African union

 The African Union (AU) is a continental organization consisting of 55 member countries from
Africa. Established in 2002
 the AU aims to promote political, economic, and social integration among its member states.
Key objectives include fostering peace and security, promoting democracy and human rights
across the continent

Alliance

 An alliance is a formal agreement between two or more countries or organizations, to work

together toward common goals. Alliances can be established for various purposes, including
military defense, economic cooperation, or political support.
 Examples of alliances include military alliances like NATO, economic alliances such as the
European Union, and strategic alliances between companies or corporations .
 Formal and informal alliance

Appeasement.

 Appeasement is a diplomatic policy aimed at avoiding conflict by making concessions to an

aggressive power. This approach was notably used by European countries in the 1930s in an
attempt to prevent war with Nazi Germany.

Axis of evil

 The term “Axis of Evil” was used by U.S. President George W. Bush in his 2002 State of the Union
address to describe governments that he accused of helping terrorism and seeking weapons of
mass destruction. These countries initially included Iran, Iraq, and North Korea.

Balance of power

 The balance of power theory holds that peace is maintained when no single country or alliance is
strong enough to dominate others, leading nations to adjust their alliances and capabilities to
prevent any one entity from becoming too powerful.

Bretton woods

 The Bretton Woods system was established in 1944 to regulate the international monetary and
financial order after World War II. It created institutions like the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) to promote global economic stability and cooperation.

Bush doctrine

 The Bush Doctrine refers to a foreign policy principle adopted by U.S. President George W. Bush
that advocated for preemptive military action against perceived threats to U.S. security,
especially to prevent terrorist attacks and stop the spread of weapons of mass destruction.
Capitalism

 Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals rather than the state own and
control property and businesses. The main points include free market competition, profit motive,
and minimal government intervention in the economy.

Clash of civilization

 The “Clash of Civilizations” is a theory proposed by political scientist Samuel P. Huntington. It

suggests that future conflicts will be primarily between different cultural and religious identities,
or civilizations, rather than between countries.
 Key points include the division of the world into distinct civilizations, the likelihood of conflicts
arising from cultural differences, and the diminishing importance of ideological conflicts.

CNN

 CNN (Cable News Network) is an American news channel founded in 1980. It was the first
channel to provide 24-hour television news coverage and focuses on international news, politics,
and various other topics.

Coercion

 Coercion refers to the practice of compelling someone to act in an involuntary manner by using
force, threats, or intimidation.

Cold war

 The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United
States and their respective allies from the end of World War II in 1945 until the dissolution of the
Soviet Union in 1991
 . It is characterized by ideological conflict, arms races (including nuclear weapons), and proxy
wars, but the two superpowers never engaged in direct military conflict with each other.

Collective security

 Collective security is a system where countries agree to defend each other against aggression to
maintain peace and stability
 An example is the United Nations, and NATO

Communism

 Communism is a system where the government owns everything and controls the economy,
aiming for a classless society where wealth is distributed equally among people.

Constructivism

 Constructivism that emphasizes how people’s understanding of the world is shaped by shared
ideas, beliefs, and norms rather than just by objective reality or material interests.
 It suggests that individuals and societies construct their own realities through interactions and
interpretations of the world around them.
Containment

 Containment was a strategy by the United States during the Cold War to stop the spread of
communism, using diplomacy, aid, and military measures to prevent Soviet expansion.

Decolonization

 Decolonization refers to the process by which colonies gain independence from their colonial
rulers and establish their own self-governing institutions.

Democratisation

 Democratization involves the transformation of a political system to embrace democratic

principles, such as free and fair elections, protection of human rights, rule of law, and
accountability of government to its citizens. It often requires institutional reforms, changes in
power dynamics, and societal shifts towards greater political participation and civic
engagement.

Detternce

 Deterrence is like warning someone about the consequences of their actions to stop them from
doing something. It’s saying, “If you do that, this bad thing will happen to you.” So, they
hopefully decide not to do it because they don’t want to deal with the consequences.

Development

 Development refers to the process of improving people's lives and well-being through economic
growth, social progress, and the reduction of inequalities. It involves increasing access to
education, healthcare, employment opportunities, and basic services, while also promoting
environmental sustainability and preserving cultural heritage.

Diaspora

 The term “diaspora” refers to a group of people who live outside their shared country of origin or
ancestral homeland, often spread out across different countries. This scattering usually happens
due to events like war, famine, or migration for economic opportunities.

Digital divide

 The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals who have easy access to the internet and
modern technology, and those who do not.
 This gap can be due to differences in geographic location, economic status, or education,
affecting people’s ability to participate fully in a digital society.

Diplomacy

 Diplomacy is the practice of managing relations between countries through negotiation and
communication to resolve issues peacefully and to foster cooperation.

Disarmament
  Disarmament refers to the process of reducing or eliminating military weapons and armaments
to promote security and peace among nations.

End of history

 The “end of history” is a theory proposed by political scientist Francis Fukuyama, suggesting that
the widespread acceptance of liberal democracy and free-market capitalism might signal the
endpoint of humanity’s sociocultural evolution and become the final form of human government.

Enemy combatant

 An “enemy combatant” refers to an individual engaged in hostilities against a state, but they’re
not affiliated with that state’s official military. They might belong to armed groups, terrorist
organizations, or insurgent movements.

Ethnicity

 Ethnicity refers to a group of people who share common cultural traits such as language,
ancestry, practices, and beliefs. These shared characteristics make them distinct from other
groups.

Ethnic cleansing

 Ethnic cleansing is when a group tries to force people of a particular ethnicity out of an area,
often through violence or persecution, to make the area ethnically homogenous.

Euro

 The euro is the official currency used by many countries in the European Union. It replaces the
individual currencies of those countries to make trade and travel easier among them.

European union

 The European Union (EU) is a partnership between 27 European countries. They work together
on things like trade, laws, and human rights to make Europe stronger and more united.

Failed state

 A failed state is a country where the government is unable to maintain control over its territory
or provide essential services to its citizens. This can result in widespread chaos, violence, and
humanitarian crises.

Exploitation

 Exploitation is using someone unfairly for personal benefit. It can happen economically, by
paying low wages, or socially, through oppression. It includes mistreatment like forced labor and
unsustainable use of resources.

Feminism
  Feminism is about believing in and working for equal rights and opportunities for all genders. It
challenges stereotypes, empowers individuals, and advocates for social, political, and economic
equality.

Foreign aid

 Foreign aid is help given by one country to another, usually in money, goods, or services. It’s used
for things like emergency relief, development projects, and strengthening relationships between
countries.

Foreign direct investment

 Foreign direct investment (FDI) is when a company or person from one country invests in
businesses in another country, usually for long-term profits. It can bring benefits like job creation
and economic growth, but also risks like dependency on foreign investors.

Free trade

 Free trade means countries can buy and sell goods without barriers like taxes or limits. It boosts
competition, helps economies grow, and gives consumers more choices at better prices.

Genocide

 Genocide is the deliberate and systematic extermination of a particular group of people based on
their ethnicity, nationality, religion, or other defining characteristic. It involves actions intended
to destroy a group’s identity and ultimately eliminate them from existence.

Geopolitics

 Geopolitics is the study of how geography, politics, and economics interact to influence
international relations and the behavior of countries on the global stage. It examines how factors
such as location, resources, and power dynamics shape political decisions and conflicts among
nations.

Global civil society

 Global civil society refers to the collective of non-governmental organizations, institutions, and
networks that operate across national borders to advocate for social, political, environmental,
and economic issues on a global scale.
 These entities work independently of governments and businesses, aiming to influence
international policies, promote human rights, and address global challenges through advocacy,
activism, and public engagement.

Global warming

 Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average surface temperature due to
human activities, primarily the emission of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂) and
methane (CH₄). These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to climate changes such as
more frequent extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and shifting ecosystems.
 Globalization

 Globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence among

countries, driven by advances in trade, communication, technology, and transportation. It results
in the exchange of goods, services, information, culture, and ideas across national borders,
leading to greater economic integration and cultural exchange.

G8

 The Group of Eight (G8) was a forum of eight major industrialized nations—Canada, France,
Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia (suspended in 2014), the United Kingdom, and the United States.
They met annually to discuss global economic issues, international security, and other major
world concerns.

Hegemony

 Hegemony refers to the dominance or leadership of one group or nation over others, usually
achieved through economic, political, or cultural influence.

Human rights

 Human rights are fundamental rights and freedoms inherent to all individuals, regardless of
nationality, ethnicity, religion, or other status. They include rights such as the right to life, liberty,
and security, freedom of speech and expression, and the right to a fair trial.

Idealism

 Idealism is a philosophical belief or worldview that emphasizes the importance of ideas, values,
and principles in shaping human behavior and society. It often advocates for pursuing goals
based on moral principles rather than practical considerations.

Imperialism

 Imperialism is the policy or practice of extending a country’s power and influence through
colonization, military force, or economic control over other territories or nations.

Integration

 Integration refers to the process of combining or incorporating separate elements into a unified
whole, often aimed at promoting cooperation, unity, or cohesion among different groups or
systems.

ICC

 The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a judicial institution established to prosecute individuals
for the most serious crimes of international concern, such as genocide, war crimes, crimes
against humanity, and aggression.
International law

 International law refers to the set of rules and principles that govern the relationships between
states and other international actors. It regulates interactions in areas such as diplomacy, trade,
human rights, and armed conflict, aiming to promote peace, stability, and cooperation among
nations.

IMF

 The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international financial institution that provides
loans and financial assistance to member countries facing economic difficulties. It also offers
policy advice and conducts economic research to promote global monetary cooperation and
financial stability.

Isolationism

 Isolationism is a foreign policy approach where a country seeks to avoid involvement in

international affairs and alliances, preferring to focus on its own domestic concerns and
interests.

Institution

 An institution is a formal organization or structure, typically established to fulfill specific

purposes or functions within society. These can include governmental bodies, educational
establishments, or other entities that serve societal needs and functions.

League of nations

 The League of Nations was an international organization founded after World War I in 1920 with
the aim of promoting peace and cooperation among nations. It sought to prevent future conflicts
through diplomacy, arbitration, and collective security measures, but ultimately dissolved in
1946 and was replaced by the United Nations.

Legitimacy

 Legitimacy refers to the recognition and acceptance of authority or power by individuals or

groups within a society. It often derives from adherence to established laws, traditions, or
principles, as well as from the consent of the governed.

Loos nukes

 Loose nukes refer to nuclear weapons or materials that are not securely controlled or
safeguarded, potentially allowing them to fall into the hands of unauthorized individuals or
groups, posing a significant risk of nuclear proliferation or terrorism.

Multilateralism

 Multilateralism is a diplomatic approach involving cooperation and coordination among multiple

countries or international organizations to address common challenges, negotiate agreements,
and pursue shared goals.
MNC

 A multinational corporation (MNC) is a large company that operates in multiple countries, with
headquarters in one country and subsidiaries or branches in others. MNCs typically engage in
various business activities, such as manufacturing, sales, and services, on a global scale.

NGO’s

 NGOs, or non-governmental organizations, are independent, non-profit entities that operate

without government control. They pursue social, environmental, or humanitarian goals and often
work on issues such as human rights, healthcare, education, and environmental protection.

Power

 Power refers to the ability or capacity of an individual, group, or entity to influence or control the
behavior, decisions, or outcomes of others, often through the use of authority, coercion,
resources, or persuasion.

Quota

 A quota is a predetermined limit or share allocated to individuals, groups, or entities, often used
to regulate or restrict the quantity of something, such as imports, exports, production, or
participation.

Realism

 Realism is a philosophical and political theory that emphasizes practical considerations and the
pursuit of national interests, often through power and self-interest, rather than idealistic
principles or moral concerns.

Security dilemma

 The security dilemma refers to a situation in which actions taken by one state to increase its
security are perceived as threats by other states, leading to a cycle of arms races and heightened
tensions, ultimately reducing overall security for all parties involved.

Sovereignty

 Sovereignty is the authority and power of a state to govern itself independently, without
interference from external sources. It encompasses control over territory, population, and
governance, and is a fundamental principle of international law and politics.

Standard operating procedure

 A standard operating procedure (SOP) is a set of step-by-step instructions or guidelines

established by an organization to standardize and streamline routine processes, ensuring
consistency, efficiency, and safety in operations.

Tariff

 A tariff is a tax or duty imposed on imported or exported goods, typically by a government, to

regulate trade, protect domestic industries, or generate revenue.
Theory

 A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a

body of evidence and supported by observations, experiments, or reasoning.

Fascism

 Fascism is a political ideology characterized by authoritarianism, nationalism, and dictatorial

power, often accompanied by suppression of dissent, strict control of the economy, and
promotion of aggressive militarism and ultra-nationalism.

PREPARED BY MUDASSIR SATTAR

Student of politics and international relations