PHYSICS LAB REPORT
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL NAME:
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND COMPUTER SCIENCE (SEECS).
DEPARTMENT:
BACHELOR OF SOFTWARE ENGINEERING (BESE).
CLASS:
BESE-14-A
GROUP NO:
GROUP NO. 5
MEMBERS NAME: REGISTRATION NO:
1-MUHAMMAD HASSAN IRFAN 464849
2-DAUD SHAFI KHAN 455901
3-MOHAMMAD SUBHAN KHALID 455680
4-MAHEEN KIRAN 463279
5-AHMAD ALI SHAHID 454631
6-MUHAMMAD NAUMAN CHAUDHARY 454876
SUBMITTED TO: AIMEN NASIR
DATE: 22/9/2023
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EXPERIMENT 01
TITLE:
OHM’S LAW (RELATIONSHIP OF VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE)
ABSTRACT:
The goal of this study is to know about Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law explains the relation
between current, resistance and voltage. We performed some tests by using different resistors
on circuit board to prove this theory. The result was a straight-line relation between voltage
and current and an inverse relation between current and resistance.
THEORY:
George Simon Ohm created Ohm’s law, which serves as the basis of electric circuits.
According to this law, the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage across its two ends and inversely proportional to resistance.
The formula of Ohm’s law is:
V=IR
Here:
V= Voltage (unit: volts, V)
I= Current (unit; ampere, A)
R= Resistance (unit: ohm, Ω)
In this experiment, we pass current through different resistors to obtain different
readings, which will help us to observe the relation between V, I and R through graph.
APPARATUS:
1- AC/DC Electronics Lab Board;( Connecting wires, Resistors.)
2- D-Cell Battery.
3- Multimeter.
4- Graph Paper.
5- Connecting wires.
2
PROCEDURE:
For measuring resistance:
1- Take one of the resistances you have chosen.
2- Use color-code chart to read the resistance of each resistor.
3- Put values on the table.
For measuring current:
1- Create circuit by putting the leads of the selected resistor into two of the springs on
the Circuits Experiment Board.
2- Connect the wire from battery to one end of resistor.
3- Connect positive and negative wires of multimeter to positive (battery) and negative
(spring to which one end of resistor is connected) lead of the circuit containing
resistor.
4- Check again that all connections are good.
5- Read and record the current flowing through resistor in the table.
6- Remove the resistor and repeat the process for other resistors.
For measuring voltages:
1- Remove multimeter and connect one wire from positive lead(spring) of battery to
resistor and negative lead(spring) of battery to the other end of resistor.
2- Connect multimeter parallel to resistor, by connecting positive and negative wires of
multimeter to positive and negative lead (spring) of resistor respectively.
DATA ANAYLYSIS:
Circuit diagram:
Fig 1: Circuit for measuring Fig 2: Circuit for measuring
current voltage 3
Tables:
TABLE 01 (Theoretical)
Current =
Resistance (Ω) Voltage (mV) Resistance/Voltage
(mA)
27000 918 0.0345
10000 787 0.0787
3300 550 0.1662
TABLE 02 (Experimental)
Current (mA) Resistance (Ω)
0.04 26600
0.081 9700
0.17 3370
GRAPHS:
Relationship between current and resistance
30000
(Theoretical)
27000
25000
Resistance (ohms)
20000
15000
10000
10000
5000 3300
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
Current (mA)
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Relationship between current and resistance
(Experimental)
30000
26600
25000
Resistance( ohms)
20000
15000
9700
10000
5000 3370
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
Currrent (mA)
RESULT:
After performing the experiment, we confirmed Ohm’s law by obtaining the graph
between resistance and current. The graph illustrated the inverse relation between current and
resistance, both on experimental and theoretical basis. We have observed that by decreasing
the resistance, the current increases.
DISCUSSION:
1- We have seen that current and resistance are inversely related as illustrated by the
graph and confirmed by Ohm’s law.
I = V/R
2- It is observed that the ratio of voltage and resistance gives current. It has been proved
by the results in table 01 and 02.
3- The possible sources of error are the instrumental errors in the Multimeter and
physical errors or human error.
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EXPERIMENT 02
TITLE:
RESISTANCE IN CIRCUITS
ABSTRACT:
We performed this experiment to find out the behavior of resistance in series, parallel
and combinations of both series and parallel. We found the coded resistance of the resistors
and experimentally determined their values as well and we explored how the resistance is
added up in series, parallel and in combination of series and parallel.
APPARATUS:
1. AC/DC Electronic lab board: Resistor
2. Multimeter
3. Connecting wire
4. Battery
THEORY:
Resistance is the measure of opposition offered to the flow of current in an electric
circuit. It is measured in Ohms (Ω).
Resistors can be used in series combination as well as parallel combination. In series
combination, they are connected end to end. In parallel combination, one end of each resistor
is connected to positive terminal to battery while other end of each resistor is connected to
negative terminal of battery.
1. For series combination of resistors, the equivalent resistance Is given by:
Req = R1+R2+R3
2. For parallel combination of resistors, the equivalent resistance is given by:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝐑 𝟏 𝐑 𝟐 𝐑 𝟑
PROCEDURE:
1. Three resistors of the same value were chosen, and they were named as #1, #2 and
#3.
2. Keeping table 01 as reference, the colors on the resistors were noted.
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3. From the colors, the decoded values of the resistances and their tolerances were
noted on table 01.
4. By using a multimeter, we experimentally measured the resistances of the three
resistors.
5. The experimental error of each resistance was found out by the formula.
Experimental Error = [(|Measured - Coded|) / Coded] x 100%
Resistors in series:
1. Connect the three resistors in series.
2. Use the springs to hold the leads of the resistors.
3. Connect the wires to the DC battery taking the positive and negative terminal into
consideration.
4. Using the resistance function on the multi-meter determine the value of
• Each resistance
• Combination of resistances
Resistors in parallel:
1. Connect the three resistors in parallel.
2. Use the springs to hold the leads of the resistors.
3. Connect the wires to the DC battery taking the positive and negative terminal into
consideration.
4. Using the resistance function on the multi-meter determine the value of
• Each resistance
• Combination of resistances
Resistors in combination of series and parallel:
1. Connect the three resistors in combination of series and parallel (as shown) using
wires.
2. Use the springs to hold the leads of the resistors.
3. Connect two wires to the DC battery taking the positive and negative terminal into
consideration.
4. Using the voltage function on the multi-meter determine the value of voltage:
• Each resistance
• Combination of resistances
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DATA ANALYSIS:
Circuit diagram:
Fig 1: Series Circuit
Fig 2: Parallel Circuit Fig 3: Combination Circuit
Table:
Colors Coded Measured
%
Resistance Resistance Tolerance
1st 2nd 3rd 4th Error
(Ω) (Ω)
A Brown Black Red Gold 1000 983 1.70% ±5%
B Orange Orange Red Gold 3300 3270 0.91% ±5%
C Red Red Red Gold 2200 2160 1.82% ±5%
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Readings:
For series:
R12=4253Ω R23=5430Ω R123=6143Ω
For parallel:
R12=755Ω R23=1300Ω R123=559Ω
For combination:
R1=983Ω R23=1300Ω R123=2283Ω
RESULTS:
We conclude from the experiment that.
1. In series combination, the equivalence resistance is always greater than any of the
individual resistance.
2. In parallel combination, the equivalent resistance is always smaller than any of the
individual resistance.
DISCUSSION:
1. The percentage errors of each resistance lie within the coded tolerance of the
resistors hence the measurements are acceptable and correct.
2. In the series circuit of EQUAL resistances or UNEQUAL resistances, the
equivalent resistance will be the sum of the resistances. As in our data the
equivalent resistance is the sum of the three resistances.
3. In the parallel circuit of EQUAL resistances or UNEQUAL resistances, the
equivalent resistance will be the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual resistances.
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EXPERIMENT: 03
TITLE:
CURRENTS IN CIRCUITS
ABSTRACT:
The goal of this study is to know about how current behaves in different circuit
combinations of resistors. We performed the experiment by combining the resistors in series,
parallel and combination of series and parallel both. In parallel circuits the current divides
whereas in series it remains equal for all resistances.
THEORY:
Electric Current is the rate of flow of charges through a conductor in an electric
circuit. It is measured in Amperes (A).
∆𝐐
𝐈=
∆𝐭
Resistors are used in various combinations. There are two methods of arranging the
resistors in different combinations:
1. Current through Resistors in Series:
In series circuit, resistors are connected end to end and the same current flows
through each of them in turn. For three resistances (R1, R2, and R3) connected in
series, the equivalent current is equal to the current across each resistor, i.e.
Ieq = I1 = I2 = I3
2. Current through Resistors in Parallel
In parallel circuit, resistors are connected to the same nodes from both ends. For
three resistances (R1, R2, and R3) connected in parallel, the equivalent current is
the sum of the current passing through each resistor.
Ieq = I1 + I2 + I3
APPARATUS:
1. AC/DC Electronics Lab Board;( Connecting wires, Resistors.)
2. D-Cell Battery.
3. Multimeter.
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4. Connecting wires.
PROCEDURE:
Current through resistors in Series:
1. Use the springs to hold the leads of the resistors.
2. Connect two wires to the DC battery taking the positive and negative terminal into
consideration.
3. Connect the three resistors in series.
4. Using the current function on the multimeter determine the value of current:
• Through each resistance
• Through combination of resistors
Current through resistors in Parallel:
1. Connect the three resistors in parallel using wires.
2. Use the springs to hold the leads of the resistors
3. Connect two wires to the DC battery taking the positive and negative terminal into
consideration.
4. Using the current function on the multi-meter determine the value of current:
• Through each resistance
• Through combination of resistors.
Current through resistors in Combination of Series and Parallel
1. Connect the three resistors in combination of series and parallel (as shown) using
wires.
2. Use the springs to hold the leads of the resistors
3. Connect two wires to the DC battery taking the positive and negative terminal into
consideration.
4. Using the current function on the multi-meter determine the value of current:
• Through each resistance
• Through combination of resistors
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DATA ANALYSIS:
Circuit diagrams:
Fig 1: Series Circuit
Fig 2: Parallel Circuit
For Series:
R1 = 983 Ω Io = 0.01 mA V1 = 0.098 V
R2 = 3270 Ω I1 = 0.01 mA V2 = 0.326 V
R3 = 2160 Ω I2 = 0.01 mA V3 = 0.218 V
R12 = 4253 Ω I3 = 0.01 mA V12 = 0.427 V
R23 = 5430 Ω V23 = 0.541 V
R123 = 6413 Ω V123 = 0.683 V
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For Parallel:
R1 = 983 Ω Io = 0.22 mA V1 = 0.123 V
R2 = 3270 Ω I1 = 0.12 mA V2 = 0.123 V
R3 = 2160 Ω I2 = 0.04 mA V3 = 0.124 V
R123 = 560 Ω I3 = 0.06 mA V123 = 0.124 V
I4 = 0.26 mA
For combination of Series and Parallel:
R1 = 960 Ω Io = 0.18 mA
R23 = 1304 Ω I1 = 0.19 mA
R123 = 2290 Ω I2 = 0.07 mA
I3 = 0.11 mA
RESULT:
We conclude from the experiment that.
1. Current for resistors in series, remains the same.
2. In parallel the current through each resistor divides.
DISCUSSION:
1. In Series circuit, the current for all the resistors remains the same.
2. In general, in series circuit the voltage across each resistor divides, current remains
the same and the equivalent resistance is always greater than any of the individual
resistance.
3. In parallel circuit, the current divides for the resistors.
4. In general, in parallel circuit the voltage across each resistor remains the same, the
current divides, and the equivalent resistance is always greater than any of the
individual resistances.
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Experiment no 04
TITLE:
VOLTAGES IN CIRCUITS
ABSTRACT:
The goal of this study is to know about how voltage behaves in different circuit
combinations of resistors. We performed the experiment by combining the resistors in series,
parallel and combination of series and parallel both. In series circuits the voltage divides
whereas in parallel it remains equal for all resistances.
THEORY:
Voltage is the potential difference between two points in an electric field. It is
measured in Volts (V).
V=IR
Resistors are used in various combinations. There are two methods of arranging the
resistors in different combinations:
1. Voltage across Resistors in Series:
In series circuit, resistors are connected end to end and the same current flows
through each of them in turn. For three resistances (R1, R2, and R3) connected
in series with each other with the corresponding voltage source (V1, V2, and
V3), the equivalent potential difference is equal to the sum of the individual
potential difference across each resistor, i.e.
Veq = V1 + V2 + V3
2. Voltage across Resistors in Parallel:
In parallel circuit, resistors are connected to the same nodes from both ends.
For three resistances (R1, R2, and R3) connected in parallel with each other
have equal value of voltage to that of corresponding voltage source (V1, V2,
and V3)
Veq = V1 = V2 = V3 = IeqR
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APPARATUS:
1. 1-AC/DC Electronics Lab Board;( Connecting wires, Resistors.)
2. 2-D-Cell Battery.
3. 3-Multimeter.
4. 4-Connecting wires.
PROCEDURE:
Voltages of resistors in Series:
1. Connect the three resistors in series.
2. Use the springs to hold the leads of the resistors.
3. Connect two wires to the DC battery taking the positive and negative terminal into
consideration.
4. Using the voltage function on the multi-meter determine the value of voltage:
• Across the battery
• Across each resistance
• And across combination of resistors
Voltages of resistors in Parallel:
1. Connect the three resistors in parallel using wires.
2. Use the springs to hold the leads of the resistors
3. Connect two wires to the DC battery taking the positive and negative terminal into
consideration.
4. Using the voltage function on the multi-meter determine the value of voltage:
• Across the battery
• Across each resistance
• And across combination of resistors
Voltages of resistors in Combination of Series and Parallel:
1. Connect the three resistors in combination of series and parallel (as shown) using
wires.
2. Use the springs to hold the leads of the resistors
3. Connect two wires to the DC battery taking the positive and negative terminal into
consideration.
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4. Using the voltage function on the multi-meter determine the value of voltage:
• Across the battery
• Across each resistance
• And across combination of resistors
DATA ANALYSIS:
Circuit diagrams:
Fig 1: Series Circuit
Fig 2: Parallel Circuit Fig 3: Combination Circuit
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For Series:
R1 = 983 Ω V1 = 0.098 V
R2 = 3270 Ω V2 = 0.326 V
R3 = 2160 Ω V3 = 0.218 V
R12 = 4253 Ω V12 = 0.427 V
R23 = 5430 Ω V23 = 0.541 V
R123 = 6413 Ω V123 = 0.683 V
Parallel Resistors:
R1 = 983 Ω V1 = 0.123 V
R2 = 3270 Ω V2 = 0.123 V
R3 = 2160 Ω V3 = 0.124 V
R123 = 560 Ω V123 = 0.124 V
Combination of Series and Parallel:
R1 = 960 Ω V1 = 0.475 V
R23 = 1304 Ω V23 = 0.250 V
R123 = 2290 Ω V123 = 0.196 V
RESULT:
We conclude from the experiment that.
1. voltage for resistors in series, is divided according to the resistance of each resistor.
2. in parallel the voltage throughout each resistance remains the same
DISCUSSION:
1. In Series the voltage across each resistance is SAME for EQUAL resistances
2. In Series the voltage across each resistance is DIFFERENT for UNEQUAL
resistances.
3. In series the size of resulting voltage is directly related to the size of the resistance
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V∝R
4. In Parallel the voltage across each resistance is SAME for EQUAL resistances
5. In Parallel the voltage across each resistance is SAME for UNEQUAL resistances
6. In series the size of resulting voltage is INDEPENDET OF the size of the resistance
7. Voltage in the combination circuits follow the same rules as they do in the circuits
which were purely series or parallel, for resistors in parallel voltage remains the same
whereas in series it divides and is dependent on the size of the resistances.
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