineer entrusted with creating a river bridge. To ensure the bridge's
safety, X must calculate the overall area of a portion of the riverbed. X has collected
data points reflecting water depth at regular intervals along the river. The area under
the curve created by these data points is the task of X.

Question:
1. Let's assume you have obtained the following data points representing the depth
of the water in meters at 1-meter intervals along the river:
How can you use integration to
calculate the total area under the curve formed by these data points?

75
 2. Using the data points mentioned above, apply the definite integral to calculate
the total area under the curve from to . Show your step-by-step
calculation process.
3. In the scenario of designing the bridge, why is it necessary to compute the area
covering by the curve? How does this calculation help in ensuring the safety
of the bridge?

References
1. Grewal . B.S., ―Elementary Engineering Mathematics‖, Khanna publications
34th Ed., 2020.
2. Kline, M. (2020). Calculus: An Intuitive and Physical Approach (Second
Edition). United States: Dover Publications.
3. Courant, R. (1988). Differential and Integral Calculus, Volume 1. United
Kingdom: Wiley.

76
 UNIT : 7

FIRST ORDER AND FIRST DEGREE DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS

Learning Objectives:

 To understand Differential equations

 To understand Equations of first order and first degree
 To understand variable separable differentiation

Structure:

7.1 Differential equations.

7.2 Definition and construction of ordinary differential equations.
7.3 Eq. of first order and first degree.
7.4 Variable.separable.differentiation.
7.5 Outline.
7.6 Keywords.
7.7 Self-Assessment. Questions.
7.8 Case Study.
7.9 References.

77
7.1 Differential equations.

Order of Dfferential equations.

78
First Order Differential equations.

79
Second-Order Differential equations

7.2 Definition.and formation of ordinary differential equations.

80
Example of a simple ordinary differential equation:

7.3.Eq. of first order and first degree.

81
7.4 Variable.separable.

82
83
84
85
7.5 Summary.
Differential equations are mathematical formulas that use derivatives to explain the
relationship between a function and its derivatives. Ordinary differential equations
(ODEs) are used to solve functions with a single variable. ODEs are created by
expressing the derivatives of an unknown function in terms of the independent
variable and the function itself. ODEs of first order and first degree involve the first
derivative of an unknown function. Variable separable is a method for solving ODEs
in which the variables may be separated on either side of the problem. It entails
decoupling the variables, integrating both sides, and arriving at a general solution.

7.6 Keywords.
1. rdinary ifferential equations ODEs): equations in mathematics that deal
with derivatives and explain how a function and its derivatives are related.
2. Variable separable: A technique used to solve ODEs where the variables can
be separated on either side of the equation.

7.7 Self-Assessment Questions.

86
7.8 Case Study.
A is a biologist who is researching the population dynamics of a certain species in an
ecosystem. The species' population is influenced by a variety of factors, including
birth rate, mortality rate, and accessible resources. Your objective is to use differential
equations to simulate population increase and analyse population behaviour over time.

Question

1. Given the birth rate of the species as 0.05 individuals per day and the mortality
rate as 0.03 individuals per day, calculate the net population growth rate per
day.
2. Suppose the accessible resources for the species decrease over time, causing a
decline in the birth rate from 0.05 to 0.03 individuals per day. If the mortality
rate remains constant at 0.03 individuals per day, calculate the new net
population growth rate and the equilibrium population size assuming the birth
and mortality rates remain constant.

References
1. Grewal . B.S., ―Elementary Engineering Mathematics‖, Khanna publications
34th Ed., 2020.
2. Gupta, S. P and Kapoor V.K, Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics, Sultan
Chand and Sons, New Delhi.

87
 UNIT : 8

HOMOGENOUS AND NON-HOMOGENOUS DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATIONS

Learning Objectives:

 To understand Homogeneous equations

 To understand nonhomogeneous equations
 To understand linear equations
 To understand differential equations

Structure:

8.1 Homogeneous.Equations
8.2 Non-homogeneous equations
8.3 Linear differential equations.
8.4 Summary.
8.5 Keywords.
8.6 Self-Assessment. Questions.
8.7 Case. Study.
8.8 References.

88
 8.1 Homogeneous equations
A linear differential equation of the form:

is called a homogeneous linear differential equation because the right-hand side is

zero. If the right-hand side were a non-zero function of xxx, it would be a non-
homogeneous linear differential equation.
Example

8.2 Non-homogeneous equations

A linear non-homogeneous differential equation has the general form:

Where g(x) is a non-zero function.

Example:

89
90
91
8.3 Linear.Differential equations.
Linear differential equations are a fundamental concept in mathematics and physics, particularly in the
study of dynamical systems and modeling natural phenomena. A linear differential equation is an
equation that is linear in the unknown function and its derivatives. It can be expressed in the general
form:

Where y is the unknown function of x, y′ denotes the derivative of y with respect to x,

and g(x) is a given function of x. The coefficients an(x),an−1(x),…,a1(x),a0(x) can be
functions of x but are assumed to be continuous.
Types of Linear Differential Equations
Ordinary Linear Differential Equations (ODEs)
In the case where the unknown function depends on a single independent variable, x,
the differential equation is called an ordinary linear differential equation (ODE).
Ordinary differential equations arise in many areas of science and engineering,
describing phenomena ranging from population growth to the behavior of electrical
circuits.
Example:

Partial Linear Differential Equations (PDEs)

When the unknown function depends on multiple independent variables, the equation
becomes a partial linear differential equation (PDE). These are often used to model
physical systems where the behavior of the system depends on multiple spatial or
temporal dimensions.
Example

Methods for Solving Linear Differential Equations

1. Method of Undetermined Coefficients: This method is applicable to linear
differential equations with constant coefficients and a right-hand side that is a

92
 polynomial, exponential, sine, cosine, or a linear combination of these
functions.
2. Variation of Parameters: This method is used for solving non-homogeneous
linear differential equations. It involves finding a particular solution by
varying the parameters in the general solution of the corresponding
homogeneous equation.
3. Method of Integrating Factors: This method is used to solve first-order
linear ordinary differential equations. It involves multiplying both sides of the
equation by an integrating factor to make the left-hand side a perfect
differential, thus simplifying the integration process.

Solved examples:

93
94
8.4 Summary
Understanding whether a differential equation is homogeneous or non-homogeneous
is crucial for selecting the appropriate solution technique. Homogeneous equations
have solutions that are directly related to the structure of the equation, while non-
homogeneous equations require additional terms to be considered, making their
solutions more complex.

8.5 Keywords
 Linear
 Constant coefficients
 Characteristic roots
 Zero right-hand side
 Non-homogeneous
 Non-linear
 Particular solution

8.6 Self-Assessment Questions

Q1. How are the solutions of homogeneous linear differential equations affected
by changes in initial conditions?
Q2. Can you explain the significance of characteristic roots in solving
homogeneous linear differential equations?
Q3. What methods can be employed to solve homogeneous differential equations
with variable coefficients?
Q4. What role does the method of undetermined coefficients play in solving non-
homogeneous differential equations?
Q5. What distinguishes non-homogeneous linear differential equations from their
homogeneous counterparts?

8.7 Case Study:

Imagine you are tasked with modeling the growth of a population of rabbits in a
controlled environment, such as a wildlife reserve. The population dynamics of the

95
rabbits are influenced by various factors, including birth rate, death rate, and
interactions with the environment.
Question: Decide to model the population of rabbits using a differential equation,
considering both homogeneous and non-homogeneous scenarios to account for
different factors.

8.8 References
1. Grewal . B.S., ―Elementary Engineering Mathematics‖, Khanna publications
34th Ed., 2015.
2. Gupta, S. P and Kapoor V.K, Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics, Sultan
Chand and Sons, New Delhi.

96
 UNIT : 9

CENTRAL TENDENCY

Learning Objectives:

 To understand Measure of central tendency

 To understand GM and H.M.
 To understand weighted mean form, quartile, deciles and percentiles

Structure:

9.1 Measure of central tendency

9.2 GM and H.M and weighted mean form
9.3 Quartile, deciles and percentiles
9.4 Summary
9.5 Keywords
9.6 Self-Assessment Questions
9.7 Case Study
9.8 References

97
 9.1 Measure of central tendency
A simple flowchart to define measures of central tendency in term of Arithmetic
Mean , mode and median.

Arithmetic Mean:
 The arithmetic mean is average value of all observations (x1, x2. x3,…).
 It's sensitive to outliers and extreme values.

The mean value of both skewed and symmetric continuous data is shown in the
histogram below.

98
 Median:
 Middle value of any statistical data by putting ascending or descending order is
known as median .

Examples of datasets with their medians presented in tabular form:

Examine the dataset that has the odd number of observations (23, 21, 18, 16, 15, 13,
12, 10, 9, 7, 6, 5, and 2) sorted in descending order.

99
Median = 12

Examine the dataset that has the odd number of observations (40, 38, 35, 33, 32, 30,
29, 27, 26, 24, 23, 22, 19, and 17 ) sorted in descending order.

Median =

Mode: A number which repeats more times in any observations is known as mode.

These measures provide different perspectives on the central tendency of data and are
used depending on the characteristics of the dataset and the specific requirements of
the analysis.

100
 Examine the dataset that is provided: 5, 4, 2, 3, 2, 1, 5, 4, 5.

Mode= 5

9.2 GM and H.M and weighted mean form

Arithmetic Mean:
 The arithmetic mean is average value of all observations (x1, x2. x3,…).
 It's sensitive to outliers and extreme values.

Geometric Mean:
 In mathematical notation of geometric mean is:

Where X1, X2 ,X 3….. are the different data and n is number of observations.

101
Harmonic Mean:
 In mathematical notation of Harmonic mean is

Weighted Mean Form and formula

The weighted mean formula calculates the average of a dataset. In mathematical

notation:

Where:
1. represents the value of the ith observation.
2. represents the weight corresponding to the ith observation.
3. is the total number of observations.

9.3 Quartile, Deciles.and Percentiles.

Quartiles
The quartiles are denoted as Q1, Q2, and Q3. Q2 is also known as the median.

Quartiles Formula:

102
Examples : 1: Determine the following data's quartiles: 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 23, and 34.

Solution:

103
Deciles
The decile method is employed to divide a distribution into ten equal parts. Each data
point is assigned a decile rank, allowing for sorting the data in ascending or
descending order. Unlike quartiles, which consist of four categorical buckets, and
percentiles, which have 100, deciles comprise ten categorical buckets.

The concept of deciles finds extensive use in finance and economics for data analysis
purposes. It proves valuable in evaluating portfolio performance within the finance
domain. In this article, we delve into the definition and rank of deciles, while also
exploring examples that illustrate how to calculate decile values.

Decile Formula:

Percentiles
A percentile is a measure that indicates how a particular score compares to other
scores within the same dataset.

Formula

104
9.4 Summary
An realistic depiction of the average is given by the weighted mean ,when certain
values in the dataset are more significant or carry more weight than others. It's
frequently used to account for variations in the significance of data points in a
variety of sectors, including finance, economics, and education.
The docile method is employed to divide a distribution into ten equal parts. Each
data point is assigned a decile rank, allowing for sorting the data in ascending or
descending order. Unlike quartiles, which consist of four categorical buckets, and
percentiles, which have 100, deciles comprise ten categorical buckets.
A percentile is a measure that indicates how a particular score compares to other
scores within the same dataset. Although the definition of a percentile may vary,
Decile is commonly interpreted as the percentage of values in a dataset that fall
below a particular specified value

Keywords
 Arithmetic mean
 Mode
 Median
 Mode
 Quartiles:
 Percentiles.

9.6 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Which measure of central tendency is most appropriate for skewed datasets?
2. For data that are favourably skewed, what is the optimal quality of a good
measure of central tendency?
3. Determine the median for data set: 10, 12, 14, 16, 18.
4. Explain the concept of quartiles and their significance in analysing datasets.
5. Explain the concept of mean , median and mode.

105
9.7 Case Study
A school administration wants to evaluate the performance of its students in a
particular subject. They want to comprehend the students’ grades and choose the
measure of central tendency that best represents the data. You have been tasked as a
statistician with analysing the scores, Identifying quartiles, deciles, and percentiles as
well as computing a number of central tendency measures, including mean, median,
mode, geometric mean, harmonic mean, and weighted mean. The scores obtained by a
group of students in a subject are as follows: 72, 65, 80, 75, 85, 70, 90, 80, and 78.

Questions:
1. Calculate the mean, median, and mode of the scores.
2. The school administration wants to identify students' performance at specific
percentile levels. They are particularly interested in the 80th percentile and the
60th percentile. Determine the score at the 80th percentile using the given
data.
3. Calculate the interquartile range (IQR) of the scores and identify the score at
the 60th percentile within the IQR range.

9.8 References
1. Grewal . B.S., ―Elementary Engineering Mathematics‖, Khanna publications
34th Ed., 2020.
2. Gupta, S. P and Kapoor V.K, Fundamental of Mathematical Statistics, Sultan
Chand and Sons, New Delhi.

106