KERRY GODFREY AND JACKIE CLARKE

Jelopment
a
Se

Handéc Ok
[APPROe)Veey 10
AP RAGTICof NF

pls 1-2~ewifaa ai ———

—s
—
ae
 5PQ VVA14 Che:
aM ALT
rley Wes
Road* Ma:
ae ntre im Altri:
COLLEGE TRAFFORDSOU’
The

ae
an my wee
oot
Ar
ep th...
ciorarn

Be it ae ethene
=
Tl‘: or
a2
sige 2herstWeAY pa A;2 re
see mS
3 wR
ShAe DOTAwAt
 SOUTH TRAFFORD COLL.L'

wy
South Trafford College
Altrincham Learning Centre
Manchester Road, West Timperley,
Altrincham, Cheshire. WA14 5PQ
(0161)-952-4703
This item is due for return on or before the last date shown below
Items may be renewed by telephoning the Learning Centre

6 NOV OC\

V2. 02-04

| (a1 atest oy =
~% BN N03

19 APIO2m
12 DEC 2007
3.0 nt 2008
’' DEC

' PE Saan nit Now York. 4

nel seni eetagsoy
seapererers
ts me pny cee
Cele oe sate) sb sees peers
 B60 ON ET COOL EISV4

}
" Setmcaarungnponiveindy nia eh ~tatata CNET ew

CONTINUUM
The Tower Building 370 Lexington Avenue
11 York Road New York
London SE1l 7NX NY 10017-6550

© Kerry Godfrey and Jackie Clarke 2000

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including
photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system,
without prior permission in writing from the publishers.

The authors have made every effort to obtain permission to reproduce

copyright material. If any acknowledgement has not been made, we invite any
copyright holder to inform us, and due acknowledgement will be given in any
subsequent edition of the text.

First published 2000, Reprinted 2000

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 0-8264-5337-6

Typeset by Sam Merrell, Bath

Printed by Martins the Printers Ltd, Berwick upon Tweed
 Contents

Foreword

Introduction vi

What's all the fuss about?

Tourism development in context

The Good, the Bad and the Ugly 16

Understanding tourism impacts

Where to start? 49
Fundamentals of tourism organization

What have we got? 64

Understanding tourism resources

Who do we want? 89
Selecting the tourist

How do we get them? Part 1 106

Preparing a development plan

How do we get them? Part 2 125

Developing the marketing plan

Keeping the tourist 159

Destination welcome and customer care

Measuring success 180

Monitoring, research and evaluation

10 Getting extra help 208

Making the most of professional consultants

References APIS

Index 227
Foreword
Tourism is one of the world’s fastest-growing industries. International
tourism, despite periodic upheavals, continues to expand on average at
between 4 and 5 per cent annually, and by the year 2000 there are likely
to be well over 650 million international visitor arrivals worldwide, quite
apart from the much larger number travelling within their own countries.
Despite fuel and airport taxes the real cost of travel continues to
decrease. More and more people are on the move — whether on holiday,
away for a short break, out for the day or on a business trip — and all this
activity provides employment for millions, generates income for millions
more, and results in satisfaction or frustration according to experience.
But tourism is also (often rightly) blamed for damage to the environment
and its impact on local cultures and ways of life. As more and more peo-
ple travel, it becomes ever more important, therefore, that tourism
should be properly planned for and managed, and much of this has to be
done at local level.
Tourism is of course highly competitive. For those planning a holiday or
short break, business visit or conference, the array of potential destina-
tions has massively increased, with ever more exotic alternatives on offer.
Standards are higher, travellers’ expectations have increased and tradi-
tional holiday destinations can no longer rely on old loyalties.
The successful destination, as this book makes very clear, will be aware
of its strengths and weaknesses, build on the former and seek to overcome
the latter. Its strengths must be real and not just wishful thinking on the
part of over-exuberant tourism officers. Such a destination will have com-
pared itself with its competitors, but not simply sought to copy them. It
will have developed its own unique character and decided what sort of a
place its community wishes to be. It will have identified its target markets
and geared both product and promotion to satisfy the needs of those mar-
kets. Its strategy will take account of the necessity to care for its environ-
ment and heritage, and, perhaps above all, it will go out of its way to be
 FOREWORD ¢ v

welcoming. This means winning the support of all sectors of the local
industry and having the community on its side — each sharing in the plan-
ning process, agreeing the strategy, its goals and targets, and playing a
part in its successful implementation. It may also mean setting limits on
the scale or type of development permitted in the interests of long-term
sustainability.
Those responsible for planning, developing and managing tourism des-
tinations and who read and follow the advice set out so simply in these
pages should be well on the way to a successful and sustainable future.

Stephen Mills, MA, FCA, FTS

Former Deputy Director (Development)
English Tourist Board
Introduction
Tourism development planning at the destination level is a step-by-step
process of resource and market evaluation, action and review. Its broad
purpose is to recognize gaps in the local product or market, identify pro-
ject ideas to fill those gaps, and recommend actions to put those ideas in
place. Often called the ‘systems approach’, it is driven by long-term goals,
where the destination is developed systematically through small actions,
each contributing to the end result, piece by piece.
However, tourism development is no economic panacea, and getting
the most from the industry requires careful planning and management. In
some areas, no matter what the capital injection, tourism may not work if
ill-planned or mismanaged. In other areas there may be great local poten-
tial, and all that is needed is a little guidance on how to go about plan-
ning in a systematic and organized fashion. However, even where tourism
does present a significant development opportunity, a destination may still
fail if all the components of good development are not considered.
With these points in mind, this handbook has been written to assist
anyone in the preparation of a tourism development strategy for a local
destination area. Designed so it can be used in sequential order or dipped
into at specific points, the book presents a discussion of the practical steps
involved in the planning and marketing of tourism from a local or regional
perspective.! The book is not a traditional or definitive what-to-do text of
tourism development principles, nor is it necessarily concerned with the
production of a formal tourism master plan. Rather it represents a system-
atic how-to or self-help guide which seeks to explain the many com-
ponents, practical steps and activities involved in the preparation of a
tourism development strategy (see Figure 1.1).
The focus of the handbook is a checklist format, designed to encourage
users to ask themselves the right questions in assessing the tourism poten-
tial of their area. While the steps and activities it contains are rooted in the
theory of tourism planning and marketing, they are practice oriented and
 INTRODUCTION ® vii

The Tourism Development

Strategy

Tourism Policy and Committee

Structure
(See Chapter 3)

Tourism Resource Audit

(See Chapter 4)

Tourism Market Analysis

(See Chapter 5)

Tourism Opportunities and

Constraints
(See Chapter 6)
Development Goals and
Objectives
(See Chapter 6)
Tourism Development Action
Steps
(See Chapter 6)

Tourism Marketing Plan

(See Chapter 7)

Monitoring and Review

Procedures
(See Chapter 9)

Figure I.1: Basic Components of a Tourism Development Strategy

viii ¢ INTRODUCTION

applicable to a wide range of destination types based on community

resources and involvement (e.g. heritage tourism, cultural tourism, rural
tourism, island tourism, coastal tourism, event tourism, etc.).
The book is primarily designed as a quick point of reference for people
who do not necessarily have the time or desire to wade through rather
heavy academic or other general texts on tourism planning and market-
ing. It is intended as a professional aide-mémoire for those people already
working in travel and tourism (planners, marketers and project managers
in destination communities and tourist regions), and a refresher course
manual for graduates and other people making a career change into the
tourism sector. Its usefulness of course will be best measured by the
ragged and well-worn copies used in the ongoing process of tourism
development and management in destination areas.
K. B. Godfrey
J. R. Clarke
Oxford, UK

NOTE
1 The definition of tourism adopted in this handbook reflects the compre-
hensive definition used by the World Tourism Organization and includes
both domestic and international tourists; package and independent travel;
car, coach, train and plane travel; business, sports, VFR (visiting friends and
relatives) and educational tourists; day-visitors (excursionists) and
overnight visitors (tourists). It covers all aspects of tourist travel which can
take place in a destination area.
Sn APTER ONE

What's all the fuss about?

Tourism development in context

INTRODUCTION
Tourism is big business. Internationally, it represents one of the world’s
largest economic industries. With nearly 600 million visitor arrivals (around
the world) estimated by the millennium, some now claim tourism accounts
for 1 in every 14 workers, and up to 12 per cent of global gross domestic
product.! As personal living standards and disposable income continue to
improve, with fewer restrictions on travel and with more convenient and
cheaper transport, both the contribution from tourism to the world econ-
omy, and the overall number of tourists, are expected to grow.
Without a doubt, tourism is an increasingly important economic activity.
However, as the industry has grown it has also become much more diverse
and complicated than it was in the 1970s and 1980s. Traditional patterns of
long holidays are being replaced with more frequent and shorter lengths of
stay. Activities have modified, with greater interest in learning something
new and individuality rather than in the simple mass standardization of prod-
ucts. Tourists are also placing greater emphasis and concern on environmen-
tal quality of destinations, value for money and better customer service.
With the beginning of a new millennium, virtually everyone from
national governments to local communities seems to be jumping on the
tourism bandwagon. Many new opportunities for travel and new destina-
tions have been brought to the market as a result. However, not all have
been, or will prove to be a success. For tourism to succeed today it must be
sustainable economically, socially and environmentally. To be sustainable it
must be carefully planned and managed, taking account of many different
factors. Experience has shown that destinations which fail to protect their
resources and provide a quality visitor experience are being overlooked in
favour of those which do.
2 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

For tourism to succeed. it must be sustainable ...

to be sustainable, it must be carefully
planned and managed

WHAT IS TOURISM PLANNING?

Tourism planning generally takes place at three different levels: nationally,
locally and of the individual attraction. At the national level, it involves the
co-ordination and management of large tourist regions or the country as a
whole, usually through the development of policy, national standards and
institutions. At the facility or site level, it involves the planning, design
and development of individual tourist attractions, services and facilities to
serve tourist needs. Less common though equally important is the planning
and management of tourist destination areas: the organization and
development of visitor attractions and services in and around destination
communities. This is known as the community or destination level of
tourism planning, and is the focus of this book.
Until very recently, destination tourism planning was often a somewhat
isolated or ad hoc procedure. Government and industry alike would under-
take basic assessments of market demand, think of what could be done or
developed to meet that demand, establish a programme of development in
response to that demand, and then seek to promote it to potential visitors.
Modern tourism, however, is very dynamic. Changes in what tourists want,
when they travel, how they travel, and what they’re willing to accept have
made this relatively static and linear procedure of plan-then-develop highly
obsolete and potentially dangerous in a commercial sense.
Many communities have now begun to realize they need to be more
responsive and proactive in their approach to tourism. They are showing con-
cern over what is actually developed, how it is promoted and the impacts this
might produce with regard to economic, social and environmental factors.
Tourism planning is now more than just developing new or better attrac-
tions, increasing the number of visitors, or seeking to boost profits. Rather, it
is all about promoting orderly development of the industry.
Today, destination planning involves setting goals and objectives for the
industry, understanding present market conditions and trends, recognizing
issues and possible constraints, creating opportunities, identifying altern-
atives and recommending action. When done well, it should lead to the
timely and better development of suitable projects and a superior tourism
service. When done poorly, or not at all, then lower financial returns, less
satisfied customers and a damaged resource base are often the result. The
 WHAT'S ALL THE FUSS ABOUT? ¢ 3

days when planning simply meant pushing tourism for the sake of devel-
opment, through financial incentives and the unlimited exploitation of
resources, are no longer viable.

Tourism planning is about promoting orderly

development of the industry

Planning and management are central to the long-term sustainability of

tourism and must take place at all levels of activity. However, experience has
shown that it is at the community or destination level that the real action
takes place, and where the various impacts of tourism are most acute. After all,
it is here where the jobs are created, the attractions exist and the tourists visit.

TOURISM AND THE COMMUNITY

Communities are a basic element of modern tourism. They are the focal
point for the supply of accommodation, catering, information, transport
facilities and services. Their local natural environment, buildings and insti-
tutions, their people, culture and history, all form core elements of what
the tourists come to see. Whether as towns, villages or cities, every com-
munity has tourism at one level or another, and is affected by the growth
and development of the industry.
Many of the problems associated with modern tourism are not necessar-
ily the fault of tourists or tourism per se, but more the result of poor plan-
ning and a haphazard approach to development and management. Far too
often destination areas have sought to promote and encourage tourism
without any real thought given to the long-term consequence or potential
negative impacts. Success was measured simply in terms of how many peo-
ple a place could attract, and how much those visitors would spend in their
area. Today, however, this is considered somewhat naive and potentially
counterproductive, as there are many other factors within and without the
control of destinations which can affect profits and sustainability.

Destination communities are a basic

element of modern tourism

What many have seemingly failed to recognize or understand is that tourism

is an agent of change. That is, wherever tourism development takes place, it
can bring about a change in the way we use some resources to serve the
tourist market. For example, when an old warehouse is redeveloped as a
 4 « THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

hotel, a redundant church turned into a visitor centre, holiday cottages

built, or empty shops converted into tea shops, all of these mean a change
of use. The facility may still exist, but the original function has been
replaced by something new, and the resource has been altered. Tourism
destination planning is about managing this change in a way that brings
‘the greatest benefit to an area with minimal cost.
In many cases, the type and extent of change brought about by tourism
is of no great concern and more often represents a benefit to the commu-
nity. However, this is not always true. When shops selling goods to residents
are replaced by those selling only souvenirs; when open space or playing
fields are paved for visitor parking (without alternatives); or when tourist
areas are cleaned up while local neighbourhoods are left untouched, then
these changes may not be so good after all. Tourism destination planning
must recognize that there are limits to this kind of change which is accept-
able to a community, and reflect this in the goals and objectives of the plan
itself. To do so, however, those responsible for planning tourism‘s develop-
ment must fully understand and appreciate the impact tourism can have on
local quality of life, and its effect on local natural and cultural resources.

Tourism planning must recognize that there are

limits of change acceptable to a community

UNDERSTANDING TOURISM IMPACTS

Tourism is a growth industry, offering communities of all shapes and sizes
a unique development opportunity. However, not every community is suit-
ed to tourism, nor for that matter is tourism development necessarily
appropriate for every community. Tourism impacts can be both good and
bad, and the actual effect depends very much on the character of the area
and local circumstance. On the plus side, tourism is widely recognized for
creating and sustaining jobs, and bringing new money to an area. Visitor
spending supports local business, speciality shops, restaurants and recre-
ational facilities which might not otherwise survive. Tourism can also lead
to the regeneration of redundant buildings, help with local conservation
and environmental improvement, and be a key source of civic pride.
On the negative side tourism jobs are primarily in the service support
sector, often low paid and part-time. The balance of local shops may shift
away from convenience and everyday consumer goods to antiques, gifts
and teashops. Increasing tourist activity can also lead to local congestion,
litter, and wear and tear on local resources and infrastructure. Although
 WHAT'S ALL THE FUSS ABOUT? ¢ 5

tourism is undoubtedly important at a national level, particularly in terms

foreign exchange and international trade, what it means for individual
communities can be and often is quite different.
Destination tourism planning is about finding a balance between these
costs and benefits in the best interest of tourism and the community.
Tourism is no economic panacea, and economic development should never
be the exclusive goal of the industry, particularly in a local setting. While
tourism is often important to communities, driving its development only
with regard to generating jobs and income tends to lose sight of the neg-
ative effects and does not adequately plan to minimize them. Due to the
nature of its impacts, tourism should not form the core element of a local
economy, but is better suited to play a supplementary role to help diversify
economic activity.

Tourism is no economic panacea, and is best

suited as a supplement to a local economy

Each destination needs to be sensitive to many factors which may affect its
success. Like any other industry, tourism planning must build on a compre-
hensive understanding of its potential, to help maximize the industry's
contribution to the well-being of a community and where possible elim-
inate the negative (see Chapter 2). However, community tourism is not a
simple product or single business, but has many aspects including trans-
port, accommodation, catering, attractions, information and hospitality.
To be successful, destination communities need to establish leadership and
co-ordination of all those active and interested in tourism.

DEVELOPING LEADERSHIP AND CO-OPERATION

While tourism is a very big industry on a global scale, at the local level it is
also very small. That is, the vast majority of tourism companies are small or
medium-sized operations, all offering a wide range of goods and services
to the traveller in one form or another. This fragmentation in supply,
however, can lead to variable quality in the local product, unnecessary com-
petition, poor information flows and missed opportunities. While diversity
is good, it can also create a weakness in the ability of communities to
exploit tourism’s full potential. With many small operators each seeking to
maximize their own position, the wider interests of the whole industry are
easily overlooked. To be sustainable, collective action is required.
However, tourism is not just the prerogative of the private sector. Some
aspects of the industry (such as information and infrastructure) are often
6 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

the direct responsibility of local government. In addition, many non-profit

and voluntary groups may affect tourism through their own activities, such
as conservation and preservation, or by running local festivals and com-
munity events. Therefore while the private sector may play a key role in —
tourism, it is not alone and should not act alone. Past evidence suggests
that the best destination development plans are those created jointly by
non-profit organizations, local government and the private sector. Success
in local tourism flows from collaboration and complementarity, not inter-
nal competition and division. Organization and co-ordination are the key.

Tourism development is not the prerogative

of the private sector

Yet with many different players from both the public and private sectors,
getting organized can be one of the first obstacles to overcome. Very
often local groups, such as a chamber of commerce, hotel association or
local government tourism department, have focused their tourism efforts
on specific activities, such as promotions, but have rarely taken a more
comprehensive view of development. Ideally, one group should take over-
all responsibility for managing local tourism. Some form of umbrella
group is needed which draws representation from, and co-ordinates the
activities of other local groups (see Chapter 3). Being organized puts the
community in a better position to respond to changes in demand, improve
information flows, enhance quality control, invest in the local product and
develop human resources. Without an overall structure to which all groups
can belong, contribute and interact, duplication of effort, reduced
efficiency and lost opportunity tend to be the result.
It is not so surprising, however, that getting organized is just the
beginning of the planning and development process. Generally speaking,
the most successful-tourism today is built on a clean physical environment
and the positive expression of local culture and society. Tourists need
something to see and have something to keep them occupied. They need
a place to go to — a place which offers the chance to experience something
completely different from their home environment. Otherwise why travel?
Tourism planning is all about creating that place; building on the unique
geography, history and cultural traditions that are evident in most
communities. Understanding the extent and quality of these (and other)
local resources represents the foundation of the destination area develop-
ment plan.
 WHAT'S ALL THE FUSS ABOUT? ¢ 7

UNDERSTANDING RESOURCES
Successful tourist destinations are those which offer the visitor something
unique: they create a sense of place, an identity which is different from
their competitors. Far too often communities with little previous experience
of tourism growth simply look to their neighbours or other successful des-
tinations when beginning a new development agenda. Unfortunately, the
subsequent replication of too similar attractions in town after town tends
to limit rather than encourage tourism success. The problem with this
approach is that no two communities are ever exactly the same, either in
terms of what they have to offer, or the visitors they can attract. Nor should
they be. Even if Town A is good at tourism, this does not mean that Town B,
with apparently very similar resources will have equal success just because it
is near by. There may be and often are similarities, but there will also be
differences and it is these differences which are so important to tourism.

No two communities are exactly the same ...

nor should they wish to be

The challenge facing many communities is deciding where to begin and

how to determine what they have which may be attractive to visitors. The
answer is usually a Tourism Resource Audit. The tourism resource audit
involves a thorough assessment of a community’s tourism supply: those
features which can and do attract tourists to the community. This includes
the analysis of what tourists come to see and do (attractions and activ-
ities), how they are served (hospitality and service), how they travel and
get about (access and infrastructure) and how they are informed (infor-
mation and interpretation) (see Chapter 4). They are designed to help des-
tination communities identify what is special about them, but they also
seek to determine what, if anything may be missing from the local prod-
uct, and what needs improvement.
Tourism resource audits help destinations to identify linkages in supply,
and opportunities which could be pursued to increase their attractiveness
to potential visitors. Tourism development, however, is not just about
building new facilities or attractions. Very often destination communities
already have a number of the basic building blocks of tourism in place
(attractions, services and hospitality), but they do not act together. In this
setting, tourism development may be more concerned with the consolida-
tion of tourism supply (the organization, packaging and presentation of
resources already available), than of building new facilities or creating
new attractions. In whatever situation, however, when properly carried
8 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

out, tourism resource audits force communities to take an objective view

of the local product (both good and bad points) and are the baseline from
which all future development activity is measured.

Tourism resource audits are the baseline of

future development activity

Knowing what resources you have and their tourism quality is fundamental
to destination planning. However, this is only half of the development
equation. Success in tourism comes from being able to match what a place
has to sell, or could potentially sell, with what visitors want and are willing
to pay for. Just as it is important to know what resources you have available
for tourism development, it is equally important to determine who your
current and potential visitors are and what they have come to see or do.

UNDERSTANDING TOURISM MARKETS

People travel for any number of reasons. They may be seeking rest and
relaxation, activity and adventure, or perhaps a combination of anything in
between. Tourists come in all shapes and sizes, each with their own needs,
wants and desires for their visit. As with the analysis of supply, not all
tourism destinations will attract all types of tourists, nor are all types of
tourists attracted to similar destinations. They may be young and on their
own, or perhaps more mature and travelling as a group. They may be there
on business, visiting friends and relatives, staying for a few days, or just pass-
ing through on their way to somewhere else. Understanding these and
other reasons why people travel in general, and why they travel to any
particular place is a key element in determining a community’s tourism
market potential.
Tourism Market Analysis, as with any other product, is a key step in
assessing an area’s development potential. After all, there is little value in
tourism if potential visitors are not interested in the product on offer.
Tourism market analysis involves a thorough review of a local destination’s
tourism demand: who are the current visitors, where do they come from
and when, what do they want to see and do, and what services and facil-
ities do they require (see Chapter 5). Communities also need to know what
influenced tourists to visit them, how they travelled and how long they
are staying. At the same time, they need to determine who does not visit,
as well as those who could be encouraged to do so in the future. These lat-
ter groups are significant in helping to diversify the market and avoid
overdependence on any one particular market segment.
 WHAT'S ALL THE FUSS ABOUT? ¢ 9

Tourism market analysis is a key step in

the tourism development process

Understanding tourism markets is a core element in the tourism develop-

ment process, and is vital if local destinations are to match their product
(tourism supply) with potential visitors (tourism demand). When complete
it should provide destinations with the necessary information to identify
and select those groups of visitors (target markets) most appropriate to
their resources in terms of generating the greatest benefit, with the min-
imal cost. Success in tourism, however, will not happen on its own, but is
built on a systematic and rational process of planning, action and review.
Once complete, data from the market analysis is combined with the results
of the resource audit in the preparation of the community's tourism devel-
opment strategy.

DEVELOPING A TOURISM STRATEGY

Tourism destination development, as in any other service or retail industry,
should follow a plan of action or strategy. Based on the review of local
supply and demand, the tourism development strategy makes it possible
to plan for improvements in existing products, explore opportunities for
expansion into new markets and establish long-term priorities for the local
industry. As a framework for decision-making, the tourism strategy repre-
sents a guide to all future development activity. It identifies strengths and
weaknesses in the local product, defines a series of goals and objectives to
address these issues, and outlines a plan of action to achieve these goals.
In addition, as tourism development is an ongoing and dynamic process,
the strategy also considers the evaluation and review of actions to provide
a future measure of the plan’s success.
Defining goals and objectives for tourism represents the core of the
development strategy. Goals are general ideals which a destination would
hope to achieve through tourism development activity. They are continu-
ous concepts which may never readily be measured, but provide the gen-
eral framework for a more specific series of objectives to follow. They are
likely to concern such aspects as improving visitor satisfaction, diversifying
tourism markets, increasing tourism’s contribution to the local economy,
and enhancing the area’s overall tourism potential. In contrast, objectives,
are much more specific and relate to actual activity. They are meant to
guide action which will help to accomplish development goals. As such
they must be realistic, measurable and able to be accomplished within a
10 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

given time frame. If, for example, the goal is to enhance the overall
tourism potential of an area, one objective may be to determine what
new attraction could be developed, while another could be to encourage
the development of new bed-and-breakfast accommodation in the com-
munity. Both of these could help to enhance tourism potential by adding
something new to attract and entertain, and provide more places to stay.

Realistic goals and objectives are at the

core of successful tourism development

If goals and objectives are the core of the strategy, then the Action Plan is
the substance of its implementation. Having derived a series of goals and
objectives, a set of specific recommendations are devised in detail which
spell out just how the objectives will be achieved. The action plan repre-
sents a series of small-scale activities which are feasible to implement and
have definite outcomes. If, for example, the objective is to encourage new
bed-and-breakfast accommodation, the action plan may involve: (1) high-
lighting the need for further tourist accommodation in local media; (2)
arranging a seminar for local people on operating bed-and-breakfast
facilities; (3) offering advice on promotions and advertising for new
accommodation businesses; (4) ensuring new providers are listed in the
local accommodation guide (see Chapter 6).
Throughout the development process it is important to keep in mind
just how different goals may be achieved. In so doing it is more than
likely the strategy will be realistic in what it hopes to accomplish. Indeed,
as the object of tourism planning is its implementation, goals and object-
ives need to be achievable within the context of local resources and mar-
ket potential. However, successful tourism development does not simply
happen following financial investments in new attractions and infrastruc-
ture, or the creation of new services or facilities. These may be necessary
and very beneficial, but communities that do not have a clear and realistic
plan to attract visitors, who will appreciate these efforts, soend money and
tell others of their visit, are likely to struggle to reach their potential.

THE MARKETING PLAN

Although destination development may begin with new ideas and new
initiatives, it is as much to do with attractions and services as it is about
marketing and promotion. Throughout the planning and development
process, communities need to be thinking about who they want to attract
as tourists, and how they are going to encourage them to visit. For many
 WHAT'S ALL THE FUSS ABOUT? ¢ 11

communities this simply means information and advertising. However,

tourism marketing is much more than just selling a place to potential vis-
itors. It includes the uniqueness of what visitors come to see (the product),
the relative cost of one place compared to another (the price), the ‘distri-
bution’ or accessibility of the place to potential target markets, and the
variety of methods used to inform and attract visitors (the promotional
mix). Matching the product, price and place with potential visitors is at the
core of tourism marketing. Although advertising and information services
are significant and tend to dominate local tourism budgets, their emphasis
alone will not necessarily ensure success.

Tourism marketing is more than just

‘selling’ a destination

To reinforce a previous point, many communities with limited experience

of tourism tend to look to neighbouring destinations for inspiration. In
marketing terms this usually means trying to copy popular and highly
visible promotional activities. This may seem logical, because they appear
effective in one location, but as no two communities are exactly the same,
what may work for one may not reach the right market for another. There
is no universal or guaranteed method of attracting visitors. People travel
for many different reasons and not everyone is equally interested in
tourism. Indeed, similar destinations may appeal to different types of vis-
itors, and communities should not try to attract everyone. Experience has
shown that those which try to be everything to everybody tend to be less
successful than those with a more defined approach.
Each destination must work out for itself its most appropriate markets,
and determine what is the best approach to attract these preferred target
markets. Knowing what a community has to offer, its current visitor profile
and where they come from is a key starting-point in the marketing plan.
The analysis of supply and demand should give a community a good idea of
where it currently stands in the travel marketplace. As a framework for
attracting visitors, the marketing plan identifies potential market segments
as the focus of promotional activity, determines the techniques to be
employed, sets a theme or image to be portrayed and establishes a time
frame for its execution (see Chapter 7). However, travel trends and markets
change. What may prove effective today may be less so next year.
Therefore, ongoing evaluation and review of marketing plans are also
important to test their general effectiveness in reaching target markets,
and allow for adjustments in methods and techniques where appropriate.
12 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Each community needs to work out its

own approach to marketing

Many aspects of tourism, however, are different from the development

and marketing of other forms of business, not least of which is the sale of
an experience. The tourism product is not something we can touch or feel.
We cannot take it home at the end of the day, we cannot try it out before
we buy and we generally cannot take it back if we are not satisfied or feel
it does not really meet our expectations. In short, tourism is a risky
purchase. Getting people to travel is only one element of success. Getting
them to stay longer, spend more money, come back again and then tell
their friends are where the real benefits appear.

DEVELOPING CUSTOMER SERVICE

Tourism is a business of both attracting and servicing the needs of visitors.
Unfortunately, many communities seem to put a lot of effort into the
attracting, but let themselves down when it comes to service and hospital-
ity. We all like to be treated well when we travel, and most tourists have
increasing expectations for the quality of personal service they receive at
destinations. A visitor-friendly attitude must prevail if the local industry is
to become and remain successful. A local destination may have outstand-
ing natural scenery, fascinating culture, first-class attractions and an excel-
lent location, but if the quality of service is poor, this could all be for
nothing. The lack of understanding or recognition of this aspect of tourism
development can mean the difference between mediocrity and something
really worth talking about.
Customer service and hospitality are a way of doing business, an atti-
tude towards visitors which makes them feel welcome and appreciated as
guests in the community. This is important, because a happy tourist is more
likely to return, be more willing to stay longer, spend more money in
shops and restaurants, and to give a positive report to friends and neigh-
bours when they return home. On the other hand, rudeness, price goug-
ing, poor quality and a general lack of hospitality are a sure way of
damaging a community's tourism reputation and its industry. Destinations
need to pay close attention to quality of service and customer care from
the outset. As a part of the tourism resource audit, service quality and
hospitality are examined, with training programmes in customer care
developed where necessary for all those involved in tourism services (see
Chapter 8).
 WHAT'S ALL THE FUSS ABOUT? ¢ 13

Attention to detail and customer care are

vital to successful tourism development

Customer care and tourism awareness, however, do not simply end with
people directly employed in a tourist business or facility. Visitor satisfaction
is also affected by the quality of service and reception from other commu-
nity services (police, banks, health services, shops, etc.) and the general
public. Indeed, tourism, like no other industry, is affected by the reception
and friendliness locals display towards visitors. Hostility, or even indiffer-
ence from the local population can have a negative effect on satisfaction
levels. It is important to show the whole community that it has a role to
play in generating tourism benefits, as well at the potential problems,
through some form of tourism awareness programme.
The benefits of tourism will come if the quality of the visitor experience
is high, and fostering awareness and public support are really only the
start. To remain successful, tourism development must not only be care-
fully planned and implemented, but it also needs to be managed. Tourism
and its impacts are dynamic, and any development plan needs regular
evaluation and review to ensure the benefits of tourism growth continue
to outweigh the costs.

MEASURING SUCCESS
Tourism development is an ongoing process. It begins with resource and
market assessment, but does not simply end with the plans for
implementation. To do so would leave the plan indefensible in terms of
meeting its goals and objectives. A critical element of any tourism devel-
opment process is to measure what has been achieved against what it was
designed to do in the first place. Monitoring and review are essential in
managing tourism impacts, and in assessing how well different actions
have addressed development objectives. It helps to identify problems
before they get out of hand, adapt to a changing marketplace, and meas-
ure the response to specific initiatives. It is therefore essential that before
development takes place, or is further encouraged, a system to monitor
and evaluate the effectiveness of actions is set in place.

Monitoring tourism development is

essential to managing impacts

To be effective, monitoring and evaluation need to be undertaken on a

14 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

regular and systematic basis, involving economic, social and environmental

indicators of both supply and demand. From a supply point of view this typ-
ically involves the assessment of occupancy levels, attendance figures and
transportation flows against predevelopment values. It also means scrutiniz-
ing the response of the general community to development and the effects
tourism has had on local quality of life. From a demand perspective this usu-
ally means collecting data on visitor satisfaction, market origins and travel
motivations to better focus activities and guide future revision of the devel-
opment plan itself. It also helps to determine how effective the strategy has
been in terms of matching supply with demand (see Chapter 9).
Tourism development, however, does not occur in isolation, and the deci-
sion to increase tourism should be based on an evaluation of its potential
costs and benefits. With proper planning and management, it can form a
positive and successful element of a local economy. Yet this takes time,
knowledge and skills which may not all be readily available in every des-
tination. Communities are responsible for managing their own industry, but
local tourism officers sometimes find themselves more in the role of facilita-
tor or catalyst in the development process, with outside help brought in to
provide extra technical assistance, advice and research expertise.

GETTING EXTRA HELP

Tourism is an increasingly complicated and market-sensitive industry, with
many different organizations, companies and individuals all seeking to
influence destination choice. Depending on the nature of the local prod-
uct, the stage in the planning process, or the personnel available, it may
be necessary to seek professional help in the preparation of the develop-
ment plan. Increasingly, the use of tourism consultants is seen as one way
of bringing new skills, new ideas and innovation to a community project.
However, they can also be costly, time-consuming and possibly ineffective
if the task they are set is not clearly identified and prescribed. It is
important to establish clearly the goals and objectives for tourism devel-
opment, and the outputs expected from any project report. A good
consultant appreciates a well-organized client, which usually means a bet-
ter outcome for all concerned (see Chapter 10).

SUMMARY
Tourism planning at the destination level is a step-by-step process of evalu-
ation, action and review. Its broad purpose being to recognize gaps, iden-
tify new ideas and take action to fill those gaps. It is driven by long-term
goals but with short-term actions, each contributing to the final objective,
 WHAT'S ALL THE FUSS ABOUT? ¢ 15

one piece at a time. It involves ongoing monitoring and allowing for

revision in response to changing circumstance in the marketplace. Past
experience suggests, those communities which follow a more systematic
and strategic approach to tourism development and marketing are more
likely to achieve greater long-term benefits.
However, to succeed requires a sound knowledge of how tourism
works, the many different people and groups involved, and the advan-
tages and disadvantages which development could mean for an area. This
book has been written with these points in mind. Each of the following
chapters are designed to provide basic guidance on the key aspects of
tourism development discussed in this opening chapter. They represent the
basic building blocks which should systematically lead to more informed
decisions, giving the development of tourism the critical evaluation it
needs to succeed.

NOTE
1 World Travel and Tourism Council, 1992; World Tourism Organization.
CHAPTER TWO

The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

Understanding tourism impacts

INTRODUCTION
Most places develop tourism because of its economic potential: it creates
jobs; brings in new money; is relatively clean; and has minimal start-up
costs. In addition to these monetary benefits, it can also help conserve
national heritage, protect the environment and contribute to an improve-
ment in the quality of life and well-being of local communities.
However, tourism has a down-side, and like any other socio-economic
activity, it carries with it costs as well as benefits. Tourism is seasonal by
nature, and thus so are many of the jobs. It can lead to local inflation and
profits can ‘leak’ away to external suppliers and proprietors. It can also put
a strain on local infrastructure and services, enhance social problems,
increase pollution and lead to overcrowding and traffic congestion in
different environments.
Thus, like any other industry, the development of tourism requires a
sound knowledge of both the opportunities and constraints it represents
to a destination. If planners and managers are to develop and maintain a
sustainable and successful tourism industry, they will need to be more
aware of, and understand tourism’s impacts. In doing so they should be in
a better position to consider the trade-offs necessary to achieve this goal.
This chapter examines some of the major costs and benefits of local des-
tination tourism to help foster this understanding as an aid in the devel-
opment decision process.

THE NATURE OF TOURISM IMPACTS

Tourism impacts come in many shapes and forms. These are often dis-
cussed in terms of the economy, social structure and physical environment
of destination areas. Economic aspects concern issues of employment,
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 17

balance of payments and foreign exchange; social structure relates to

issues of culture, lifestyle and human interactions; the physical environ-
ment concerns issues of landscape and land-use in both built-up and natu-
ral settings. While each of these impacts rarely occur in isolation, for ease
of measurement and review they are often separated into economic,
socio-cultural and environmental categories when discussed.
Much early work on tourism impacts focused particularly on the eco-
nomic benefits, to the virtual exclusion of any social or environmental
cost/benefit recognition. This emphasis was not surprising, however, given
the relative newness of tourism as a potential economic development activ-
ity. Studies and reports were commissioned by both government and indus-
try to show that investing in tourism was not some daft idea, but that it
would lead to serious economic growth and regeneration. It was not really
in anyone's interest, at least from a development point of view, to look for
a down-side to this new boom industry (which were difficult to measure
anyway), and economic data was easier to identify and manipulate.
Two key reasons for encouraging tourism development have been the
income and employment benefits created by visitor spending. This type of
impact has generally been seen as positive and desirable in most destina-
tions. Tourists buy goods and services from local shops and facilities, they
eat out in restaurants, stay in hotels, attend theatres and visit attractions.
Their spending contributes directly to the profitability and employment
opportunities within these businesses, and generates tax revenues for the
public sector. This is not the end of it, however, as direct spending on
accommodation, food, entertainment and souvenirs are paid out in wages
to employees and used to buy in additional supplies, which in turn helps
foster employment and further economic activity in other sectors of the
destination (see Figure 2.1).
This combination of direct (by tourists), indirect (e.g. resupply) and
induced spending (e.g. use of wages) is often referred to as the multiplier
effect. Each level of spending leads to further spending and the recircu-
lation of the original ‘tourist dollar’ in a destination’s economy. The effect
of the multiplier has been likened to the property of a stone dropped into
a pond. The initial impact making the largest splash, with the resulting
ripples spreading throughout the destination area. However, the overall
significance of the initial ‘splash’ and subsequent ‘ripples’ depends on a
number of interrelated factors, including the economic structure of the
destination area, the nature of visitor facilities, their ownership, levels of
investment and the type of tourism demand.
However, the economic gains derived from tourism are seldom exclusive
18 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

of social or environmental change. After the advent of mass travel in the

1960s, many people began to question the conventional wisdom of tourism
as an unconditional benefit. At first the short-term economic gains were
obvious. Yet unplanned and mismanaged tourism growth was beginning to
lead to serious environmental pollution and social conflict. Physical erosion,
health and safety issues, cultural exploitation and ‘concrete jungles’ were
starting to destroy the very reasons for visiting a destination in the first
place. Tourism was beginning to damage tourism.
Today, while the legacy of unplanned tourism remains, the emphasis on
new development activity has seemingly changed (on paper at least), as
many of the original economic claims have come unstuck or at the very least
reassessed. Environmental and social issues are now seen to be much more
significant in destinations, as many have begun to realize that tourism
development involves much more than just jobs and income. Now the pop-
ular (albeit somewhat ambiguous) concept of sustainable tourism accepts
that all tourism creates change in a destination. A planned approach is con-
sidered essential if the marginal benefits of tourism activity are to outweigh
its marginal costs, so this change remains in a positive direction.

TOURISM DESTINATION COMMUNITY

External
profits

Figure 2.1: Tourism and the Local Destination

ECONOMIC CHANGE
The key elements of economic change associated with destination tourism
include employment, local income and economic diversification and regen-
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 19

eration. Whenever tourism is discussed as a development option, it is these

features which still tend to receive the most attention. This is usually
because tourism is being used to help support or bolster a destination
economy, and also because economic impacts are generally the easiest (in
theory) to measure, are the most immediate to occur and reflect the
general development initiative of the private sector. However, while
tourism development undoubtedly supports employment, generates
income and helps to diversify destination economies, not all economic
impacts are necessarily positive. Indeed it would be somewhat irresponsible
to pretend that these do not have associated costs. Each community will be
affected in different ways, and while one place may be highly successful at
tourism, another may receive very little benefit.

Employment
Most jobs associated with tourism tend to come in the form of direct serv-
ice jobs in tourist-related facilities and attractions. These are primarily in
hotels, attractions, restaurants, shops selling discretionary goods and
travel firms. Further employment opportunities, however, arise in other
sectors of the economy which service and supply the tourism sector, such
as agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing and transport services.
Most direct tourism jobs, particularly in comparison to other industries,
tend to be:

(+) at entry-level, requiring little or moderate skills and training;

(+) relatively simple and cheaper to create;

(+) are more labour- rather than capital-intensive (except when new
facilities are required).

This tends to mean that tourism-related businesses are quicker to establish

and require less initial financial input upfront compared to many other
sectors of the economy. This is a particular benefit when creating new
employment opportunities for young people, the unskilled and others
who may be looking to supplement existing family income.
However, while tourists do spend money which directly supports local
jobs, a number of these jobs tend to be:

(-) low-paid;
20 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

(-) seasonal;

(-) part-time;

(-) have limited career prospects, except in certain sectors, such

as accommodation;

(-) have unsociable hours (especially in accommodation), with staff

turnover relatively high compared to other economic activities.

In addition to these general features, in less developed areas new tourism

enterprise often brings in outside expertise to manage facilities which
further weakens the employment benefits to the destination.
Yet while the seasonality and nature of employment may not be per-
fect, these do tend to strengthen the viability of jobs in other sectors of
the economy which supply tourism businesses, which in turn adds to gen-
eral household income in the destination. Indeed, it is difficult to argue
that tourism jobs do not represent a useful stepping-stone and strengthen
the overall job market, helping those with little skill or experience into
work, particularly where other employment opportunities are in short
supply. This being said, the characteristics of tourism and the type of
employment associated with it generally suit it to playing a supporting,
rather than dominant role in a local economy.

Income
Visitor spending not only affects wages and employment opportunities,
but generates income for both the public and private sector:

(+) tourist enterprises, like all local businesses, pay taxes to the
government, and as tourism expands so too do these tax
revenues;

(+) parking and admission fees collected from public sector

facilities also bring in further general revenue resulting from
tourism;

(+) if a local ‘bed tax’ or other form of ‘tourist tax’ is collected, this
can represent further tourism revenue to a destination.

Often these additional funds can be used for the maintenance of publicly
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 21

owned monuments and facilities, and contribute to future promotional

and development activity of the destination.
However, the size and diversity of the local economic area determines the
real value of tourism for a destination. Total visitor spending is meaningless
on its own as it does not show what proportion of that spend actually stays
in the local economy, after costs for imports have been deducted:

(-) virtually all local destinations have to import some goods and
services to provide for and satisfy their visitors’ needs and
demands (i.e. food imports, souvenirs, secondary supplies).

The cost of imports cannot be included in calculating tourism impacts, as

this does not give a true indication of the overall net benefit of tourism
activity. The greater the economic diversification of the destination area,
the less leakage there will be in terms of import costs. Indeed, the more
local suppliers and services are used for all aspects of the industry, the
greater the local economic benefit will be.

Economic Diversification and Regeneration

Relying on just one industry has proven to be problematic for many com-
munities, particularly when that industry has gone into decline. Tourism is
recognized as one industry which can help overcome the difficulties associ-
ated with the incumbent economic decline in these places, because:

(+) towns and cities are ‘natural’ destinations for visitors;

(+) tourism is often complementary to its other functions as a

service centre, meeting point and seat of government;

(+) the tourism labour force is essentially in place;

(+) tourism is relatively clean, particularly compared to more

traditional manufacturing and extractive industries.

As such, tourism tends to make a very attractive option in terms of local

economic diversification and regeneration. However, as tourism activity
grows, it tends to place demands on what are often limited land and
_ labour resources. One consequence of this is local inflation, where:

(-) land prices may be forced up;

22 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

(-) wage demands may increase;

(-) physical space becomes a premium.

Increased property values may be good in one sense, however, they also
lead to higher property taxes which some residents can ill-afford. This can
lead to a change in the population structure, with fewer young people,
and a non-resident community (holiday homes, etc.).
In terms of labour supply, fewer workers and increased tourism jobs can
lead to firms competing through pay to get sufficient staff to service their
tourism operations, which can affect viability. In some cases tourism can
also lead to a local monoculture where:

(-) tourist-related shops can be more profitable and others

traditionally supplying local needs are crowded out.

This is particularly evident in smaller centres where convenience goods may

be replaced with antique dealers, art galleries, speciality clothes shops and
tea rooms. While these facilities may add to the variety of local business,
five novelty stores but no grocer may be undesirable. In addition, if these
shops and facilities close down for the off-season, this can create a deserted
appearance in some town centres. While tourist spending undoubtedly sup-
ports a wider range of goods and services than what might normally be
feasible, these are sometimes of little use to local residents. A sense of pro-
portion and balance should be maintained.
Finally, the development of tourism is much more than simply trying to
attract visitors to an area. While economic regeneration and diversification
is generally good, it needs careful planning and management to avoid
negative impacts. Planning and management, however, are not free of
costs. The proper development of tourism requires formal administration,
survey research to underpin marketing activity, and impact studies to
ensure development is appropriate to the area:

(-) planning and management have operational costs, and

sometimes consultancy fees associated with them.

In addition, the added demands on local services by visitors need to be con-

sidered. Public safety, refuse collection, parking and open space are all influ-
enced by tourist use. However, these costs should be recovered when tourists
visit the area and spend their money in shops, attractions and other services.
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ® 23

The economic impact of tourism is not a simple derivative of total vis-

itor spending, but is affected by a number of different factors. While each
has significance at different levels of activity, it is the combined effect
which really determines the overall outcome of tourism as an economic
cost or benefit to a destination area. Each destination needs to understand
those factors that are most relevant to it, to determine the nature and
extent of their local impacts, and decide for themselves whether or not
increased tourism development will be appropriate for them.

SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGE
The key aspects of socio-cultural change associated with tourism destina-
tion development relate to local quality of life and sense of place. Social
impacts differ from economic issues for obvious reasons, but also because
they tend to have a more personal interpretation, take longer to appear
and are much more difficult to measure. Socio-cultural change can be both
real and perceived, and often tourism is but one of many factors which
can be linked to this change. Social impacts develop through straightfor-
ward direct interpersonal encounters, or result from indirect or secondary
association. However, whether real or perceived, direct or indirect, they
are all equally important to understand, because it is often the social
encounter (particularly if it is negative) which leaves one of the more last-
ing impressions on a destination and its visitors.

Quality of Life
Tourist spending in destinations often helps to support local facilities and
services which are also used by the resident community. Often it is the
additional income earned from tourism which helps keep some shops and
services in business, which in turn:

(+) affects personal income;

(+) helps to improve living standards for those more directly

involved in the industry;

(+) can make the difference between a business closing down in

the winter or staying open throughout the year;

(+) supports the diversity of restaurants, theatre and other cultural

entertainment;
24 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

(+) influence the assortment of goods for sale in many local shops
that would not be available in the same amount if tourism did
not exist to support them.

Tourist spending can also help a destination improve its facilities through
tourist revenues. Visitor spending contributes to community income
through taxes and admission fees, which in turn can be used to provide an
enhanced local environment, where:

(+) park areas are often improved, street furniture and design criteria
introduced;

(+) greater care and attention placed on overall environmental quality;

(+) new opportunities for recreation and other leisure pursuits which
might not otherwise be realized without the additional or initial
patronage generated from visitors to the area.

All of these aspects tend to enhance the local quality of life, by providing
further opportunity and choice which might not otherwise exist, at least at
the equivalent level or complexity.
Travel can also be personally rewarding as it can expose people to other
cultures and language, expand personal horizons and enhance one’s under-
standing of society. However, not everyone loves a tourist. Like anyone else,
tourists can be loud and obnoxious, carefree in their attitude, overly
demanding, damage the environment or be inconsiderate of property.
They can lead to:

(-) increased traffic congestion;

(-) crowding of public places;

(~) longer queues in local shops and facilities.

Although obviously not life threatening, these all represent points of poten-
tial irritation, affecting quality of life, which can be further aggravated by
seasonal strain. Crime may also increase, not necessarily caused by visitors,
but by others preying on their unfamiliarity with an area and their leisured,
albeit temporary, lifestyle. This can happen with:
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 25

(-) local shops overcharging;

(-) petty theft from cars and accommodation;

(-) pickpockets;

(-) or the more serious personal assault.

These social problems can further affect local quality of life, in particular
when crimes spill over into the resident community, and if the image of a
local destination declines with consequent fewer numbers and fewer services.
Large numbers of foreign visitors, with their different social habits, are
seen by some to be a threat to local traditions, bringing unwanted change:

(-) resentment and in the extreme, xenophobia can develop (see

Figure 2.2).

EUPHORIA
Initial phase of development: visitors and investors welcome, little planning or control mechanisms

APATHY
Visitors taken for granted: contact between resident and visitors becomes more commercial, most
activity concerned with marketing

ANNOYANCE
Saturation point getting close: residents develop misgivings about tourism, decision-makers increase
infrastructure rather than limit growth

ANTAGONISM
Irritation with tourism openly expressed by residents: visitors seen as cause of problems, planning is
remedial, but promotions increase to offset decline

XENOPHOBIA (?)
Original environment is totally changed: tourism is to blame and residents may become hostile to the
cause of that change

Figure 2.2: Modified Tourism ‘Irridex’ (after Doxey, 1976)

This model implies that as tourist numbers increase, they put pressure on
the normal way of life for destination residents. It suggests the response of
26 e THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

residents in different destinations will vary and change through time in a

relatively predictable pattern of increasing irritation.
However, this is not always the case. Indeed the socio-cultural impact of
tourism is often very different for different groups or individuals in a des-
tination. Some will be very much in favour of tourism, while others may be
negative (see Figure 2.3). This attitude is usually determined by a person's
level of involvement or association with tourism activity in the destination
area. Whatever the case, it is important to remember, that most people
have or will at some point in time be a visitor themselves, either in other
parts of their own country or overseas. Acknowledging our own actions
and behaviour is relevant to understanding the socio-cultural implications
of visitors elsewhere.
+ ATTITUDE =

FAVOURABLE UNFAVOURABLE
Active Aggressive promotion = a= Aggressive opposition
and support for tourism to tourism and tourists

BEHAVIOUR pee

FAVOURABLE UNFAVOURABLE
Passive Slight acceptance and Reluctant acceptance of
support of tourism tourism and tourists

Figure 2.3: Personal Attitudes Towards Tourism

(source: Bjorklund and Philbruck, 1974, in Ryan, 1991)

Sense of Place
Tourists are often attracted to features of a destination which its residents
may take for granted. Tourism can play a role in:

(+) revitalizing local culture and traditions;

(+) establishing or enhancing a sense of pride in local heritage;

(+) enriching local understanding and interest in history and culture.

Each of these can further help to strengthen civic pride and a sense of com-
munity. This is particularly important culturally and economically as it can
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ® 27

help a community focus on a direction for future development and growth.

In addition, what may attract tourists, such as recreation and leisure oppor-
tunities, a clean environment, local friendliness and sense of place, can also:

(+) influence industries and businesses to relocate or expand in the area.

Tourism can also lead to the preservation of culture, with past traditions
reinvigorated. It often creates an audience for local arts and therefore:

(+) celebrations and festivals can become tourist attractions;

(+) crafts, folklore, dance and music can be given a new lease of life
when they are seen to be of interest to visitors.

All of this can help improve the image of a community to the outside
world, which when experienced by the visitor tends to encourage them to
stay longer, spend more, return again and recommend the destination to
others. This can further lead to a more positive outlook on tourism, particu-
larly when it can be seen that cultural preservation brings an economic
benefit to the destination.
However, while travel does, in most cases, help to widen a person’s per-
spective and understanding, it can also lead to the commercialization of
local culture and tradition. Many aspects of Western culture have become
universal, and one consequence of this has been the development of
tourism which neglects a destination’s sense of place, where:

(-) festivals, activities and traditions which were perhaps core

elements of a community may be transformed to better suit a
growing tourist market;

(-) once authentic events may be restaged to make them more

attractive;

(-) crafts may be modified and mass produced to make them more
saleable and other features of culture broken down and packaged
in a fashion attractive to the foreign visitor.

This has lead to a similarity in destinations, where a once distinguishing

feature has been modified, becoming just like any other and widely
available in the ubiquitous tourism marketplace.
28 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Tourism can both improve as well as detract from the socio-cultural fab-
ric of a destination. If problems are left to develop of their own accord,
then the negative consequence may soon outweigh the benefits originally
experienced. This can lead to a poor visitor experience, social agitation
and possibly serious market decline. It is in everyone's interest to ensure
that the development of tourism seeks to maintain a destination’s unique
identity and sense of place, for its residents as well as the visitors.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
The key elements of environmental change connected with tourism devel-
opment primarily focus on aspects of jand and landscape in the built and
natural environment. These physical impacts tend to be the most visually
apparent, because the development of tourism, like any other develop-
ment activity, will change the physical location to some extent, wherever it
exists. These physical impacts also tend to be the most emotive, as tourism
can both protect and destroy the environment of a destination area. This
issue is of particular importance because the destination’s environment in
all its forms is often the key reason for initial visitor interest in an area. If
too much change occurs in any direction, the very reason for tourism
development may be removed.

The Built Environment

Tourism has in many places provided both the means and justification for
the conservation of our built or man-made heritage. Tourist interest in dif-
ferent aspects of culture has helped:

(+) to stimulate funds for, and the practice of, conservation and rehabili-
tation of historic buildings, sites and monuments all over the world;

(+) re-establish and present individual buildings and places of

important events to reflect their former significance;

(+) encourage the regeneration, redevelopment and landscaping of

town and city districts which no longer serve their original
functions, having become derelict or rundown;

(+) the renovation of many redundant industrial and commercial sites

into new shops and services, visitor attractions, hotels, apartments
and exhibition space which would not likely exist if it were not for
the tourist interest;
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 29

(+) lead to a renewed interest in transport systems and infrastructure

from an earlier era, for example, steam railways, trams and river-
boats, both as an attraction in themselves and as an actual means
of transport;

(+) the creation of ‘development control’ policies and legislation,

designed to provide a more active approach to maintaining
environmental quality when new tourism development takes place.

Unfortunately these have generally followed significant damage caused by

unplanned development of the industry and the significant influx of visitors.
Although tourism has served to enhance our appreciation of nature and
heritage, it has also led to increased pressure on these resources. The lack of
planning or a strategic approach to the development of tourism has caused:

(-) problems of architectural pollution, where new buildings are

somewhat at odds with the original character of an area;

(-) the creation of ‘strip’ or ‘ribbon development’ and urban sprawl

particularly on the approach or access to destination areas;

(-) the straining of local service infrastructure, causing breakdowns in

the supply of fresh water, sewerage systems and electricity;

(-) traffic congestion and parking problems leading to local

aggravation, noise and environmental damage.

Many towns and cities have generally established some form of balance
between human activity and their environment, but the haphazard devel-
opment of tourism and the subsequent arrival of visitors has often affected
this balance, causing a number of local problems. This is particularly true in
heritage settings. Towns and cities originally designed and built before the
motor car, with narrow streets and lanes, are particularly vulnerable to the
modern mass transit of visitors. While the impact of individual tourists is
rarely catastrophic on their own, the cumulative effect of many thousands
over time is when the damage becomes most evident, with:

(-) wear and tear of stone fabric, worn down by the continual
abrasion of tourist feet;
30 e THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

(-) fumes from tourist vehicles and its effect on building facades;

(-) compaction of roadways and implications for underground sewers;

(-) structural damage caused by traffic vibration;

(-) graffiti and vandalism.

All of these issues need to be considered in the planning of tourism in

heritage destinations. Without greater care and attention paid to these
longer-term impacts, irreplaceable elements of cultural heritage may be
damaged beyond reasonable repair.

The Natural Environment

A key feature of the latter part of the twentieth century, predominantly in
Western society at least, has been the move towards an urban culture. This
shift in living patterns, coupled with better mobility and greater leisure
time has placed a renewed interest on the natural environment outside
the urban form, both nationally and internationally, as a place for recre-
ation and leisure. Increased demand and the consequent flow of visitor
traffic to the rural hinterland, mountains and coast in many countries has
increased pressure on these resources. At the same time, it has served to
highlight the importance of environmental conservation if we are to con-
tinue to enjoy these places in the future.
Some of the more positive physical impacts of tourism in natural set-
tings have been:

(+) the creation of park areas and renewed attention on the

importance of wildlife and biological preservation;

(+) the ‘sun, sand and sea’ factors of tourism have highlighted
concerns over ozone depletion and global warming and what this
could mean for the place as well as the visitor;

(+) the depletion and contamination of water resources at sea and

inland has also helped draw further attention to the need for
better environmental stewardship and planning for all types of
development activity, not just tourism.

However, while problems with tourism’s impact has engendered greater

 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY 31

TOURIST
ACTIVITY

peace 2.4: Tourism and Environment Impact Relationships

(adapted from Wall and Wright, 1977, found in Mathieson and Wall, 1982)

concern for the environment, it has also created a new demand for these
natural places, which might not otherwise exist, particularly for those areas
most readily accessible. More and more people travel to places highlighted
for their scenic beauty or unique natural setting, leading to even greater
environmental destruction. To meet growing demand, new roads are built
or access improved, hotels are developed, with even more areas opened up
to absorb the growing numbers (see Figure 2.4). The effect has been:

(-) the loss of vegetation for car-parks and other visitor facilities;

(-) trampling of plants and reduction in local biodiversity;

(-) the compaction and erosion of the soil;

(-) the general spread of garbage and litter.

Water quality has also been affected by:

32 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

(-) the reduction in water tables for consumption;

(-) pollution from increased run-off;

(-) the dumping of untreated sewage in lakes, rivers and the sea.

Finally, wildlife has also been affected by:

(-) disruption of predator-prey relationships and breeding patterns;

(-) loss of natural habitat to development;

(-) direct loss of wildlife populations through trophy and souvenir

hunting and the trade in exotic species.

However, one positive outcome of these negative physical impacts has been
the growth of interest in more environmentally sensitive and responsible
forms of travel and tourist activity. Green tourism and alternative forms of
tourism have been proposed by some as a key response to environmental
degradation caused by the industry, with:

(+) low impact, unspoilt and environmentally friendly labels becoming

commonplace both in new product features and destination policy;

(+) many travel firms are now promoting themselves as having ‘green
credentials’ and expressing a keen interest in conservation.

However, similar to the creation of development control policies in the

built environment, much of this response has been superficial:

(-) with little more than platitudes to the broader concept of

sustainability, after the damage has been done.

As with any kind of development, tourism will create change which may be
inappropriate, obtrusive and cause problems if it does not reflect the sensitiv-
ities of the site or destination area. Careful planning and management of the
industry are fundamental to mitigating tourism’s environmental concerns.

FACTORS AFFECTING CHANGE

Tourism is a complex mixture of business and social activities, and its impacts
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 33

do not necessarily happen to the same extent, at the same rate or are of
equal importance in all locations. Indeed, what may be the impact of tourism
in one place will not necessarily occur in another, even if it has similar fea-
tures and is only just a few miles down the road. This means there is no sim-
ple cause-and-effect relationship which exists between a tourist destination
and its visitors for all places or at all times. This is because the nature of
tourism impacts are destination specific. Indeed, they are influenced by:

¢ local morphology (including political, social and economic structures of

the destination;

¢ local ecology and environmental quality;

¢ the type of tourism activity and number of visitors involved;

¢ the difference in social attributes between residents and visitors;

¢ the nature of the interaction which takes place between them.

All of these factors are key elements of either tourism supply (essentially
attributes of the destination) or tourism demand (the visitors). It is the
match between supply and demand which effectively determines the
ability of a destination to absorb tourism positively within its local environ-
ment and socio-economic structure.

Tourism Supply
Key elements of tourism supply in destination areas relate to the socio-
economic structure of the destination, the nature of facilities and environ-
ment, ownership and aspects of investment. None of these features acts in
isolation, but tend to influence each other, and it is how they interrelate
which establishes the overall impact of tourism in a destination area.

Socio-economic Structure: The economic gains derived from tourism

are directly related to the size, structure and diversity of the destination’s
economy. While total visitor spend is important as this partly determines
economic impact, what they actually buy or spend their money on is more
important. This is because:

if the needs and demands of visitors cannot be met from local

resources, then these will have to be imported.
34 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

For the purposes of destination impact analysis:

¢ imports are essentially anything and everything connected with

tourism not produced and/or supplied from within the destination's
own economic area (i.e. supplied or produced regionally, nationally
or internationally).

As with all forms of imports, these have to be paid for, which means the
amount of visitor spending associated with these imports leaves the local
economy, and the level of positive impact is reduced.
Paying for imported goods and services in tourism is referred to as
leakage. The greater the diversity of a receiving economy generally means
it is more able to meet these needs without resorting to imports and so a
lower leve! of leakage. Thus the larger and more developed the destina-
tion economy, the better able it is to supply the tourism industry from its
own resources and the greater the economic impact:

¢ the level of economic leakage tends to increase as the size and

diversity of the receiving economy gets smaller, and vice versa.

In this sense cities tend to get a better return from tourism than towns, and
towns will gain more than villages, and so on. More remote and rural areas
will generally have to import more goods and services to meet increasing
demand and thus tend to have higher levels of economic leakage.

Economic leakage tends to decrease as the size

and diversity of the destination gets larger

Ownership: The economic benefits of tourism are also directly affected

by the extent of local ownership;

@ any local facility or attraction which is owned by ‘foreign’ (i.e. non-

local) companies or individuals tends to have a smaller impact per
customer than those owned and operated by persons drawn from
the local resident community.

For example, in terms of accommodation, small hotels, guest-houses and

bed-and-breakfast services, if locally owned and operated, tend to have a
greater local economic impact, per visitor, than larger foreign-owned
hotels. While the large hotel may hold more visitors overall, the majority
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 35

of direct profits will most likely leave the local economy because they
remit to the individual or parent company involved. This is also true for all
shops, facilities and attractions in the destination:

¢ notwithstanding the obvious benefits of local employment

opportunities and other benefits, in all situations, ownership has a
significant influence on where most of the profits will flow and
hence the impact on the destination economy.

This issue of ownership may also affect the supply of resources used by the
facility and its personnel. It is possible that foreign-owned facilities, which
tend to form part of a larger company, or have a head office elsewhere,
will get a better economy of scale in terms of the purchase of supplies, by
securing their resources from a national or central supplier:

¢ the result of external resourcing has the effect of reducing the

overall impact on the destination.

Similarly, a foreign-owned facility may also use labour and management

staff not drawn from the destination’s labour pool, but brought in from
other locations:

¢ wages paid out to these non-locals will also tend to leak out of the
destination economy as they remit their earnings to home savings
and investments.

A destination's economic benefits are

directly related to the level of local
ownership of tourism operations

Investment: Tourists increasingly seek and demand better value for their
money. They are looking for higher quality from tourism suppliers, but not
necessarily at a higher price. Quality improvement, both in terms of struc-
ture and service, requires investment. Another key aspect of tourism sup-
ply concerns the level and type of investment made by both government
and industry in developing tourism:

¢ investment in new facilities and infrastructure, upgrading and

adapting older attractions, in education and training and in time
and effort.
36 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

All of these cost money, which will have to be provided by both the public
and private sector:

¢ public investment is usually made in terms of service

infrastructure, transport networks and local amenities.

Generally, these are made to improve the basic foundations for tourism,
and the incentive for private sector development. If this is drawn from local
capital resources, then this may represent not only a direct cost to the local
economy, but also an opportunity cost, as the funds may have been used
for other development opportunities which are forgone in favour of the
tourism investment. If, however, the investment funds are drawn from
regional, national or international sources, then the direct and opportunity
costs are significantly reduced, if not eliminated:

¢ private capital investment, on the other hand, generally relates to

actual visitor attractions, facilities and other revenue-generating
activities.

The private sector is unlikely to invest if there are problems with accessibility
or a lack of other basic infrastructure which would make it difficult for vis-
itors to get to the destination. Both public and private investment are usually
necessary, especially if much private sector capital is to find its way into
tourism investment opportunities in destination areas. However, the public
sector is also sometimes reluctant to invest if it cannot see a direct benefit to
the community. This is particularly true where local public funds for invest-
ment are limited, or where there is greater demand or need for other types
of development. In this case external sources of finance may be the result.
Generally, the smaller the economic area in question the greater the
likelihood of external finance. As with forms of ownership, however,
external sources of private sector investment generally relate to higher
levels of leakage relating to interest on the capital borrowed, and thus a
smaller return to the local destination economy.

Nature of Facilities: Just as the structure of the economy is important

to economic gain, so too is the nature of the facilities available in a des-
tination. While much of tourism is travelling to see other places, one very
popular activity for many visitors involves a certain amount of shopping.
Some only buy one or two small souvenirs, while others may have saved
specifically to look for a more significant memento of their visit:
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 37

¢ when there are limited opportunities for visitors to spend their

‘holiday money’ then the economic benefit of tourism tends to be
limited as well;

¢ similarly, the greater the diversity of attractions and facilities on

offer ina destination, the greater the opportunity to derive
income from visitors through admissions fees and charges.

If opportunities to spend ‘holiday money’

are minimal, the economic benefits of
tourism will be seriously limited

It may be overstating the obvious, but if visitors have no place to spend

their money, the economic benefits of tourism to a destination will be
seriously restricted. Not surprising then, natural, wilderness and rural set-
tings tend to achieve lower returns from tourism than more urbanized
areas, because the level and diversity of spending opportunities tends to
be less. However, even in towns and cities, economic impact can be signif-
icantly restricted if there are large numbers of visitors but minimal oppor-
tunities in which to shop for discretionary goods. This is particularly true of
destinations which generally have large day-visitor markets but few types
of overnight-stay tourists.
As with the issues of ownership and investment, locally owned and oper-
ated shops, facilities and accommodation will bring a greater return to the
destination than national or foreign-owned chain stores and attractions. If
these shops and facilities are supplied with locally produced goods, then a
greater proportion of visitor spending will remain in the destination. Local
employment created by all types of facilities are also a benefit. Whatever
the case, the more opportunities there are in a destination where a visitor
can spend their money, such as on accommodation, catering, attractions
and services, the greater the economic impact will tend to be.

Nature of Destination: Many aspects of tourism supply tend to focus

on the economy, but the physical and cultural environment are also core
aspects which influence the level and direction of tourism-induced change.
In terms of ecology and environmental quality, the physical environment
of the destination is an important factor:

# more built-up areas, in towns and cities, will generally be better able
to absorb visitors without significant environmental degradation;
38 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

# in contrast, more ecologically sensitive destinations, such as rural

areas, mountains and lakes, tend to be less resilient to visitor use
and more susceptible to environmental damage.

Each destination is different and will respond

differently to the development of tourism

Clearly each ecosystem is different and some can withstand significant

visitor use without showing signs of strain, while others may show a major
change with only minimal visitor contact.
In terms of socio-cultural impacts the nature of the destination is also a
significant factor:

¢ again, towns and cities tend better to absorb the tourist function
without causing significant social disruption.

Urban destinations tend to be more culturally and socially diverse. As a result

they are more dynamic in dealing with the complexities of tourism demand.
In contrast, more remote, rural and small-scale destinations tend to be far
more homogeneous in their social and cultural structure and respond or react
more strongly or tend to be more sensitive to socio-cultural change. Socio-
cultural impacts are more pronounced and significant where the degree of
similarity between the resident population and the visitors is minimal:

¢ the greater the difference in culture, social status, language,

wealth, religion and values, the greater the tendency for
socio-cultural impacts to emerge.

Tourism Demand
Facility ownership, economic structure, investment and the nature of
tourist facilities are all elements of tourism supply. However, these factors
will not alone determine the impact of tourism. They need visitors (tourism
demand) to complete the supply and demand function. The central aspects
of demand which most affect tourism change include the type of tourist
(e.g. individual or mass), where they come from, the purpose of their visit
and how long they stay in the destination.

Tourist Type: Clearly the total volume of tourists visiting a destination

is important, as this will affect the overall level of spending and economic
benefit. However, there are many different categories of tourist and
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 39

tourism, and not all have the same effect. Some types of tourists spend
more per person per day than others, which is generally related to their
own socio-demographic characteristics and form of travel:

@ the type of tourist, their individual spending power and the products
actually purchased can be more relevant than total numbers.

On the whole, the more individual or independent tourist will have the
greater economic impact per person than the mass or large groups of visitors.
Individuals or small groups are more likely to make their own arrangements,
stay in a variety of accommodation, eat out in a diversity of restaurants and
visit attractions and facilities according to their own schedule. They are also
more likely to pay for tourist services and accommodation directly in the des-
tination area, apart from travel to and from the destination.
In contrast, at the other extreme, mass or large groups of visitors tend
to travel in pre-arranged groups. Very often these ‘all-inclusive tours have
virtually everything decided and paid for in advance of travel. Catering,
accommodation, entrance fees and activities are usually all packaged prior
to the actual visit. In addition, as schedules and thus timing can be critical
to the organized group so the opportunity or ability for these visitors to
spend money locally can be minimized, at least outside the pre-arranged
facilities. Although a broad generalization:

¢ small groups of independent, higher-spending visitors can be more

beneficial than large organized groups of low-spending visitors
despite the absolute numbers.

In terms of social issues, the type of tourism demand is one of the key factors
in determining the level of impact tourists will have on a resident population:

¢ the ratio of residents to visitors, and the degree of actual contact

between the two is often seen as a central factor in the attitudes
displayed towards tourism and tourists in destination areas.

Not all tourists will have the same impact

in every destination

In the main the more visitors, the greater the possibility for interaction and
impact. However, while large groups of visitors cannot help occupying space
40 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

in the destination and potentially displace local people from some areas, this
may not cause significant socio-cultural change. On the other hand crowding
of public space, filling public transport, or contributing to general congestion
in town centres, shops and services, may cause a certain degree of aggrava-
tion and intolerance. In contrast, small groups will not have the same physical
presence, but their impact may be more acute, because they may develop a
more personal contact with the destination and its population.
In terms of environmental issues (and leaving aside behavioural charac-
teristics), smaller groups of visitors will have less of an impact than large
groups at any one point in time. Smaller groups can be more readily
accommodated without many extra facilities and services. However, small
groups and individuals tend to be more adventurous and may explore an
environment more thoroughly than larger groups which confine them-
selves to the more established elements of a destination:

¢ over time the individual's impact may become more significant

through the cumulative effect of several independent visitors if
there is not enough time for a particular environmental setting to
recover from previous use.

Point of Origin: Where a visitor comes from will also significantly affect
the level of tourism impact. Overseas or international tourists are more likely
to spend more per day than domestic or intra-national tourists, primarily
because of the cost of accommodation and travel. However, this distinction
becomes less significant in terms of the impact in actual destination areas
below the national or regional economic level:

¢ there may be little difference in the actual spending patterns

between domestic and foreign visitors in a destination if they are
both only visiting for the day or a few hours.

However, foreign visitors may be more likely to collect souvenirs which

reflect local culture and the area than domestic tourists who may share the
same core cultural background, values and identity. Although tourist origin
may also be relevant in terms of actual spending power, not all domestic or
foreign visitors display the same disposition towards holiday spending:

* some groups of visitors will come from areas (nationally or

internationally) where the economy is stronger or perhaps weaker,
and this will also influence their spending patterns:
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 41

¢ different types of international visitors are also likely to have

different attitudes to the types of artefacts, souvenirs and
services they will spend their money on.

The distinction is less significant for domestic tourism, albeit still relevant,
but becomes more so when discussing the spending patterns of inter-
national tourists.

Where tourists come from can influence the

type and intensity of impact

In terms of social impact, point of origin is particularly relevant because it

is the difference in socio-cultural background which is a key determinant
in socio-cultural impacts. This often very much relates to how tourism is
perceived in the destination and is reflected in the degree of contact with
visitors and the age differences between the two groups:

# younger people tend to be more curious, adventurous and are

more open to and accepting of change;

# younger people are more likely to make contact with visitors,

perhaps by working in tourism-related facilities, and
experience the features which distinguish the two differing
cultures.

Point of origin is also relevant to environmental impacts, as different

cultures can have differing attitudes and responses to both the natural
and built environment:

¢ some plants and animals may be very special or significant to one

culture, but merely peripheral to another;

¢ some cultures may place a much higher value on specific aspects

of the natural or built environment which another culture may
take for granted, or feel it is of little consequence.

In either case, how the visitor responds may have a significant impact on
the resident population.

Length of Stay: Accommodation and food are two key elements of the
42 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

long-stay spending pattern. Generally, the longer the visit, the greater the
opportunity to spend and hence the higher level of economic impact:

¢ day-visitors tend to be the lower-spending tourist, due to how long

they are actually in the destination, which affects their
opportunity to shop.

The length of stay can enhance as well as

reduce the overall impact of tourism

Day-visitors are also more likely to try to see as much as possible in terms
of the environment and tourist facilities, rather than souvenir hunting or
other forms of luxury shopping. Somewhere in the middle of the day-visit
and long-stay market is the short-break visitor. This group may actually be
the more beneficial, because the accommodation and catering outlets are
used as they are with long-stay visitors:

¢ they have more time to explore, visit attractions and shop than the
day-visitor, but they are also less likely to be concerned about
stretching their money over the longer stay because they are only
in the destination for a few days. Hence they spend more per
person per day than the long-stay or day-visit tourist.

The importance of this market is witnessed in the significant growth in

promoting city-break and short-break opportunities during the 1990s,
which continue to expand.
Length of stay is also relevant to social and environmental impacts.
Socially, tourists who stay longer will obviously have more time to meet
the resident population, get to know them better and begin a process of
cultural communication and understanding. In contrast short-stay visitors
may make little or limited contact and not really get to know anything of
where they are, which can also lead to misunderstanding, ignorance and
even social intolerance from either group's point of view. Hence longer-
stay visitors may have a significant impact by getting closer to the resident
population, leaving a deeper and more lasting impression than the fleet-
ing, superficial contact of the short-stay visitor.
Environmentally, length of stay may also influence the level of concern
over ecological and environmental quality in the destination. Longer-stay
visitors may develop an affinity with the place, showing greater concern for
the impact they have on the structure and environment of the destination
.
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY « 43

The reason for visiting a destination can

affect the type and level of impact

Purpose of Visit: Why people visit an area is also important to different

types of tourism. Business travellers, on expense accounts, are likely to spend
more per night than any other type of tourist. They will generally eat well,
use extra services due to limited time and may indeed come back again in
the future for a more leisurely holiday when time permits. However, if busi-
ness tourists stay in accommodation and eat in restaurants which in them-
selves make little direct contribution to the destination economy (see points
above), then there may be little difference in the level of impact. Similarly,
people visiting and staying with friends or relatives in a destination (VFR
tourists) tend to make a smaller contribution to the local economy, than
tourists staying in commercial accommodation, because the costs of doing so
have effectively been removed from the spending equation. They are less
likely to eat out frequently in restaurants than if they were staying in a local
hotel. Of course more food may have to be purchased by the host family
which does contribute to the local economy in other ways.
Tourism and tourists come in many forms, shapes and sizes. Whether as
holiday-makers, on business or just visiting friends and relatives, every
community has tourists, and is affected by the industry in one way or
another. Indeed, very few individuals (in the developed economies at least)
are not directly or indirectly involved in tourism themselves, or contribute
to its effect, either in receiving visitors in their community or as visitors
themselves somewhere else. Whatever the reason for travel, wherever
they come from, or how long they stay, all visitors contribute to the costs
and benefits of tourism in a destination.

MAXIMIZING BENEFITS - MINIMIZING COSTS

Economic, social and environmental impacts are an inevitable element of
tourism development. However, the extent to which they represent either a
cost or a benefit will differ from place to place, and is dependent on many
factors inside and outside the control of destination areas. This being said,
there are several measures that can be taken which can help destinations
influence the direction of tourism-induced change in a positive direction.

Economic Measures
The economic benefits of tourism in a destination area are primarily derived
from the level of initial visitor spending which remains in the destination
44 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

economy after the cost of imports and other leakages have been removed.
Thus one way of increasing the benefit is to minimize the leaks:

/ Wherever possible, use local suppliers and wholesalers to

provide goods and services used in tourism businesses - if they
are initially uncompetitive, tell them and offer the opportunity
to negotiate a better price;
Encourage local suppliers and wholesalers to use other local
producers and manufacturers to increase the destination supply
chain further and help decrease leakages;
Use local or locally based businesses’ services when necessary
(such as accountants, lawyers, planners, marketing and business
consultants) - if they are initially uncompetitive, give them the
opportunity to renegotiate;
Use local or locally based financial services, such as building
societies and credit unions, and seek to negotiate more
favourable services and rates for local tourism businesses;
Seek to provide incentives for local entrepreneurs and other
interested parties to become more active participants in the
tourism business;
Seek to increase opportunities for shopping, particularly for
arts, crafts and other luxury goods which are unique to the
area, produced by local artisans or sourced by local suppliers;
Encourage visitors to stay longer by increasing the diversity and
range of activities and facilities (both ticketed and free) - this
could also encourage the potential of future repeat visits as well:
Take deliberate steps to encourage more specific (and higher-
spending) tourist markets which are most appropriate to the
destination (see Chapter 5);
Take steps to upgrade current tourist products, offering greater
value for money and encouraging a positive tourist experience:
Encourage all tourism-related businesses to hire local people,
not only as sales assistants and ticket agents, but as
management staff as well:
Use local construction firms, contractors, methods and
materials wherever possible to reflect local character in the
development of facilities and other attractions:
Measure and monitor performance (see Chapter 9) to know what
is working, what is not and where improvements can be made.
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY e¢ 45

Socio-cultural Measures
Tourism can be a catalyst for change in a destination, but the extent, nature
and direction of this change is not always predictable. There is no single or
absolute socio-cultural change which results from tourism, and different
people will respond and be affected in different ways. Socio-cultural
impacts take time to develop and it is often difficult to define or distinguish
change caused primarily by tourism, and that which may be the result of
other sources of change. However, when the following methods are includ-
ed in the overall development process, the costs and benefits should be
more readily identified, acknowledged and managed:

Y Plan and develop tourism based on the goals and priorities of the
local destination (see Chapter 6);
Y Encourage and develop tourism, and attract tourists which are
most appropriate to the destination’s resources and its people;
¥Y Involve both the public and private sector in the development of
tourism, to help maintain direction and quality in the products
and services which reflect community interest and values;
Inform the destination community of why visitors come to the
area and encourage them to participate in local visitor activities;
Provide opportunities for community participation in festivals and
events, as this can enhance community pride and public interest;
Provide the opportunity for local residents to use visitor facilities
and attractions at a privileged rate during the off-season, as this
not only allows them to experience and appreciate what visitors
come to see, but gives something back to the community;
Deal with the industry's current problems before seeking to
develop tourism further - ignoring issues and complaints may
only lead to more serious problems in the future;
Encourage more responsible and appropriate tourist behaviour
by informing visitors and tour operators of local customs and
values with respect to culture and the environment;
Develop a tourism public awareness programme to highlight both
the costs and benefits of tourism to the destination, and the
role the community plays in managing tourism’'s impacts;
Develop some form of public recognition or award system for
tourism businesses, employees and members of the public which
highlights achievements, service excellence and reflects
community spirit.
46 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Environmental Measures
Any form of physical development activity, wherever and for whatever rea-
son, creates a change in the environment in which it is set. The management
of this change is essentially a question of trade-offs: one outcome may be
seen as acceptable, while another may be totally incompatible with the
development objective. Whether in areas of high scenic value, cultural inter-
est, architectural significance or ecological importance, all destinations have
a physical ability to absorb tourism activity beyond which the associated
change will tend to be negative. In tourism, the trade-offs are most often
associated with the number of visitors using an environment spatially and
temporally, As a result, managing the environmental impacts of tourism is
often one of controlling visitor numbers and behaviour, one way or another.

¥ Control fhe number and locations of access points, through the

siting of car-parks, accommodation, and means of transport to
and within a destination area;
Y Restrict access through the use of tickets and reservations -
limiting numbers to certain times of the day, month or year, the
length of stay, or under other specific conditions of use;
Y Use the price mechanism to influence time of use by increasing
or decreasing the cost of visiting a destination through entrance
fees, local tourist taxes, discounts and other incentives - this can
both encourage or discourage different tourist markets;
¥ Use (or absence) of signposting to influence visitor behaviour,
either to follow certain routes, highlight restrictions, inform
and educate, or discourage casual visitors;
¥ Environmental hardening through the renovation and
replacement of different aspects of the environment with more
durable and/or less use-sensitive materials, such as boardwalks,
paving and wood chip trails;
¥ ‘Demarket' certain areas by producing promotional material
which highlights other attractions and activities to influence
usage patterns - offer alternative activities and sites which are
more resilient to continued use;
Y Use land-use zones spatially to identify areas for further
development or certain types of activity, and others where any
development or tourist use will be strictly limited or excluded -
Zoning can also be used to manage areas in time where different
activities can use a space during different hours, days or seasons;
contd
 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ¢ 47

Y Develop new facilities, attractions and offer alternative

activities away from areas already under pressure to help
spread out the overall impact to the wider area and reduce
potential problems in any one location (i.e. dispersion);
Y Cluster attractions, amenities and visitor services in areas more
able to cope with increased activity, possibly near destination
entry points to discourage dispersal and draw off pressure from
more fragile areas of the destination (i.e. ‘honey-potting’);
/Y Encourage the development of more environmentally sensitive
and responsible forms of tourism and visitor activities - support
tourism growth that is incremental, reflecting the priorities and
objectives of the destination, which seeks to complement not
compete with the destination’s environmental setting.

WHERE TO NEXT?
Tourism can be a highly profitable industry, particularly at the national and
international level. The effect in local or regional destinations, however, can
be quite different with impacts highly dependent on local conditions and
proactive management. It is important to remember that tourism carries
with it both costs and benefits, and understanding these impacts is the first
step in developing a more successful and sustainable destination industry:

¢ tourism does create jobs, but it is no economic panacea - it is

better suited to play a supporting rather then key role ina
destination's economy;

¢ the more successful destinations are those where tourism is highly

integrated in the local economy - goods and services supplied by
local firms, attractions and facilities locally owned, and local
residents employed at all levels;

¢ tourism development has an opportunity cost - it requires the use

of resources and a commitment to long-term management that
might be better directed elsewhere;

¢ environmental quality is a fundamental element of tourism and its

planning must pay close attention to the setting to ensure the
integrity of the resource is maintained;
48 e THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ areceptive host community is an important feature of successful

tourism development - resident annoyance or antagonism can lead
to more serious social problems;

# many problems and issues can be resolved or reduced through

comprehensive planning which takes account of various concerns -
development can then be based on rational decision-making in the
best interests of the destination.

Better planning and management of tourism is the key to an effective

response to the issues discussed in this chapter. However, there is no uni-
versal solution which is equally effective in all situations. Each destination
must decide for itself what is the most appropriate path for tourism devel-
opment in their area. Getting organized, deciding what it is they want to
develop, understanding their resources and their limitations, knowledge
of their current and potential tourist markets, dealing with management
issues and monitoring tourism’s impacts are all fundamental to this end.
This chapter has explained how differences in tourism supply and demand
influence tourism impacts. Now the subsequent chapters will show how
destinations can evaluate their own situation and seek to develop a posi-
tive tourism response.

FURTHER READING on Tourism Impacts

Economist Intelligence Unit (1992) The Tourism Industry and the Environment,
Special Report No. 2453. London: Business International Limited.
Glasson, J., Godfrey, K. and Goodey, B. (1995) Towards Visitor Impact Management.
Aldershot, UK: Avebury.
Hughes, H.L. (1994) ‘Tourism multiplier studies: a more judicious approach’, in
Tourism Management, Vol. 15, No. 6, pp 403-406.
Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. (1982) Tourism: economic, physical and social impacts.
London: Longman Group UK Limited.
Nelson, J. G., Butler, R. and Wall, G. (eds) (1993) Tourism and Sustainable
Development: monitoring, planning, managing. Department of Geography
Publications Series No. 37, University of Waterloo, Canada.
Ryan, C. (1991) Recreational Tourism: a social science perspective. London: Routledge.
Theobold, W. (ed) (1994) Global Tourism: the next decade. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
CoH
A PtobyReved) WH RoEsE

Where to start?
Fundamentals of tourism organization

INTRODUCTION
Successful tourism development will not simply happen on its own. It must be
made to happen. To do so requires time and effort from both public and
private sector interests to ensure development activity has a focus, based on
policy, goals and objectives, not just some haphazard collection of discon-
nected ideas. Co-ordination is the key, and the key to co-ordination is getting
organized, which generally means forming some sort of tourism association
or committee to help lead tourism development activity in a particular direc-
tion. The destination’s tourism association then becomes responsible for cre-
ating a positive tourism policy and beginning to prepare the destination’s
comprehensive tourism planning and management strategy.
Many destinations, however, probably have some form of tourism group
already, and there are numerous examples of local groups actively supporting
tourism in their area. Indeed, different political structures, history, tradition
and statutory responsibility means there can be no single organizational
structure suitable for all locations. Whatever form they take, however, one
thing many groups have in common has been a tendency to focus efforts on
advertising, promotions or the provision of information, rather than a more
comprehensive approach to industry development and management. In
addition, seldom have resident interests been actively involved in the tourism
development discussion for their community.
Given the diversity of tourism destinations, it is not really valid to pro-
mote one form of organization over another. Yet whatever form they take,
there are a number of core operations and activities which should be con-
sidered by all tourism groups, including co-ordination and leadership,
policy, marketing and communications, hospitality training and customer
care and monitoring and research. Each of these elements has an important
50 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

role to play in the successful development and ongoing operation of

tourism in a local destination. With this in mind, this chapter looks at the
overall role and function of the tourism association in the planning and
development of a successful and sustainable tourist destination.

THE TOURISM ORGANIZATION

There is no perfect prototype of a ‘tourism association’ to suit each and every
destination. Indeed, the range of names used to describe tourism groups (e.g.
tourism board, association, committee, advisory group or visitor and conven-
tion bureau), serves well to highlight the broad diversity of approach applied
to the industry in many different locations. The name of course is not really
that important, but rather it is the ability of the organization to manage and
direct tourism development in the destination given the range and diversity
of individuals, groups and businesses so often involved.
Traditionally, the role of tourism development has deferred to either a
local Chamber of Commerce, or some form of economic development com-
mittee or agency within local government. Local government clearly has a
role to play as they are ultimately accountable to the resident community for
the use of public goods which so often form a core element of a destination’s
tourism product. Equally, though, the private sector must be involved as some
aspects of tourism development are clearly more appropriate to commercial
interests. However, neither approach in isolation has really ever taken a com-
prehensive view of tourism, partly due to their own specific interests, but also
because of the multifaceted and fragmented nature of tourism, which makes
the co-ordination of development activity sometimes a little difficult.
Yet tourism does not function as a separate or distinct sector of the
economy, and it should not be planned as such. Tourism development
needs to be the work of all community interests if it is to make a signif-
icant contribution to the destination without all the negative baggage it
potentially includes. This means involving all sectors of the destination in
the planning and management function, drawing representation from:

¢ local resident groups;

¢ regional or national government;

# regional tourism groups;

* special interest community groups;

 WHERE TO START? ¢ 51

¢ business groups (e.g. Chamber of Commerce);

as well as,

¢ local government;

# commercial interests;

¢ external consultant advisers (where necessary).

A role exists for all of these in a tourism group at one level or another.
Without them the group will not necessarily have the collective skills, knowl-
edge or expertise to ensure all interests are considered in the preparation
and application of a comprehensive tourism development strategy.
Setting up a tourism association could involve the expansion of an exist-
ing local group, the creation of an entirely new group, or some combina-
tion of the current structure within a new framework. Ideally, this grouping
of tourism interests should be lead by a core team of nine to twelve mem-
bers, drawing representation from a cross-section of the destination’s broad
tourism interests. Members should be selected (or invited) to participate in
this core team on the basis of their:

¢ knowledge and experience of the destination area;

¢ commitment to the fostering of tourism opportunities;

¢ ability to remain objective and take a comprehensive view of the

work;

¢ ability to invest enough time and energy to get things done;

¢ ability to work constructively with other people.

A model for a destination tourism group is presented in Figure 3.1. The

objective of the model is not to suggest some rigid organizational struc-
ture, but rather graphically to illustrate the important connections between
private, public (government) and community interests in the planning and
management of tourism. The principle being to foster the integration of
tourism concerns with other socio-economic issues, and assure that tourism
is considered more effectively in land-use planning as a development issue,
and not simply as promotional activity. The tourism association acts as a
52 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

catalyst and facilitator for the diversity of local interests, by channelling

information, research and ideas to and from local government committees,
private sector interests and the resident community. Whatever format it
takes, however, the tourism group should be a formal organization
through which the destination’s tourism programme is built.
Notwithstanding its membership, size or origin, the success of any tourism
group will very much depend on the individual and collective competence
and commitment of those directly involved actually to plan and manage the
industry. It will also depend on the legitimacy of the group in representing all
destination interests in the function of managing tourism development. With
this in mind, the tourism group should not be seen as simply another sub-
committee of local government, or the local Chamber of Commerce. While it
may obviously have close links with both government and commerce, it
should also have its own sense of identity and purpose, based on strong lead-
ership and co-ordination of the destination’s tourism industry.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMMITTEES

Ex-officio members | Local government officers

CORE TOURISM GROUP

Training Marketing and Monitoring
and customer care communications and research

Private sector groups Business associations Community groups Resident associations

INDIVIDUAL COMMERCIAL INTERESTS INDIVIDUAL RESIDENTS

Figure 3.1: Model Participants in a Local Destination Tourism Group

Co-ordination and Leadership

Tourism is a highly diverse and fragmented industry, with possible connec-
tions to most sectors of the economy. Co-ordinating these different interests
and leading them in a unified direction is a core task of any tourism group.
The question of leadership discussed here, however, is not necessarily about
individual character or personality, but rather the collective ability of the
organization to offer some form of focus and direction to the development
strategy process. While individual effort is obviously important, a key
 WHERE TO START? © 53

element in preparing any tourism strategy is having the right group in place
to develop and implement the plan.
The initial drive for tourism development will often emerge from individ-
ual entrepreneurs or a special interest group, however, tourism leadership
should not be consolidated in one person per se, but should be a shared
responsibility. Group interaction which is positive and forward-looking can
provide an effective steer to the exercise of leadership. This does not mean
that groups and individuals will never disagree, but rather collective
decision-making, based on a broad base of opinion and support will more
likely arrive at an acceptable solution than if developed from only one per-
spective. The interaction amongst people in different professional roles,
each with their own perspective, can provide the motivation and guidance
for tourism development much better than a single sector approach.
In whatever form or structure the tourism group exists, there are a few
points on leadership and co-ordination which need to be recognized and
understood, as they can significantly influence the group’s efforts. These
include potential objection from members of the destination community (res-
idential, political or commercial), current interests of those already involved in
tourism, and resident involvement in the tourism development process.

Potential Objection: Not everyone will always be happy with tourism

development and will make their feelings known both in public and in
private. Potential objection to a new tourism initiative can arise from any
number of directions, and all tourism groups at some point in time will face
some form of opposition. It may be an objection to the types of proposed
activity, the style of development, or any number of different reasons. In
some cases, the level and intensity of objection can lead to project
abandonment, or require a significant rethink of core objectives. In others
it may just need better explanation and articulation of the development
goals. Whatever the case, in terms of leadership, the tourism group needs
to be aware of potential objections, understand why they have arisen, or
could potentially develop in different circumstances, and be prepared to
compromise and where possible bring the objectors on board.

Current Interests: It is important that any new attempts to organize

and co-ordinate tourism development activity should take account of what
already exists to ensure these interests are incorporated in any new
structure or association. It is possible that some form of tourism group may
already exist in the destination but is not officially recognized or it exists as
a loose collection of like-minded individuals but lacks any formal structure.
54 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

It may be that someone else is already trying better to co-ordinate current

efforts and a totally new approach would be unwarranted. One of the key
problems in creating a tourism group is the very real danger that it may
alienate or adversely affect those already working on tourism initiatives. It
is vital therefore in terms of co-ordination and leadership that all those
already committed to the cause are identified and invited to continue their
efforts as part of a new tourism team.

Resident Involvement: This represents a third core element of the

successful co-ordination and leadership of tourism development activity.
Resident and wider community support for tourism is an essential element
of any development strategy. As tourism destinations tend to put the whole
‘community’ on show (selling its history, culture and environment) it has the
very real potential to impact upon all who live and work in that destination.
Community involvement in the strategy and management process is a
central aspect of minimizing tourism impacts as they affect the resident
population. Such involvement also provides the opportunity for constructive
criticism of issues directly affecting destination residents; it can help to
diffuse local tensions that might otherwise develop into major problems for
tourism growth; and it can help achieve more broad-based political support
when actions are shown to have considered local concerns and taken an
appropriate response.
Effective co-ordination and leadership are vital components of any
tourism development process. They help promote flexibility in terms of gen-
erating new ideas, solving current issues, helping to avoid the problem of
general overlap of energy and ideas, and seek to avoid the unnecessary
duplication of effort. They can also help to identify weaknesses in current
Operations, and direct efforts towards the realization of the destination’s
tourism policy.

Tourism Policy
Setting a tourism policy is a key stage in the tourism strategy process, and
one of the vital first actions that any tourism group should undertake. The
destination’s tourism policy is meant to guide subsequent actions in a way
with which the destination feels comfortable. It represents the managerial
framework through which present and future tourism issues are analysed
and decisions taken. In this sense, policy is a bit like the values held by indi-
viduals: some types of development activity we would be happy to see
take place, whereas some others may prove unpopular and conflict with
what we feel is right or proper in that setting.
 WHERE TO START? ¢ 55

No matter what the level of discussion (i.e. local, regional or national),

policy is what determines development goals and objectives, providing
general guidelines for tourism actions and activity. While actual policy
issues may differ from place to place, it is policy which drives all other
aspects of tourism supply and demand. Tourism policy effectively points
the way by stating in general terms what the destination would like to
see happen, what it is prepared to tolerate and what will not be
acceptable.
The destination’s tourism policy statement should be prepared and
formally recognized by the tourism group and the local government for the
area. This may be as part of a local planning statement, or land-use devel-
opment plan or a special resolution of the local government, formally to
recognize tourism and the actions of the tourism group. Policy statements
can range from a simple declaration of intent, to very detailed and long
drawn-out documents with several sections, clauses and subclauses. The
latter tends to be true more of national and regional statements than the
more localized destination policy. Generally, the larger the area or higher
the level of administration, the more lengthy and wide-ranging the policy
statements are, and the more self-important sounding they become as well.
To start with, policy statements should be positive, concise and to the
point. While it is possible to have negative policies, within the field of
tourism they are inclined to have a more positive bent, suggesting the
encouragement of tourism rather than its cessation. For example:

Tourism makes a positive contribution to ... (the community) ...

through the creation of jobs for local residents, and the provision
of additional facilities which adds to local quality of life. The
continued development of tourism will therefore be encouraged
where it is seen to lead to further improvements in the quality of
the visitor experience, the facilities available for their use,
encourage them to stay longer and ensure any adverse social,
economic and/or environmental impacts are minimized.

A more detailed policy statement might break these points down and be a
little more specific. The policy statement may open with an indication of
the general reasons for supporting tourism (e.g. its contribution to the
economy, a wealth of natural attractions, its educational value, quality of
life arguments and civic pride) and then move on to a series of specific
points indicating how tourism issues will be viewed and addressed. For
example:
56 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

to encourage tourism according to the principles of sustainable

development, ensuring a balanced approach in harmony with the
destination's economic, social and environmental goals;

¢ to use tourism to stimulate the expansion and production of

creative artwork from local artisans and craftspeople;

¢ to develop tourism which helps conserve the destination’s unique

sense of heritage by promoting the use and redevelopment of
local historic buildings and sites;

¢ to encourage local entrepreneurs to initiate development ideas

which may lead to new tourism attractions and new jobs for
local people;

to provide tourists with a quality and efficient information service;

to promote a form of tourism which fosters greater understanding

and respect for local customs, values and religious beliefs;

to ensure the protection of natural areas and the conservation

of local archaeological and cultural artefacts;

to ensure the health and safety of visitors and their belongings;

to ensure tourism issues and interest are considered by all local

agencies in their discussions and to standardize basic support
and policy on tourism;

to monitor on a regular basis the impact of tourism on the local

quality of life and the natural environment, and to take corrective
actions where possible;

to encourage the development of education and training

programmes for tourism personnel in aspects of customer care
and hospitality.

Tourism policy lays the basic philosophy for development and effectively sets
a map for the future of tourism in the destination. However, it is far too easy
to get bogged down in arguments over policy detail and never get anything
 WHERE TO START? ¢ 57

else done. It is not really worth spending too much time debating the finer
points of policy, because they are only as good as the goals, objectives and
actions which stem from them. While it is clearly necessary to get the policy
right, it is how that policy is used to generate and direct actual development
activity which will really judge its worth. Indeed, policy statements should be
dynamic and able to respond to changing circumstances in both supply and
demand. They can then be adjusted or rewritten to take account of chang-
ing needs, issues or as new opportunities arise. This does not mean, of
course, that policy should be so flexible as to offer no long-term direction,
but rather it should be continuously reviewed and revised (where necessary)
as conditions and issues affecting tourism continue to change. After all, the
best policy for today may not be the best policy for tomorrow.
Setting policy is only one aspect of the group’s activities and other core
operational areas include: marketing and communications, hospitality train-
ing and customer care, and monitoring and research. Each of these three
broad areas are well suited to be taken up by special sub-committees of the
tourism organization. Sub-committees or working groups are used to devel-
op and report on various tourism issues. They may be permanent and look at
a particular topic on a regular basis, or ad hoc, set up only to look at specific
issues as and when they arise and then disperse when that issue is resolved.
Although members of the organization's core team should lead and direct
the sub-groups, individual interest and enthusiasm, the type and level of
work, and their concurrent nature suggests they are best dealt with through
a series of interrelated sub-committees. These working groups would then
seek to gather further support and participation from local resident and busi-
ness interests to generate ideas and solutions as well as enthusiasm.

Marketing and Communications

Far too often, tourism marketing is seen by many as simply promotions and
advertising. While these topics clearly fall under the broad marketing agen-
da, they represent only one aspect of the marketing and communications
function of the tourism group. Demand for tourism is dynamic and if des-
tinations are to stay in touch with the market they must continuously
reassess their activities. The destination which does not take account of
changing trends and responds in kind may find itself unable to maintain its
market share or position. To be sustainable, tourism groups need actively to
identify the type of tourist they would like to come to the destination.
However, this means much more than simply looking around to see who is
visiting the area now. It requires ongoing effort in developing a detailed
understanding of the different types of tourist markets, their travel prefer-
58 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

ences, their likes and dislikes, where they come from and their travel needs
in order to help identify which groups of tourists bring greatest benefit and
minimal cost to the destination, both now and in the future (see Chapter 5).
As one of its ongoing functions a marketing sub-group should seek to:

¢ identify groups of tourists they are able to satisfy better than

competing destinations which help the destination to achieve its
tourism goals;

# undertake research and creative thought on building profiles of

different tourist segments that the destination could consider
trying to attract;

¢ define the criteria used to decide which tourist segments are best
suited to the destination;

¢ develop a portfolio of tourist groups which will be targeted in

promotional activity, and review this over time and adjust as necessary.

Similarly, the tourism group that restricts its assessment to existing groups
without exploring potential new opportunities runs the very real risk of
market stagnation and even decline, all to the detriment of local tourism.
A tourist destination will only remain competitive if tourism groups are
proactive in their approach to marketing and the co-ordination of com-
munication activities.
Communication is effectively the means and medium through which
potential visitors are made aware of the destination and what it has to offer
(e.g. advertising, public relations, sales promotions, personal selling and the
printed word - see Chapter 7). It is very easy in a diverse industry such as
tourism for a destination to have many different channels of communication.
One danger of this is that not all forms or channels, however, will put across
the same message, which can lead to confusion, disappointment and ulti-
mately a poor image of the destination. Thus another function of the mar-
keting sub-group is to ensure that the variety of techniques and sources of
information used in communications are pulling in the same direction and
putting across a similar general message about the destination. While the
specific details for different attractions and services will vary accordingly, the
core ‘theme’ they present should be the same. In addition to the points
above, this relates to the co-ordination of pedestrian and vehicle signposting
in and around the destination, the display and function of information and
 WHERE TO START? ® 59

interpretation panels, the quality and distribution of tourist literature (maps,

brochures and guidebooks) and the quality of information provided through
customer service people in the destination. This latter point being a key func-
tion of the sub-group on hospitality training and customer care.

Hospitality Training and Customer Care

Tourism is a service industry and so much of the business is based on the qual-
ity of the tourist's experience in the destination. Therefore a second core
function of the tourism group must be in the area of hospitality training par-
ticularly as this concerns issues of customer care (see Chapter 8). Tourism is a
highly competitive industry where the quality of service and attention to
detail play an ever-increasing role in successful tourism development.
Unfortunately for some destinations all the effort is focused on providing
hotels, restaurants and visitor attractions, but without taking a really good
look at the quality of service any of these provide. In these settings the des-
tination tries very hard to attract new visitors in, but fails to recognize the
value of their current market and does nothing to encourage them back.
As tourism is in the business of hospitality, methods of training and
informing those people who will most frequently come into contact with
visitors are vitally important. Any tourism group needs seriously to consid-
er how hospitality training will be incorporated in the ongoing tourism
development process. By paying closer attention to the detail of customer
care and the quality of the tourist experience, the destination will be in a
much better position to:

@ generate a higher level of repeat and referred business which are

considered a vital component of any destination’s long-term success;

# enhance tourist satisfaction, which can help to increase the length

of stay and lead to positive recommendations from previously
satisfied visitors;

¢ develop that unique sense of place, which makes the destination

stand out as the best place to visit amongst its direct competitors
over the longer term.

However, a major problem with customer care training is the reluctance of

both employers and employees to see the merit of improving skills in com-
munication and behaviour, or knowledge and understanding of the local
tourist product. Some people fail to see how providing a better service could
60 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

lead to better business for themselves. In particular they fail to see the link
between the short-term cost of training and the long-term benefit of better
customer service. Employees, too, are sometimes hesitant to participate,
because, after all, they already know how to answer the phone and greet
people — and deal with complaints? Unfortunately, while many aspects of
customer care can boil down to basic courtesy and common sense, far too
often these core personal skiils are not honed to their full potential.
It is important for all employees who may come into contact with visitors
(including management) to understand the issues of hospitality, and it is
vital for front-line customer service staff to be well versed in the techniques
and methods of customer care. After all, it is these people who sell the serv-
ice to the tourist and receive the complaints when something goes wrong.
The tourism organization therefore needs to take the lead in promoting the
need for, and opportunity to improve the skills of people who will and are
dealing with tourists on a day-to-day basis. They need to convince employers
that this is good for the health of their business and the overall success of
tourism in the destination. This point can be partially achieved through the
collection of data showing the value of satisfied customers versus the costs
which poor service can create, which is all a part of monitoring and research.

Monitoring and Research

The tourism development process is dynamic. It is not a one-shot attempt at
putting together a master plan and then sitting back while it all happens. To
do so would be indefensible in terms of deciding what has worked and what
has not. Early on in the development process the tourism group needs to
establish a system which will allow for the regular and ongoing evaluation of
development decisions; what may have been valid at some point in the past
may no longer be true today. Monitoring tells us what has happened, what is
happening, and what could happen given different alternatives. This type of
information is the basis of good decision-making, and research is the founda-
tion of good information. Therefore, a third core function of the tourism
group must be in the monitoring of development activity and tourist satis-
faction (see Chapter 9). Monitoring and research should be carried out on all
aspects of the development programme, including:

¢ measuring any changes in the effect tourism has had on the quality
and integrity of local resources;

* reviewing development planning applications on the basis of their

potential benefit to visitors and where possible to residents as well;
 WHERE TO START? ¢ 61

¢ assessing possible changes in the level of resident hospitality

towards visitors;

¢ evaluating overall and specific levels of tourist satisfaction in the

destination;

¢ measuring the economic impact of tourism on employment and

income generation;

¢ evaluating the impact of specific marketing activities on increasing

visitor numbers in different target markets.

The actual type and level of information to be collected will, of course,

depend on the destination and the type of development activity taking
place. However, monitoring should be done on a regular and formal basis,
with brief factual reports written and submitted to the tourism group on
each objective of the development strategy. These reports should contain
information on:

¢ the key issue being addressed and the goal to which it relates;

¢ the specific objectives of the actions being taken;

¢ adescription of the results and how far objectives have been met:

# acomment on what remedial action may be appropriate and actions

taken (if necessary).

The purpose of this exercise is to present the tourism group with the
opportunity regularly to assess its progress towards achieving its long-term
goals, and make adjustments where current actions are not addressing
core concerns.

SUMMARY
The key to the success of destination tourism development is the co-
ordination and leadership provided by a good tourism organization. The
actual size and sophistication of this group will vary from place to place,
but whatever the structure, if the group takes effective charge of the
tourism planning and management function, the destination should be in
a better position to achieve a more sustainable tourism industry. Through
62 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

an adaptive process of compromise this management structure should

mean that tourism planning and management will become more:

« Comprehensive - with social, environmental, economic and political

elements of the tourism system incorporated as part of a holistic
approach to local industry management;

¢ Iterative and dynamic - with tourism issues considered ona

regular basis, and where decisions are made ona full understanding
of the present situation, and problems of the past fed back into
future deliberations;

¢ Systematic - where the long-term and structured process of

evaluation and review is fed into the planning process;

¢ Integrative - with tourism interests incorporated into other

local government committees, and with industry components able
to discuss areas of mutual benefit, so reducing needless
expenditure;

¢ Community-oriented - with working groups drawing representation

from public interest groups, resident groups and business
associations;

¢ Renewable - with tourism activity considered a part of the local

socio-economic system and does not prejudice the integrity of
local resources;

¢ Goal-oriented and implementable - with community concerns

considered alongside business enthusiasm, and with public
administration channelling entrepreneurial spirit towards a policy
and strategy acceptable to the community.

But of course, getting organized is really only the beginning of the

tourism strategy process. Once the group is in place the destination is
now ready to begin seriously to evaluate its resources and tourism
potential (see Chapter 4), develop a more thorough understanding of its
current and potential tourism markets (see Chapter 5), and then begin to
prepare the actual development strategy and marketing plan (see
Chapters 6 and 7).
 WHERE TO START? ¢ 63

FURTHER READING for Getting Organized

Edgell, D.L. (1990) International Tourism Policy. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Gunn, C.A. (1988) Tourism Planning (2nd edition). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Mill, R.C. and Morrison, A. M. (1985) The Tourism System: an introductory text.
London: Prentice-Hall International.
GH AgPeT E.R» -F,O.U;R

What have we got?

Understanding tourism resources

INTRODUCTION
A destination’s tourism resource base is the essence of that location's
tourism appeal. Tourism resources are all, and any, of those features which
draw people in to a destination. They form the core of visitor attractions,
but also include other services and facilities which cater to accommodate
and entertain tourists while in the destination area. Tourism resources rep-
resent the supply side of the basic supply-and-demand equation, which
needs to be to matched with market demand to develop a successful
tourism destination. They are the ‘pulling power’, that serve to attract spe-
cific groups of tourists (see Chapter 5).
A thorough understanding of both supply and demand is a vital ele-
ment of any tourism development process. Far too often, however, when
areas begin to plan for tourism development a first course of action is
directed simply at trying to bring people in. This tends to follow a scant
review of what a place can offer, but without a clear understanding of
how these resources fit together or what the destination could realistically
hope to achieve. The task of assessing the area’s real tourism potential (i.e.
resource quality, accessibility and pull) is often overlooked in favour of the
more immediate and glamorous activity of advertising and promotion.
Even in current destinations, evaluating tourism supply is an important
step in the development process. It helps destinations to identify product
gaps, expose weak links in services and establish development priorities. It
is also very useful later on when it comes to the production of tourist
directories, information services and future promotion or communications
programmes. Unfortunately, some destinations feel they already know
what they have and believe growth will be achieved simply through more
forceful selling.
 WHAT HAVE WE GOT? ¢ 65

However, a proper development strategy in any setting requires up-to-

date and accurate information on tourism supply, and without this no
amount of promotion will ever make up for a lack of basic tourism
resources. Thus a fundamental step for any area seeking to develop or
improve its tourism appeal, is critically to evaluate their tourism resource
base. In the pursuit of this task this chapter explains the main steps of the
tourism resource audit as a critical review of a destination’s tourism supply.

TYPES OF TOURISM RESOURCES

Tourism resources come in all shapes and sizes, and most features of an area
can be considered part of the overall tourism resource base of a destination.
They include elements of the natural and man-made environment, festivals
and events, activities, purpose-built facilities, hospitality and transport ser-
vices. These features are classified as either principal or supporting resources.

Principal Resources are those which have the strongest pulling

power, and usually represent the key motivating factor in the
tourist's travel decision process.

Supporting Resources are those which supplement a destination's

principal resources and contribute to the destination’s visitor
appeal, but do not on their own represent a prime motive for travel.

Categorizing resources under any heading, however, inevitably requires

some degree of discretion. Often there will be some overlap between
the type of categories and the relative importance of these resources to
different visitor markets. What may be a cu/tura/ resource to one may
be considered a festival! or special event to another. Indeed, how some-
one categorizes a resource can very much depend on how they view the
destination and the type of tourism activity on offer (for example,
Concorde is just a transport service to some, but it may be considered a
core attraction to another). Similarly, what is a principal resource for
some, may be considered by others as supplementary or play only a sup-
porting role in the destination’s tourism appeal. Resources can also have
a wide, universal appeal (e.g. a natural vista) or be more specialist and
appeal to only a specific market (e.g. the birthplace of some famous or
obscure person).
In fact not all destinations actually have a principal resource per se,
but rather an amalgam of supporting resources which when combined
form a ‘synthetic’ principal attraction. On their own, environmental
66 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

setting (natural or not), local culture or the services available may not be
enough to draw visitors in, but when combined they form an attraction
base or image which becomes the principal resource. In many towns and
smaller cities it is often this amalgam of resources which creates the
tourism appeal or image which serves to attract people to that particular
place.
Given the likely overlap and wide mix of resources that make up the
travel industry, the number of potential categories and subcategories to
describe them is virtually endless. However, for the sake of simplicity, this
book uses five categories to describe the tourism resource base: natural,
cultural, events, activities and services. Each of these groups has a num-
ber of subheadings which help further to classify different aspects of
these broad lead categories. The following sections are meant to be
exemplary, although not exhaustive, of the types of features which could
be considered under each of these five categories. The tables are not
absolute and each destination will need to adjust or add to them as
appropriate to their own tourism setting. However, they do encompass a
wide range of resource possibilities which commonly feature in tourism
destinations.

Natural Resources
These include aspects of land and landscape such as mountains or other
geographical phenomena, wildlife species, birds or rare plants and water
features such as a lakes, rivers or waterfalls. They often form a central ele-
ment of a destination’s tourism appeal. In some locations this may even be
the most important destination feature (e.g. coastal resorts, ski hills).
Climate also plays a key role, both as an overriding factor in terms of sea-
sonal change and influence on other natural resources, but also with its
influence on other resource categories (i.e. when certain festivals take
place, ski season, etc.).
Natural resources are an invaluable tourism asset and are fundamen-
tal to the development of tourism for virtually all destinations. They
tend to be the foundation from which other resources are developed,
and thus often play both a principal and key supporting role in tourism
development. However, natural resources also tend to be the least pro-
ductive on their own in terms of direct economic benefit especially when
in ‘public’ ownership (see Chapter 2). In addition, they are frequently
considered a free resource as ownership can be difficult to define,
making them more difficult to manage in terms of visitor impacts unless
their use can be specifically regulated. Figure 4.1 lists a number of
 WHAT HAVE WE GOT? ¢ 67

common natural resource elements frequently included in various

destination lists of attractions.

NATURAL
FLORA
forested areas; orchards — hard & soft fruit; specialist farms; trees — autumn foliage, first growth
conifers; vineyards; wilderness; wild flowers — meadows; rare/endangered; spices & herbs.
LANDSCAPE
beaches; causeways; caves; cliffs; coral reef; desert; unique land forms; geological formations — glacial,
wind, rain; gorge/canyon; islands; mountains; plains; spits; sand dunes; semiprecious gemstones;
swampland; valleys & plateaux; volcanoes.
FAUNA
birds — aquatic, large/birds of prey, rare/endangered; insects; wildlife — large/big game, small, rare/
endangered, marine mammals; domesticated.
CLIMATE
seasonal — spring (blossoms), summer (dry/humid), autumn (foliage), winter (snow); arid; temperate;
tropical; continental; coastal; alpine; wind.
WATER
rivers — slow meander, rapids, cataracts; lakes; estuaries; thermal springs; geysers; springs/wells;
waterfalls; ocean/sea; snow/ice.

Figure 4.1: Index of Natural Resource Elements

Cultural Resources
These cover a wide variety of features including aspects of both past and
present lifestyles, attitudes and social settings. They include elements of
history in situ, such as old buildings and ruins, castles, forts and historic
homes. They include elements of historical interpretation based on fact and
artefact, such as museums, heritage sites and other interpretative centres.
They also include the man-made or urban fabric of many historic towns and
cities. In fact an attractive built environment is an important feature of most
destinations. Even in natural settings, the quality of built facilities is a signif-
icant feature.
Cultural resources reflect certain aspects of current society and how
people from different areas and ethnic origin live, work and play. They
include religious settings, elements of nationality and other aspects of
the life and lifestyle of a particular indigenous culture and society. They
also include such things as the site of significant events, or the location
of some popular social phenomena, for example, a famous film setting,
or where a television series was shot. Most of the aspects in this
category, as with those of natural resources, have become a tourism
resource out of consequence rather than as a result of their original
function or primary intent (see Figure 4.2).
68 e THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

CULTURAL
RELIGIOUS ;
mosques; synagogues; temples; churches — cathedrals, chapels, missionaries, frontier/pioneer; burial
grounds; shrines; pilgrimage sites; other religions.
HERITAGE
castles; forts; historic birthplace; historic building; historic home; historic settings — cottages, mansions,
villages/towns, ghost towns, folklore; museums — modern, antiquities, specialist collections, anomalies,
science/technical; monuments; ancient/derelict ruins — aboriginal, indigenous, prehistoric, Bronze Age,
Celtic, Roman, Norman, Renaissance, Medieval, Industrial Revolution; interpretation centres;
landmarks; battle sites; ancient roads or paths.
OTHER
ethnic celebrations; indigenous culture — dance, dress, language/dialect, food & drink, music, art, work
& industry, craft work; archaeological sites; TV series location; famous residents; folklore; local traditions.

Figure 4.2: Index of Cultural Resource Elements

Event Resources
The events category presents a vast array of festivals, tournaments and
business activities which serve both a tourist and separate business function.
Many regular events have their origins in some social or cultural activity
initially designed to serve a resident market, but which has grown to
become either a principal or supporting tourism resource attraction. These
may include street carnivals, parades or other ethnic celebrations. They may
also include competitions in sport, recreation, music or the arts. These
events, if they happen on a regular basis, can help form an image of the
destination, creating the synthetic principal resource out of many smaller
supporting features. However, events are only really useful as a tourism
resource if they are of a sufficient scale actually to draw visitors in, or be of
enough interest to supplement visitor activities while in the destination.

EVENTS
FESTIVALS
music — jazz, folk, country, brass, classical, popular, local; drama/theatre; dance — classical ballet,
contemporary, national, folk; wine/food; literature/poetry.
TOURNAMENTS
sports — local, regional, national, international; athletics; racing — horses, dogs, cars/motor bikes.
BUSINESS
trade shows — agricultural, boat, automobile, recreational vehicle, sports equipment; conventions —
business, clubs/organizations.
OTHER
re-enactments; nationality days; ethnic celebrations; street carnivals; rodeos; parades; art and craft fairs;
agricultural fair; flower shows; auctions; antique fairs; religious pilgrimage; pet shows/contests; fishing
contest; regattas; air show/tattoos; military displays; photo exhibitions; celebrity visits.

Figure 4.3: Index of Event Resource Elements

 WHAT HAVE WE GOT? ¢ 69

Events also encompass larger, high-profile but less frequent activities, such
as major trade shows, business conventions and national and internation-
al sporting events. These types of events serve to highlight a destination
for short periods of time, drawing in large visitor numbers but for a limit-
ed duration. They often help to promote an area, particularly during the
build up to the event, but once it is over the image can tend to fade and
may not really affect future levels of tourist visitation. Figure 4.3 lists a
number of general event categories which could be broken down into a
virtually endless list of local variations on a theme.

Activity Resources
The ‘activity’ category on the whole tends to include what many tradi-
tionally define as the more purpose-built tourist/leisure attractions and
facilities. These include theme parks and entertainment centres, zoos,
aquariums, gardens and some other ‘park’-type settings. Activity
resources also encompass all those features of a destination which pro-
vide the visitor with the opportunity to participate in some form of
recreational activity such as sport, leisure shopping, or even business and
industry.
In terms of sport and recreation, activity resources range from ski
hills, golf-courses or sports stadiums, to the less developed aspects such
as nature trails, cycle routes or natural panoramic view points. As far as
business or industry are concerned, these resources may include confer-
ence centres and meeting rooms, factory tours, and retail opportunities
of some primary resource providers (e.g. farm shops, ‘fisherman’s
wharf’, etc.). In addition other commercial retail functions such as art
and craft galleries, gift shops and other ‘luxury’ goods offer various
opportunities for leisure shopping which is a key element of any des-
tination’s resource base.
Activity resources often represent both principal and supporting
elements. For the potential long-stay visitor, the range and diversity of
activities available can be a major motivating factor in choosing the
destination. For others, however, it may simply be the quality of one
particular activity which represents the major tourist ‘pull’, such as
hiking trails or the ski hill. For the day and short-stay market, the over-
all diversity may still be important, but it may be the opportunity for
leisure shopping which will sometimes characterize a destination’s
principal resource attraction, affecting destination choice. Figure 4.4
lists a number of facilities, services and recreational opportunities
included as activities.
70 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

ACTIVITIES
RECREATIONAL
children’s playground; golf-course — championship, driving range, 9/18 hole; ski hill/dry slope; tennis-
courts; nature trails; hiking trails; horse trails; bike trails; bowling greens; canals; roller-blading; national
games; flying/gliding; hang-gliding; parachuting; ballooning; horse riding; hobby/skills — painting, writing;
view points; sports stadium; playing fields; ice rink; swimming-pool; water sports — canoeing, boating,
river/canal boats, sailing, windsurfing, surfing, diving/snorkelling, whitewater rafting; fishing; hunting &
shooting; caving/potholing; archery; off-road driving; fad & fashion activities; bungee jumping; white-
knuckle activity.
SERVICES
retail — outfitters, camping supplies, winter sports, water sports; art galleries; craft galleries; speciality
clothes; porcelain/china; glass; factory seconds/rejects; theatres; cinemas; health resorts; conference
centre; meeting rooms.
FACILITIES
winery — tours/tasting, sales; zoo/sealife centre; wildlife sanctuary; game park; farm park; aviary;
aquarium; arboretum; botanical garden; planetarium; theme park — amusement, water; mini/crazy golf;
industrial tours — dams, hydro power, nuclear, mines, manufacturing; dockyards — naval, historic;
wharves/piers — ‘fisherman's wharf’; railways — funicular, steam; parks — local/public, regional, national.

Figure 4.4: Index of Activity Resource Elements

Service Resources
The final, but by no means least important set of tourism resources
includes all those services in a destination which effectively makes tourism
possible. These include the more obvious features of accommodation and
catering, but also aspects of transport, hospitality and general community
services. As a service resource transport features go beyond basic taxi and
bus services to embrace opportunities ranging from bicycle and scooter
rental to local airports and basic flying services. They also consider the pro-
vision of infrastructure which affects accessibility to the destination and
personal mobility once the tourist has arrived.
Reception is another significant service resource for tourism. It is a
collection of service functions which make travel easier, more efficient and
hopefully engender a positive tourist experience. They are not usually prin-
cipal resources, but still play a fundamental supporting role in the overall
tourism supply. These include visitor information services (maps, brochures
and interpretation), language and currency services, and community atti-
tudes towards visitor activity. Visitor reception is thus another key element
of a destination’s image, which is fundamental to development because
most tourists will not want to visit a place with a negative image, or which
has a reputation for being ‘less than friendly’ towards outsiders (see
Chapter 2).
Finally, general community services make up the rest of this category.
 WHAT HAVE WE GOT? ¢ 71

These would include, for example, health, public safety and security, emer-
gency repair and general domestic supplies which may be used by tourists
(see Figure 4.5).
Clearly not all of these resources are available in all locations. If they
were, there would seem little point in travel, given the premiss of tourism as
being the desire to see and experience someplace different. Each destina-
tion needs to examine its own resources and decide if, where, when and
how these could be used in the tourism development process. However, one
of the more difficult aspects in the planning of tourism is for communities
and regions to recognize their total resource potential and the attendant
opportunities and constraints this may place on tourism development in the
area. Some resources may not be easy to identify at first, because many local
features may seem basic and taken for granted by the destination. Yet what
may seem of little consequence can actually be a key ‘pulling’ force or sup-
port mechanism in the destination’s overall appeal. With this in mind, the
tourism resource audit is designed to help destinations answer this develop-
ment question: What is it about this place that will make tourists want to
come here?

SERVICES*
TRANSPORT
access — road, rail, sea/river/canal, air; taxi — road, water; rental — car, aircraft, bicycle, horse (& carriage),
scooter/moped, snowmobile, boat (canoe/kayak, row boat, sail boat, speed boat); rickshaw service; local
tour bus; local airport — flying lessons, gliding; stables/equestrian.
ACCOMMODATION
hotels — 2-3 star, 4—5 star; B+B/guest-houses; self-catering units; caravans/trailers — static, touring;
campgrounds; educational/dormitories; quest ranch; farm cottages; time share; inns & pubs; motels;
youth hostels.
RECEPTION
information centre — maps, brochures, souvenirs; interpretation; town trails; language services;
pedestrian signposting; display board maps; tours — local guides, self-directed; image/town theme;
community attitudes; government policy; tour operators.
CATERING
bars/pubs; bistros/wine bars; coffee shop/tea room; fast food; takeaway/takeout; fine dining; family
restaurants; ethnic cuisine; international cuisine; picnic sites; street vendors; self-service.
SERVICES
boat yard — overnight mooring, boat chandlers, repairs; car repair; petrol stations; banks — cash
machines, currency exchange; police/security; medical services — doctor, ambulance, accident/emergency,
first aid; veterinary services; general hardware; domestic supplies; communications — postal, telephone;
energy supply; water supply; sewerage services.

Figure 4.5: Index of Service Resource Elements

*Services are sometimes referred to as ‘tourism infrastructure’.
72 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

TOURISM RESOURCE AUDIT

The tourism resource audit is a structured and systematic two-stage process
of inventory and evaluation:

Stage 1
involves a detailed listing of all resources which have some
connection with tourism;

Stage 2
involves a critical evaluation of those resources in terms of their
quality, uniqueness and tourist appeal, and a preliminary
identification of those which need improving.

The overall objective of the audit is to create a comprehensive database of

resources which will then be used to establish a tourism development
strategy, including immediate and long-term development priorities,
product improvements and future promotional activity (see Chapters 6 and
7). The resource audit, however, is not just the simple listing of resources,
but a detailed analysis of a destination’s tourism strengths and weaknesses
from a supply perspective. Preparing the audit will require the time and
effort of anumber of people to ensure the database covers the entire spec-
trum of tourism opportunities and constraints in the area. Although the
production of an audit may seem a little tedious, it is essential to establish
a baseline from which the success of development activity can be meas-
ured. The effort put in at this stage should be well rewarded later on with
the development of a more successful and sustainable tourism destination.

STAGE 1 - Resource Inventory

The first step in developing a resource inventory is essentially that of a
brainstorming exercise. Key questions to consider when thinking about an
area’s tourism potential include:

what could a visitor see in this area which might be of interest?

what are the different types of attractions they could visit?

what types of services would they require?

what different activities could they do during their stay?

if staying overnight, what accommodation is available?

 WHAT HAVE WE GOT? e 73

Tourism resources should be listed by type as described above, and include

all those features of the destination which currently are, or could be used
by visitors. These lists should also include features outside the immediate
local area, as regional resources will help draw people into a destination as
well. However, to keep this ‘region’ within a destination context, the sur-
rounding area to be included should be limited to a 20- to 30-minute drive
time away from the core community. Clearly there will be some overlap
between categories. For example, a steam railway is obviously a form of
transport, but it is more likely to represent an activity to visitors than its
original function of travel. When this occurs it is generally easiest to list the
resource according to its most predominant function in terms of visitor use.
However, this inventory is not meant to be merely a basic checklist of
attractions and services, but a structured listing of resources in terms of their
type, capacity, market, operations, ownership and accessibility. It is no good
knowing a resource exists if you do not know where to go or who to contact
about its role or potential development for a tourism purpose. Therefore
the second step in developing the inventory is to create a database of
resources which indicates these points of ownership and operations, etc.,
which can be easily accessed and periodically updated as situations change.
Undoubtedly, the creation of such an inventory will lead to a very large
data set for some destinations, which if not properly organized may prove
of little use to the production of a development strategy. It is therefore
essential that as the data is collected it is entered into a database, or tabu-
lated in a concise format that will allow for easy retrieval and analysis.
Examples of data charts for each of the five resource categories are
presented in the Appendices at the end of this chapter.

Inventory o atural Resources: list all those features of the

environment which visitors might primarily like to see, or use for some
activity. Key questions to consider in listing these features include:

¢ what makes this resource unique to the area?

¢ is it common or readily available in other destinations?

¢ how significant is it as an existing or potential attraction?

The information to be collected on each natural feature should include

the following (see Appendix 4a):
74 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

name and location from central point or tourist information

centre;
@ accessibility (restrictions, access points, disability); ownership
and management;
contact information;
current volume of activity/level of use;
visitor types (origin, activity, demographics);
O
e+
ee visitor services (toilets, parking).

Obviously this data cannot be collected for all natural resources, but
wherever it is relevant it is useful to the evaluation of tourism potential
later in the development process.

Invento Cultural Re es: list all those features of the built

environment and cultural groups which visitors may like to see or learn more
about. Key questions to consider in listing these resources should include:

¢ what makes the feature unique to the area?

¢ is there any social or cultural sensitivity?

¢ how significant is the resource as an existing or potential attraction?

The information to be collected on each cultural feature should include

the following (see Appendix 4b):

# name and location from central point or tourist information centre;

¢ accessibility (restrictions, access points, disability);
Sd ownership and management (conservation, development or

promotion);
contact information;
current volume of activity/level of use;
season of operation;
admission rates, if any;
eh
e¢
Oo
eo visitor types (origin, activity, demographics).

Inve of Event Res es: this should list all those festivals and
other event-type activities which are held in the destination ona regular
or annual basis. This could also include less frequent activities, but as they
 WHAT HAVE WE GOT? @ 75

may only be a one-off event they will be less significant to the tourism
development strategy. In listing festivals and events it is generally advis-
able to set a minimum size criterion in terms of participants, so that those
included will be large enough to draw people to the area. Key questions
to consider in listing these resources include:

¢ what makes the event unique?

¢ does it attract non-local participants?

¢ does it complement or compete with other local events?

¢ what is the frequency of occurrence?

The type of information to be collected on each event should include the

following (see Appendix 4c):

¢ name and location of event from central point or tourist

information centre;
4 timing (season and length of event);
¢ organization and management;
¢ contact information;
¢ number of participants and spectators (local vs. visitor);
4 visitor types (origin, activity, demographics);
¢ types of participant activities;
% types of spectator activities;
¢ entry fees, if any.

Inventory of Activity Resources: list all facilities, purpose-built

attractions, recreational amenities and other services which either directly
serve a visitor market, or may serve a dual market of resident and tourist.
Attractions tend to be those facilities which visitors pay to use;
recreational amenities will include facilities which draw people in, but
their use may not be the main reason for the visit; other services include
opportunities for leisure shopping and general entertainment. Key ques-
tions to consider in listing these resources include:

¢ how unique is the ‘activity’ to the destination?

@ does it attract non-local users?

76 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

The information to be collected on each activity should include the

following (see Appendix 4d):

name and location from central point or tourist information

centre;
timing and seasons of operation;
accessibility (restrictions, access points, disability);
ownership and management;
contact information;
current volume of activity/level of use;
visitor types (origin, activity, demographics);
user fees, admission rates, membership requirements.

Inventory of Service Resources: this can be potentially quite cum-

bersome as it includes various aspects of transport, accommodation, cater-
ing, hospitality and general community services. For a number of these
subcategories, local directories and timetables may already exist and this
exercise will just entail filling in a few extra details, including:

¢ name & location of service provider;

¢ contact information;
¢ description of general services.

While this information is important, it should always be collected in the

context of its application to a tourism development strategy. That is, the
types of services to be listed should play some role in providing, or poten-
tially providing a service to visitors (see Appendix 4e). Much of this data
can be used to create a basic local directory of service functions in the des-
tination including travel and transport, retail, health and safety, financial
and other general travel-related services.
In addition, for accommodation services, the data should also
include the following (see Appendix 4f):

name & location of facility from central point or tourist

information centre;
type and rating of facility;
services offered (pool, catering, conference facilities);
season of operation;
e¢
ee accessibility issues (disability restrictions, types of users);
 WHAT HAVE WE GOT? © 77

ownership and contact information;

number of bed spaces/basic volume;
level of use;
visitor types (origin, activity, demographics);
OH
Hh rates and fees.
¢¢hUcOHmh—hU

For catering services, the data should also include the following (see
Appendix 4g):

name & location of facility from central point or tourist

information centre;
type and rating of facility (fast-food, family, fine dining, etc.);
accessibility issues (disability restrictions);
ownership and contact information;
seating capacity and hours of operation;
level of use and user types (demographics);
average meal costs/set menu prices.

For reception services the data should relate to all services and facilities
available from each visitor information centre or service point, and include
the following (see Appendix 4h):

name and location of information service;

hours of operation (if applicable);
services available (language, guiding, souvenir sales);
information available (leaflets, maps, etc.);
contact information;
current volume of activity/level of use;
visitor types (origin, activity, demographics).

It is also important to indicate the location of static information points and

displays, interpretation boards, and road and pedestrian signposting
which are relevant to visitor activity. It may be easiest to list these ele-
ments by indicating them with specific symbols on a tourism base-map of
the destination. The creation of such a map is also very useful to:

identify the physical location of natural and cultural resources;

indicate where to find various activity resources, particularly
when they rely on the use of natural or cultural resources;
to indicate the physical location of different services such as
accommodation, catering and other key service providers.
78 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

In addition, event resources can be marked on a map to indicate where

they take place, while at the same time it is also very useful to develop an
annual calendar of events, giving an overview of when certain festivals
and other activities will take place. This will not only aid in the build-up
and preparation for events, but gives a relatively instant picture of what is
taking place to attract visitors and where there may be gaps in which to
develop other tourism events (see Appendix 4j). However, all of these
resources should still be listed in tabular form, and included in some form
of local directory of all tourism activities, services and events.
One point relevant to the inventory of all resource types concerns the
collection of data in terms of actual visitor use (see Chapter 5), including:

who uses the resource;

when they do so;
in what numbers;
ce
o¢
¢@ for what purpose.

This type of visitor data is vital in understanding the link between supply
and demand, particularly when it comes to assessing the ‘value added’ to
a destination by new development activity, the effectiveness of marketing
campaigns, or the general structure of tourism demand. Understandably,
some facilities or commercial ventures will be concerned about the release
of such data in terms of competition and data confidence, but if this can
be collected sensitively with certain restrictions on use, then this issue need
not be of concern. However, without this type of market intelligence it can
be very difficult for a destination effectively to monitor its activities and
improve its tourism services (see Chapter 9).

STAGE 2 - Resource Evaluation

While the first stage of the audit should have identified what a place has
to offer, the second stage is designed to help further develop a general
picture of where the destination broadly fits within the wider tourism
marketplace. Once the inventory is complete, the evaluation stage is
meant to identify what is good about these resources and working well,
and what aspects are in need of further attention, or where improvements
need to be made if the destination is to compete successfully.
Although most communities or regions have many basic tourism re-
sources, it is not good enough to simply count or list these, because their
quality may be below standard, or offer exactly the same experience as
anywhere else. Each resource feature should be evaluated in turn on the
 WHAT HAVE WE GOT? ¢ 79

basis of their overall quality, uniqueness and appeal, and then summarized
in terms of an overall evaluation of the resource in relation to its role in
the future development of the destination’s tourism industry (see
Appendix Figure 4)).

Resource Quality: Tourism is an industry driven by consumer demand

but one which effectively sells an intangible product. We cannot touch it,
take it home or try it out for a few days to see if we like it. Nor can we
return it if we are not satisfied. Tourism sells an experience, and the qual-
ity of that experience is becoming ever more important as tourists increas-
ingly seek and expect better value for money from tourism products.
However, resource quality is not just about customer service (see Chapter
8), it includes conservation and management as well. It is overall quality
which is vital to the continued success and development of the industry in
any location. For example, while a destination may have a lovely riverside
setting as a key natural resource, if access to the river is severally restricted,
if there are limitations on the use of moorings or landing stages, or parts of
the river are unnavigable, the quality of the resource as it concerns tourism
may be questionable. The river may very well be a significant feature, but
the constraints on its use may serve to limit its value as a key factor in
tourism development.
Questions to think about when assessing ‘quality’ include:

¢ what makes this resource better or worse than somewhere else?

¢ what are its weak points, or where is it vulnerable?

¢ is it well maintained?

¢ is quality of service consistent throughout?

¢ how might the resource be improved?

¢ what are the main drawbacks to further development?

Resource Uniqueness: Generally, the less unique a destination or the

weaker its sense of place, the harder it will be both to draw people in and
compete in the tourism marketplace. Indeed, if every tourism destination
offered virtually the same set of attractions, shops, restaurants, environ-
ment and quality of service, tourism would become somewhat meaningless.
80 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

With ever-increasing competition, the more successful destinations will be

those which build upon resources that help separate them out from all the
others. Just copying what others have done will not mean success, and
could even be counterproductive if the quality of the copy is not exception-
ally better than the original.
However, almost ali destinations have something about them which can
be used to help establish this sense of place. This may focus on one or more
of the resource categories, and is based on the character of the resource in
that particular setting. While it may not be possible to identify something
that is unique, what gives the destination its sense of place is how the
resource has been used or developed in that particular setting. Even when
the resource base is very similar to other competing destinations, there is
always an opportunity to identify aspects which are different and which can
help create that separate and unique identity. The inventory stage should
help highlight a number of features which can be exploited to this end.
As with resource quality, examine the uniqueness of the resource by
thinking how each feature might be used to highlight the differences
between similar tourist destinations. Key questions to think about when
assessing uniqueness include:

¢ what is special about the resource in this particular setting?

¢ what makes it different from somewhere else?

¢ how does the resource reflect a sense of place?

Resource Appeal: The third element in evaluation is to consider the

tourism appeal or drawing power of each resource feature. When evaluat-
ing appeal, it is useful to consider each feature in terms of how it fits with-
in the current catalogue of tourism activities, and where there may be
Opportunities to develop this further. Key questions to think about when
considering appeal include:

¢ what role does it play in current visitor activity (principal or

supporting)?

¢ how is visitor use measured or assessed?

¢ how could the resource be made more appealing?

 WHAT HAVE WE GOT? e 81

Although tourism appeal is often measured simply by data concerning

visitor use (i.e. volume, origin, etc.), this can be misleading because this
does not necessarily give a true indication of real drawing power. Almost
all resource features play some role in attracting visitors to the destination,
but some are clearly more important than others. Indeed, just because a
tourist visits a number of different attractions in a destination this does
not mean those features had anything to do with the initial drawing
power of the place. In fact what may represent a central feature of a des-
tination may not in itself actually play a major role in drawing people to
the place. Rather it is often the use which is made of that resource which
represents the real tourism appeal. For example, a river or lake may be
considered a core attraction in some destinations, but without the oppor-
tunity to utilize this resource for some tourism activity, the practical draw-
ing power may be reduced.

WHAT TO DO NEXT?
The core function of the tourism resource audit is to create a database of
tourism resources and provide an overall assessment of those features in
terms of their development opportunities and constraints. When the audit
is complete the following questions should be easily and comprehensively
answered:

¢ what makes a resource feature an asset or potential benefit to the

destination, i.e. what makes it good?

¢ what aspects of tourism are currently adequate or satisfactory,

but which will need some attention if they are to play a more
central role in future development?

¢ what, if any, are the negative aspects of the resource in question

which may need improving or changing (e.g. the Tourist
Information Centre is closed on Sundays)?

¢ what, if any, aspects of the destination represent a potential

disadvantage to the further development of tourism (e.g.
deforestation has increased the likelihood of flooding and landslip
in the area)?

Overall, the audit is meant to identify what is good about tourism from a
supply point of view, and what areas or aspects may need improvement. In
82 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

doing so it will also help indicate key opportunities for tourism growth, and
areas of concern or constraints which will.need to be addressed during the
production of a tourism development strategy (see Chapter 6). However,
though the audit essentially examines tourism supply, this is only one-half
of the equation. If destinations are to be successful, they need to attract
visitors who are going to use the various resources on offer. But not all vis-
itors are interested in all destinations, nor are all visitors interested in all
resources which may be available to them in any one location. Attempting
to attract all types of visitors will not guarantee anything and may in fact
prove counterproductive.
Successful tourism development, therefore, not only depends on a clear
understanding of how resources fit together, but on attracting the types
of tourists who will most likely use them and so create the greatest benefit
for the destination. However, not all tourists have the same impact,
depending on their length of stay, interests and spending power, etc. (see
Chapter 2). The next stage in the tourism development process is therefore
to identify those groups of visitors who already come to the destination,
which of these create the greatest benefit and then to consider potential
markets they could also be encouraged to visit. This is the essence of
understanding tourism demand, which is the subject of Chapter 5.

FURTHER READING for Understanding Tourism

Resources
Getz, D. (1991) Festivals, Special Events and Tourism. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
Gunn, C. (1994) Tourism Planning: basics, concepts, cases (3rd edition). Bristol: PA.,
Taylor & Francis.
Middleton, V.T.C. (1994) ‘The Tourist Product’, in Witt, S.F. and Moutinho, L. (eds)
Tourism Marketing and Management Handbook (2nd edition). Hemel
Hempstead: Prentice Hall International.
Smith, S. (1989) Tourism Analysis. New York: Longman Scientific & Technical.
 Asojuanuy
jo jeINJeN SodINOSoy
TWHNLVN JO
aweN ainjeaj u01}2907 AOUSIA JOUSIA peuo)
pue) (saabeuew dew) (auasajai SOdIAIOS zeyep aweu)pue (auoydaja}
AdVISGNV1
Appendix 4a

1 :suasn Jara]JO UdNI/AAIDIE

Jasn sJaquunu
— ‘painseaw=W pajewijse=a
Z JOUSIA :e}ep pa}da}JOD
JO payda}JOIUN

Asoquanuy
fo [eIN}ND SedINOSoY
WYNLIND oweN
jo ainjeaj uo1}e907 uoissIMIpy JOUSIA peo)
pue) (saabeuew dew) (e2uasajes $92} ze}ep eweu)pue (auoydajay
WHAT

Appendix 4b

snolonay
YaHLO
TWUNLIND
| :siasn jaa]Jo jUaLINI/AVIAIIE
Jasn siaquuNu
— ‘poinseawi=wW pa}ewjse=a
Z JOJUSIA :eyep pa}da}jOD
10 Pa}d9]]09UN
HAVE WE GOT? ¢ 83

————
| oe
 pada}}ODUN JO pa}da}jO> :e}ep 10}ISIA |
ea a ed
SSID
Ls
V4)
a) ee
SADIAYAS
So SS SSS SS
te
z ey
a (auoydaja} pue auseu) SUOI}11}S94 Soul} (auasajas dew)
< ye}U0) JOUSIA jeuoseas Huiuedo uol}e307 gee ee AAU |
sadinosay AAI JoLane
HANDBOOK

pa}d9]}0DUN JO payda}|Od :eyep JOUSIA Z pa}EWI}sa=a ‘painseawW=W — SIOJSIA Jo Jaquunu :abeuoljed 1

SSANISNASINJAJ
YSHLO
DEVELOPMENT

SLNJAA
84 ¢ THE TOURISM

9z+

as [
iS STVAILSA4
,(8/W) SalpIAIqDe (a2u919401 dew) (suabeuew pue)
SINJAI
sweu)pue zejep
jaa JO BwWeN
(auoydaja}
Q.|
< peqwo) JOUSIA aheuoned jo adAy isi u01}e307
S8IINOSBY JUBAZ JO Asojuanu]
 ajdwiessua}
Jo Diseg BIAJVS A1043941G
sdoys
yoog Suassa}er!|aq YI $3101S SYMWSYI07 a0ys sajespue Jede! ar
sjeioy saying Juaw}edaq
53J0}s se pue yeid a|9AI-1O}0\\)
Salespue —_-adIAJaS
+ saijai9og
pue Sqn} a
a yDeOD
puke
Sa2INias
sng $,1090q Ayabins/aaiJo eulydpue sse|f suinasny\ SJO}IDIJOS z
enbauy siajeap sajes
pue
elawe>)
ddIas Ras
siauea|
spied
sbuljeaib
Aig
spoob
sjuabesman
buijods
pue
saqis
Huldwe)
uenese) [2119/9
SafesPUe SDIMS SJIUBANOS 9DU9DI|-H1O Sods Salqi|ide} =
Je) uble04 afueypxe $aS1N0I-}|05 jag saljddns IXE] SODAS ry)

Aqeg
Buiysi4 saljddns WAS (ssauyi}) JOA SUOIIEYS SNO] UONCWOJU!
$9JUAD

UONEPOWWOIDYswinuenby
equal
$\SHJ0}4 S19SSOJPJIEH aIOd $10}e|SUEI]

alesayeg
Sajes
PUR
adIMas

pyiya/unyis
310}$ Say}O}> 5189019 aiempiey
pue pjoyasnoy JSOd DIJO Aieulia}a,sadimas
equal yndy pue ajqeyeban saiddns auimysand
sieq OaplA je]Ua1

syuegsapfoig
JeaM Salpe|
Sajes
PUR
adIAas Sua
JeaM sjayseuadns sjeudsoy Q)/p0IaY
sajes
SYMWSIE]q UAID|IYD
5,
JEaM ses adueljdde
sajespue y3/Ajenses s}UeINe}Say
}e0g sayiny> adIAas $19]|oMof sje)
equal sewaul) sauelgiy ||N} ad1Mas
adIAlas Pur Sajes $310}S 8dUalUdAUO} [2307 JUBWUJ2AOD Aemeaye}

JO
UO!JEPOWWOIIY
SIDIAIIS
Asoqusauy

NOLLVGOWINODDV ee uone207
(uae HEIIISSE]D
uoljeriyisse Is/spiun/spog
sayis/syiun/spa WOOY sazes 1,S891AI9
14S81M9S &
5
y
Bae
i
STSLOH
eee
| TG
yee
ah,
Rete
SASNOH-LS3ND aaa
St | ee eaea:

ioopuy ‘}ood-Burwwims
:¢ ‘IZzndef/jooduiymyqnyoH
‘ph ‘euneS
:g sawed ‘WOO!
:9 ‘WAD
‘7 ‘suNod-siuuay
:g ‘Huluonipuod-ay
:6 ‘a4

ONIdAVD
Z ‘jood-Burwiwims 100pyno : 1,
:O1 ‘jueINejsay
| 1 ‘eHuno7
:Z| Yeq/qnd
| :E aduaIaJUOD‘saline;
‘pL pajqesiq‘ssedde
:¢| Hulajzed-4Jas
‘saitIDe}
:9| 1UBANOS
‘Sajes
| :/ POO ‘2410S:B] JEMOg
| °6 JAIEM
WHAT HAVE WE GOT? ¢ 85

|Z
:07Z
poomeail4
‘uoneys-lUeS
HANDBOOK
DEVELOPMENT

Appendix 4g
86 © THE TOURISM

SLNVUNVLSIY FDIANAS-TINS
——
sunoy Buluado |ssosemua|Ayivede> Buyeas ad poo
poo uone0}dew)
(eduasayes ONIMILVD
sadinosay Huraze> jo Aioquanu|
 A1O,UaAU|
Jo UoI}dadaySadIMas

U01}2907 ypeju0> Huluado /suoneriyqnd sdeyw u01}e337 safenbuey JuaAnos

eweu) (‘933 seul} apin5 $00g yse}) (payepdn $}3|j29] uayods Suid}
jse}) (payepdn jse}) (pazepdn

UOHeWOJU]
Wey

NOI1d3944u
Appendix 4h

ayqua)

uonewojuy
Alepuodas
aiua)

V
1WUIo”d
UOIJEUOJU
§
UOT
JUIOg
WHAT

eULIOjUY
)
Julog
HAVE WE GOT?

uoHeWOLUT
¢ 87
 88 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Appendix 4i Appendix 4 J

jenuuy
Jepusje>)
JO
WSLNO]
SJUGAZ

ainyea}
Ayiyend
sanssi
adinosay
TWYNLVN

SLNSAZ

WStanol
INJAI WaNtiNd SAILIALLOV
Griese PehneuRe Fe hoVeE

Who do we want?
Selecting the tourist

INTRODUCTION
Tourism destinations need actively to manage their visitors in order to
ensure their long-term success. This requires knowledge about who the
tourists actually are - based on information that goes beyond casual
observation. Tourists are not a homogeneous mass — far from it; individuals
can show a wide range of differences relevant to tourism management
and sustainability. Knowing which groups sharing similar characteristics
would bring greatest benefit and minimal cost to the destination, both
now and in the future, is the skill that forms the focus of this chapter.
Indeed, identifying and selecting groups, or segments, of tourists that a
destination can satisfy, preferably better than competitors, is central to
any marketing practice (see Chapter 7).
Demand for tourism is constantly changing, so information on tourist
characteristics needs to be gathered on a continuous basis. The destination
that fails to notice trends and to take a series of decisions on attractive
tourist groups, will generally find that, through time, the types of tourists
arriving become less and less advantageous to the area. This holds true
even for popular destinations, who find that numbers swell dramatically
even as the desirability of the tourist profile dwindles. Likewise, destina-
tions who only examine their current tourists, rather than also exploring
the potential market, are liable to find themselves in a similar trap. All
lead to a weaker position against better managed competitors. Table 5.1
(on page 90) indicates some of the qualitative trends influencing the
demand for tourism. As the table highlights, tourists from the established
tourist-generating countries, such as the United Kingdom, Germany or the
United States, are increasingly experienced as travellers and, consequently,
more demanding in what they expect to get for their money.
90 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

By the year 2020, there will be 1.6 billion international tourist arrivals worldwide,
generating over US$2 trillion, i.e. annual growth rates of 4.3% and 6.7%
respectively. Domestic tourism will outnumber international arrivals by 10:1
(World Tourism Organization, 1997: 3-4)

Fixed = Flexible
Search for bespoke products, tailor-made packages and maximum flexibility.
Careless = Concerned
Increasing recognition of negative impacts and demand for a quality environment.
Escape = Extension of life
Search for authentic or spontaneous experiences, learning and communication with others.
Sun =» Nature
Search for safe sun plus additional nature-based activities.
Passive = Active
Mental and physical exertion, new skill acquisition, or update existing interests. Products based
on entertainment, excitement or education, or some combination.
Naive = Experienced
Tourist as experienced and demanding consumer, unfazed by novelty and in pursuit of individuality.
Single = Mixed
Tendency to mix destination product elements from different price categories, e.g. budget transport,
luxury accommodation, etc.

Slow = Fast
Less regulation and restriction on global travel, harmonization of currencies, use of technology to
speed up travel process and distribution of travel products.
Time-pressured = Time-crunched
Increasingly, consumers in the urbanized developed world are stretched for time. They balance
many tasks and roles and live in a 24-hour society where services are increasingly available around
the clock. Standards for tourism are compared against other services, and organizing vacations —
becomes another list of tasks to be stacked.
Price-based = Image-based
Image critical to ability of destination to attract tourists. Tourists using destinations as branded
fashion accessories to help identify themselves from the mass of tourists and to make
statements about themselves to others.

Table 5.1: Future Trends Influencing Demand for Tourism

(Adapted from World Tourism Organization, 1991, 1997; Poon, 1993; Laine, 1989)

Any local destination competing for tourists is operating in a chal-

lenging global environment, even if individual local businesses might
struggle to recognize this. A competitive position can only be devel-
oped and maintained if sound decisions are made on the groups of
tourists best suited to the destination. For example, the family mar-
ket is less susceptible to the growth of long-haul destinations than
 WHO DO WE WANT? e 91

other tourist groups, and therefore may form the core market for a des-
tination located close to large tourist-generating regions. According to the
World Tourism Organization (1997), the future holds opportunities for
both large-scale or mainstream tourism and for small-scale niche tourism.
The key lies with finding the groups of tourists that best match the abil-
ities and capacities of the individual destination.

1. Identify many different groups of 2. Describe/build complete

tourists that may be relevant to weil profiles of the different groups
the destination of tourists

ots
fa ete

ee

4. Examine the appropriateness

of the resulting portfolio of 3. Select groups of tourists best
tourist groups, both now and faa suited to the destination
in the future

Figure 5.1: Who Do We Want? Stages in the Decision Process

Figure 5.1 refers to the different stages in the process of identifying,

describing and selecting groups of tourists for a local destination. It acts as
a simple guide to the layout of this chapter.

IDENTIFYING AND DESCRIBING GROUPS OF

TOURISTS
To break down the mass of tourists into groups, or alternatively to build
up individual tourists into workable segments, a number of descriptors or
variables may be used. There is a wide range of options available; the art is
in selecting those of most relevance. Universally applicable, however, is a
broad breakdown by:

¢ tourists (staying visitors) and same-day visitors;

¢ domestic and international visitors;

¢ purpose of travel broadly defined as leisure, business, and visiting

friends and relatives (VFR);

Sd package-tour and independent visitors.

92 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

All four are useful starting-points for identifying groups of visitors that
might be of interest to a destination. Much attention is given to inter-
national visitors at the expense of the domestic market, which is too often
neglected. In fact, a strong domestic market can provide a lower risk and
solid base for gradual tourism development, allowing for eventual
expansion into the international market as the product improves. The num-
ber of tourists (with the possible exception of VFR) is determined by the
bed capacity of the accommodation at the destination. As staying visitors
tend to generate greater income for the locality, increasing the length of
stay becomes a priority for many destinations. Day-visitors are often over-
looked. Tourists tend to be associated with holiday travel, yet conferences,
sales trips, meetings and incentive travel as a company reward for achieve-
ment, are all growth areas, albeit competitive ones. Destinations often for-
get to examine VFR tourists, partly because the accommodation element of
the stay is less visible. But VFR segments are characterized by emotional
bonds to the area, and may be more resilient than other tourist segments

Check points Satisfactory balance? Potential to increase?

yes / no? yes / no?

Tourists (staying)

Table 5.2: Check Points for Categorizing Current Tourist Groups

 WHO DO WE WANT? e 93

to negative incidents or economic downturn. Historical roots to a destination

may be exploited two or three generations later as people wish to learn
something about their ancestors. Such tourist groups may be of particular rel-
evance to a destination that has experienced substantial out-migration of its
inhabitants in the past, and it may be relatively easy to locate such people
through industry associations or societies.
Although there is a blur between the package and the independent
tourist, the distinction is important to a destination choosing tourist seg-
ments to target. After the initial decision, a package tourist has placed many
trip decisions in the hands of the holiday or excursion company. Attracting
package tourists makes it crucially important that the destination builds
strong links with the package provider, whether they are coach, ferry or
incoming tour operators. Ideally, such organizations should be carefully
selected, with a view to building a long-term relationship. Destinations
should be aware of the potential shift in the balance of power if tourists are
chosen through this method; benefits may flow back to the organizer rather
than to the destination, and operators may pull out of an area at short
notice. Most tour operators have slim profit margins, which makes them
tough negotiators with accommodation and transport suppliers because
they are constantly fighting to control costs. Independent tourists maintain
flexibility and control in decision-making and are more open to increasing
their length of stay, visiting attractions, etc. Table 5.2 summarizes the four
grouping possibilities for any local destination.
Having established these four very broad categories, other variables may
then be used. For simplicity, the variables fall under two main headings:

¢ trip variables or variables that relate the person to the tourism

experience in some way; see Table 5.3;

¢ personal variables or variables that relate solely to the person

involved, distinct from the tourism experience itself; see Table 5.4.

Tables 5.3 and 5.4 illustrate some of the variables under these two head-
ings; those highlighted are drawn out as discussion points below. Generally,
these tables represent a useful starting-point in the process of selecting key
visitor markets which a destination may seek to attract.

Discussion Points for Trip Variables

The following are all discussion points arising from Table 5.3, which exam-
ines trip variables that may be used in creating groups of tourists.
94 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Trip Variables
Purpose of travel, e.g. leisure/business/VFR
O Benefits sought by tourist
QO) Expectations of standards for trip, e.g. as at home? lower? higher?
1 Distance living from destination
CJ Spend per head/day/trip
OC Spend by component, e.g. accommodation, shopping, etc.
O Price sensitivity
© Other marketing factor sensitivity, e.g. to sales promotions, to advertising
Q Method of payment, e.g. cash, credit card, convertible currency, etc.
i Timing of payment, e.g. how far in advance, during, after?
UO Attitude towards destination, e.g. enthusiastic, positive, indifferent, negative, hostile
Buyer readiness stage, e.g. unaware of destination, aware, informed, interested, purchase intention
OC Usage status, e.g. non-, ex-, first, regular user, etc.
C1) Usage rate, e.g. heavy, medium, light
Frequency of use, e.g. once a year, twice a year
Q Purchase roles, e.g. who makes the decision? joint? who influences? children? who pays?
() Purchase occasion, e.g. honeymoon, religious celebration, birthday, etc.
Q) Timing of booking, e.g. how far in advance, days/weeks/months, last minute, on spec
Q) Timing of trip, e.g. month, peak, shoulder, trough
CQ Use of travel organizers, e.g. airlines, tour operators, travel agents, ferry operators, car hire, etc.
Q Sources of information used, e.g. word of mouth, brochures, web sites, newspapers, etc.
2 Method of booking, e.g. direct, TIC, third-party, etc.
Q) Point of capture, e.g. origin country, gateway airport or city, en route, etc.
Qi Mode of transport used to arrive/once arrived, e.g. car, ferry, bicycle, airplane, etc.
CI Attractions/accommodation/activities/facilities used and pattern of use
Q Trip patterns, e.g. touring, stop-over, single destination, twin destinations, etc.
Q) Party size by adult/children
C1 Party composition, e.g. adults, children, friends, families, relations, etc.
Length of stay, e.g. hours, nights
Q) Sensitivity and awareness of cultural, social and environmental aspects of the destination. Extent of
cultural gap between hosts and visitors?
O Satisfaction levels, e.g. unsatisfied, very satisfied, etc.

Table 5.3: Trip Variables Used for Describing Groups of Tourists

¢ The distance that the potential tourist or day-visitor lives from the
destination will determine the likely demand catchment area. The
analysis of the components of the destination will suggest its pulling
force, be it local urban areas, regional, national, cross-border
international, short-haul international, or long-haul international. It
may be more informative to measure distance in terms of:
 WHO DO WE WANT? e 95

(a) cost/expense to the individual tourist,

(b) time taken to reach the destination, and
(c) effort required and complexity of journey arrangements.

¢ Often destinations focus on the number of trips or tourists as a

target, rather than on the beneficial variables of spend per
head/day/trip and the percentage of this figure that is retained
and circulated round the local economy. As a general rule, where
the transport costs of getting to and from the destination
represent a high percentage of the total holiday cost, the tourist
is less inclined to be sensitive to individual cost issues at the
destination itself. The groups of tourists who exhibit high spend
per head/day/trip, travel frequently and show destination loyalty
are desirable segments. However, the advantages they bring are
recognized by established destinations, and competition for these
segments can be intense.

¢ Purchasing a tourism experience is a complex procedure. Classic

marketing theory points to a variety of buying roles, such as the
initiator of the idea, the information gatherer, the influencer,
the decider, the buyer and the final user. Tourism is often
undertaken as a group experience, whether with family or
friends, with any group member taking on one or more of the
buying roles. The same holds true for business tourism, where,
typically, the buyer and even the decider may not be the same
person as the user. Business tourism is also quite likely to
include a specific role responsible for filtering and screening
information.

¢ Asalocal destination has limited financial resources, it may be

easier to capture the independent tourist once they have entered the
country, rather than at the tourist's home country. Table 5.5
suggests possible ways of attracting the tourist at trip points other
than the home country. Repeat visitors to the destination country
may be more receptive to such approaches than the first-time
visitor.

¢ The benefits sought by the tourist are an essential variable in

examining groups of tourists. A sound understanding of desired
benefits will guide a better fit between the destination assets and
96 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

groups of tourists that the destination is best able to satisfy.

Table 5.6 illustrates a range of benefits that can be sought by
tourists. Typically, tourists are seeking a cluster of benefits from
any tourism experience, rather than a single benefit alone. A
hierarchy of benefits within the cluster may be evident. Some of
the benefits may be described as push factors, as they are more
concerned with conditions at the origin than at the destination.
Others may be described as pull factors as they are more positively
associated with attraction towards the specific destination.

¢ Trip variables can be subdivided into pre-trip variables, during-trip

variables and post-trip variables. For the tourist, the tourism
experience begins with anticipation and finishes with memories.
Too often, local destinations only consider the stay itself as the
experience, forgetting to include the journeys to and away from
the area as part of the tourist's experience.

¢ Tourism is a high-risk purchase. The financial cost is high and

precious leisure time lost on a poor vacation choice cannot be
reclaimed. Thus tourists may show anxiety in the period
between making the purchase and starting the trip, a length
of time that could span several days to several months. Letters
or promotional print, emphasizing the soundness of choice,
perhaps using testimonials from relevant personalities or
satisfied tourists, can act to reassure or to allay fears.
As a high-risk purchase, potential tourists tend to value
informal sources of information from friends and family above
formal information sources from a destination which they may
perceive as biased. There are usually individuals, or opinion leaders,
who are believed by their associates to be experts on particular
topics. Their advice will be influential on the purchase decision.
Identifying the opinion leaders for different groups of tourists
can help positive word-of-mouth recommendation, which is critical
to destination success. Opinion leaders are likely to be frequent
users of travel and tourism products and to be amongst the first
of a certain tourist type to visit a particular destination.

Discussion Points for Personal Variables

The following are all discussion points arising from Table 5.4, which exam-
ines personal variables that may be used in creating groups of tourists.
 WHO DO WE WANT? @ 97

Personal Variables
Q) Gender male / female
O) Marital status
1) Age
i Nationality / country of residence
O Ethnic origin
Education level attained, e.g. school, university, etc.
O) Religion, e.g. Muslim, Christian, Jewish, etc.
O Occupation, e.g. manual, professional, self-employed, etc.
Income (and income after paying for life necessities)
O) Household size, e.g. single, couple, etc.
Q Household composition, e.g. birth families, step-families, extended families, single parents, friends, etc.
Q Social class (scheme varies by nationality)
Population density, e.g. rural, urban, suburban, low density, high density
J Climatic conditions of home area
Currency received as wages / salary (exchange rates)
Geodemographic tools (where feasible)
C) Media habits, e.g. TV usage, radio, newspapers, magazines, web sites, etc.
Q Car ownership
) Holiday leave entitlement and structure (varies by nationality), e.g. national holidays, school year, long
weekends, number of days’ leave and pattern of use, etc.
( Previous travel experience
1 Lifestyle and attitudes, interest, opinions and hobbies
Od Lifestage, e.g. single, couple, with children, younger/older, mature couples, retired, solitary survivor, etc.

Table 5.4: Personal Variables for Describing Groups of Tourists

¢ Given financial constraints, nationality (or country of residence) is

a useful starting-point for destinations. National tourist
organizations typically select major country markets or growth
countries in which to concentrate their promotional resources.
Often they can only afford to have a tourist office or
representative in key countries. It is useful for a local destination
to know the pattern of overseas offices and representatives
maintained by their national tourist organizations as this is likely
to reflect the pattern of opportunities and help available for
promotional and distribution activities.

¢ Geodemographic tools which combine computerized information

systems with government census data show groups of people
sharing similar characteristics identified by their postcode,
zipcode or street. In the United Kingdom, tools such as ACORN
(A Classification of Residential Neighbourhoods), Mosaic and
98 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

PinPoint are all available at a price. Availability of such

geodemographic tools will vary by country; however, they may be
too costly for a local destination to consider unless a financial
partner or subsidy is found.

Of course, not all the variables will be appropriate at any one time. The
idea is to mix and match, to build possible groups of tourists for the des-
tination to focus on for marketing activity. If this is done creatively, new
and exciting groups of tourists may emerge that have not already been
spotted by competitors. As a generalization, the trip variables are most
useful in forming the skeleton of characteristics, while the personal
variables are most useful in adding flesh to the bones. In other words:

¢ firstly, use variables to identify groups of tourists that can be

differentiated from other groups of tourists (often using trip
variables, but not exclusively). As few as two or three variables
may be sufficient for this;

# secondly, use other variables to build a complete picture of each

tourist group (often using personal variables, but not exclusively).
The description should be as detailed as possible and should
incorporate media habits.

Used together, a complete profile of any tourist group can be assembled.

The aim at this stage is to produce descriptions of a range of possible
tourist groups for the destination without considering their relative mer-
its. To achieve this, think about using:

¢ computer databases of visitor characteristics and computerized

techniques for survey analysis where available (usually only national
tourist organizations have sufficient resources to conduct such
analysis);

¢ the experience of any tourism businesses currently operating in

the area or adjacent areas regarding the types of tourists they
currently attract and hope to attract (a bottom-up approach);

¢ any information released by the government, national tourist

office, regional equivalents, tourist information centres (TICs) and
other relevant bodies. Apart from one-off studies where more
 WHO DO WE WANT? e 99

detail will be given, such published information at a national level

typically includes number of trips/visitors, number of nights,
length of stay, spend per head/trip, tourist nationality,
accommodation used, purpose of travel and the month during which
the trip was taken (see Chapter 9). Understanding the national
trends for incoming tourism helps the local destination to establish
a framework of possibilities that reflects patterns at a larger
scale, useful knowledge when resources are limited;

¢ teams composed of people with varying perspectives (see Chapter 3);

¢ analysis of competitors’ brochures, advertisements, videos and

promotional print.

Once the tourist group options are assembled, the destination can move
on to select specific segments to target.

Point of capture: En route / during journey to destination country

Possible methods: Inflight/ferry magazine (article/advert), inflight/ferry video (by national tourist organi-
zation), promotional print at airport, ferry terminal, rail/coach station, car hire, petrol stations on key roads.

Point of capture: Capital city/gateway city

Possible methods: Promotional print at TICs, transport stations, travel agencies, car-hire outlets,
accommodation enterprises from hotels to bed and breakfast, attractions (especially gift shops).

Point of capture: Touring

Possible methods: As above, along identified circuits and routes used by particular groups of independent
tourists. Promotional print held by car breakdown services, garages, local police as appropriate.

Table 5.5: Point of Tourist Capture

Benefit sought by leisure tourist

) Rest & relaxation Ci Revive/repair relationships

Qi Recovery, recuperation, regeneration O) Search for love or sex
QI Inner peace & tranquillity Q Broaden the mind/education
(2 Escape/get away from routine Learn/improve skills or interests
Q Fitness/health © Freedom & self-determination
Q Pursuit of youth/beauty myth Q) Play/release of adult tension
Q Social contact/belonging Q Status & prestige

Table 5.6: Benefits Sought by Leisure Tourists from Destinations

100 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

SELECTING GROUPS OF TOURISTS

Having experimented with different personal variables and trip variables
and then built profiles of the resulting tourist groups, decisions are need-
ed as to the most suitable tourist segments for the destination to target.
Of course, few local destinations start this exercise with a blank sheet of
paper, as there are likely to be existing groups of tourists that have
evolved through time. However, decisions are required:

¢ to protect the medium- and long-term future of the local destination;

@ to make the most effective and efficient use of limited financial

resources;

¢ so that opportunities for potential new tourist segments are not

overlooked.

In addition, destructive segments can be deselected, with a view to dis-

couraging their arrival through demarketing, a reversal of the common
role of segmentation as stated above. This section explores the criteria and
issues involved with (a) choosing tourist segments and (b) ensuring a
sound collection or portfolio of tourist segments.

Choosing Tourist Groups

Ideally, a tourist segment should show as little variation in characteristics
between group members as possible. Similarity is the key. In practice, sub-
groups, or micro-segments, may be identified, and, if financially viable, these
eventually may form segments to be targeted in their own right. The criteria
to be used in choosing tourist groups are best agreed by the local destination
concerned. Possible tourist segments should be systematically scored against
the criteria to form a solid base for informed discussion (see Table 5.7).

Criteria Weighting | Tourist group | Tourist group| Tourist group

(if applicable) a b c
Criterion A x 2.0

Cterion 8
Criterion C x0.5 SS ~ I)

tc.
‘

Total score

Table 5.7: Scoring Tourist Groups Scoring scale of 0-5 (minimum = 1, maximum = 5)
 WHO DO WE WANT? ¢ 101

Similar tables can be drawn up for competitors and the results compared.
However the table is used, the following questions should be considered
for inclusion on the list of criteria.

¢ Will the tourist segment help the destination to achieve its

objectives? In the short term, perhaps as a stopgap measure? In
the medium term? Perhaps even in the long term?

¢ Is the tourist segment appropriate to the destination? Does the

group fit with the assets and pulling power of the destination?
Table 5.8 outlines a grid that can be used to assess the attraction
of assets against the different tourist groups. Is the tourist
group's behaviour consistent with sustainability goals? How do the
negative socio-cultural, economic and physical impacts of the group
balance against the positive impacts of the group?

Tourist Group
Resource/asset

ore
Scoring scale 0-5 (minimum = 1, maximum = 5): Groups attraction/asset: Resource/asset's ability to absorb group
Italics = group‘s attraction to resource/asset; Bold = resource/asset’s ability to absorb group

Table 5.8: Scoring Tourist Groups Against Destination Assets and Resources

¢ Can the tourist segment be measured? It is easier to manage

objectives if tourist groups are amenable to monitoring and
quantification.

¢ Can the tourist segment be reached through promotion? Some

groups are hard to separate from the rest of the population. A
clear profile of the tourist groups’ media habits (see Table 5.4)
and/or a characteristic applicable for direct mail is desirable to
ensure the efficient use of the communications budget.

¢ Are the opinion leaders for the tourist segment easy to identify?
Can they be reached with promotion? Given the prominence of
102 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

word-of-mouth recommendation in purchasing tourism, this is an

advantage. :

¢ What is the size of the tourist segment? A small niche group that
is growing and exhibits a high per trip spend can be financially
attractive, but, in general, a large pool of potential tourists is a
stronger starting-point.

¢ How financially viable is the tourist segment? It may not be

financially viable in the short term, but must become viable in the
medium to long term to justify resource allocation.

¢ How stable is the tourist segment? In the short term? In the

medium term? Is the group growing or declining? If so, at what
rate is it growing or declining? Destinations should be wary of
entering declining markets.

¢ What is the risk associated with the tourist segment? How will the
tourist group react to adverse exchange rates? Or to negative
events that may occur, such as terrorism or flooding? Obviously, a
resilient group is more attractive to a destination.

¢ Are competitors actively pursuing the same tourist segment? If

so, does the competitor hold a strong advantage over the
destination in attracting this group? Does the competitor have any
weaknesses concerning this tourist group that could be exploited?
Might there be benefits in joining forces and co-operating with
one another in serving this group of tourists?

As a number of tourist segments will be selected, the destination also

needs to consider how the different groups fit together as a portfolio.

Ensuring a Sound Portfolio of Tourist Groups

A local destination needs to choose a number of tourist segments, because
a single segment focus would leave the destination vulnerable to change
and to unforeseen events. It needs to develop a collection or portfolio of
tourists, and to plan for its future development as changes occur in the
external environment. Initial considerations for designing a strong portfo-
lio of tourist segments include:
 WHO DO WE WANT? © 103

Will the collection allow the destination to meet its goals and
objectives? In the short, medium and long term?

How many tourist segments should be selected? Too few and the
destination is exposed to sudden downturns ina particular market;
too many and the destination spreads its communications budget
too thinly to achieve its objectives. A common platform for all/most
of the tourist groups minimizes the duplication of marketing effort
and allows the marketing budget to be used effectively.

How compatible are the different tourist segments with one

another? Remember that unless different tourist groups are
separated either spatially or by time of year, they will influence
the experience and satisfaction of other groups. Over the longer
term, they will also influence the image of the destination. If
tourist groups do not complement each other, then dissatisfaction
and negative word of mouth can occur. Alternatively, separate out
the groups so that they are visiting the destination at different
times of the year or are using different parts of the destination.

Examine the overall structure of the portfolio. How many segments

are in a growing market, a declining market or a stable or mature
market? In short, does the portfolio look balanced? At the current
time? But what about in five years’ time? If the future scenario is
not acceptable, what tourist groups should be developed,
maintained or eliminated so that a better balance is achieved?

Is the destination over-reliant on any one or two segments? With

reference to numbers or spend per head/day/trip? What action is
required to reduce the problem?

How resilient is the portfolio to disruption by external events,

such as political activities or natural disasters? Of course,
extreme events can stop tourism altogether, but relatively minor
incidents can also have a negative effect and some groups, such as
domestic tourists, may prove to be less adversely affected. What
about the length of recovery time following a negative event?

What does the portfolio look like when tourist segments are
examined by time or month of use? Assuming that the objectives
104 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

highlight year-round tourism, are the trough and shoulder months

given sufficient attention? Generally speaking, year-round tourism
is healthier for local businesses.

¢ Does the portfolio of tourist segments offer enough flexibility to

individual providers of tourism at the destination? The framework
should give ample opportunity for the different businesses to develop.

¢ How realistic is the portfolio in the context of the national

framework? It is better to work with the national tourist
organizations. Unless the local destination is based on outstanding
resources of international recognition, it is more effective to fit
the local portfolio into the national picture.

Table 5.9 presents a grid for completion to outline the portfolio of seg-
ments belonging to a local destination. Of course, a destination cannot
control its boundaries (unless it is an inclusive resort), and is likely to be vis-
ited by tourist types outside of the preferred portfolio. These groups still
need to be managed if the negative impacts are to be kept to a minimum,
and destinations should be aware of such tourists and plan for them
accordingly. Demarketing may help over the medium term.

WHERE TO NEXT?
Having examined the process of identifying suitable tourist segments,
Chapter 6 moves on to explain the preparation of a tourism development
strategy. Building on the previously completed resource audit, the chapter
shows how action plans are derived from goals and objectives. Chapter 6
(the tourism development plan) and Chapter 7 (the tourism marketing
plan) are complementary and should be read concurrently to help put the
broader development strategy into perspective.

FURTHER READING on Selecting Tourists

Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Saunders, J. and Wang, V. (1999) Principles of Marketing
2nd European Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall (in particular Chapters 6, 7 & 9).
Middleton, V.T.C. (1994) Marketing in travel and tourism (2nd edition). Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
 WHO DO WE WANT? ¢ 105

Segment Figures for eds Benefits Trip Personal

name size of sought chesactenctics characteristics
segment fearon

Retired 14% of total Overall 4 Relaxation 2-3 nights Retired married

couples tourist trips Off-peak 1 peace and arrive by car, couples age
10% of total Importance quiet, sense | book direct, off- |65+, city-based
tourist spend increasing of tradition peak arrival, socio-economic
1.4 million and history, £30-£40 ppn groups ABC1,
within 3 hours physical spend, relyon | house or flat
drive of comfort word of mouth, |owners, etc.
destination, etc, joint decision, etc.

Table 5.9: Destination X portfolio of tourist segments

Gr
A Pol E Ree Se hiX

How do we get them? Part 1

Preparing a development plan

INTRODUCTION
Tourism development planning takes place at all levels of activity, from the
national and international level to local communities and individual
attractions. In many respects, the general principles of planning are similar
at these different levels (i.e. resource assessment, market analysis, devel-
opment strategy and marketing plan), however, the practical application
or operation of these plans are usually quite different.
At the national level, development planning tends to reflect broad eco-
nomic objectives, and is mainly indicative of what can be achieved rather
than a prescribed set of activities. Much attention is directed at facilitating
growth, with greatest emphasis on marketing and technical support to
lower levels of operation. At the local or destination level, however, the
focus of tourism development planning becomes much more involved. After
all, it is here where the impacts of tourism are most acute, where visitors are
actually served, resources used and the tourism experience is created.
Tourism development planning at the destination level is primarily
about programming change in the use of resources in some prescribed
fashion. Resources are analysed, markets assessed, impacts considered,
goals established and actions defined. The local tourism development plan
provides a framework through which the destination’s tourism policy is
acted upon (see Chapter 3), ensuring that the development which does
occur is appropriate to the area, reflects local values, and is a benefit to
the tourism industry itself.
Tourism planning is critical at the destination level if communities are to
maintain the integrity of their local resources, while providing the level of
visitor satisfaction necessary for tourism to succeed. If destinations cannot
offer a positive experience of place, people and activities which satisfy
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 1 © 107

visitor expectations, while protecting their resource base from overuse, the
outcome will tend to be less than satisfactory for all concerned.
Given the analysis of resources, markets, impacts and policies in previ-
ous chapters, this book now sets out to discuss the basic steps in defining
goals and objectives as a core element of the tourism development plan.
The context and content of the tourism marketing plan is then examined
in Chapter 7.

THE TOURISM STRATEGY PROCESS

One key function of the Tourism Resource Audit (discussed in Chapter 4)
was to examine a destination’s tourism strengths and weakness from a
supply point of view. The outcome of this review should have identified
the area’s key assets (where resource features were considered as ‘good’),
as well as a number of issues or concerns needing further attention
(resource elements considered ‘satisfactory’ or in ‘need of improvement’).
In Chapter 5 the discussion focused on identifying key groups of visitors (or
target markets) most likely to use these local resources and provide the
greatest benefit to the destination. The task now is to bring these two
functions together in the preparation of the tourism development plan.
Similar to the steps of the tourism resource audit, the process of prepar-
ing a tourism development plan is a multi-stage activity, which seeks to:

¢ identify development opportunities and constraints (based on the

evaluation of supply and demand previously completed);

¢ set goals and objectives for development which address those

issues needing attention in the short, medium and longer term;

¢ define a series of action steps designed to achieve these goals and

objectives within some specified time frame.

STAGE 1 - Identifying Opportunities & Constraints

By completing the resource audit steps discussed in Chapter 4, a number of
issues or concerns with tourism will probably have been identified as needing
some form of attention, or in need of improvement. However, as this initial
analysis was fairly broad (i.e. including all resource features) it will usually be
necessary at this stage to break these points down further into a more man-
ageable set of issues and opportunities. In addition, as not all issues will be of
equal concern or importance (with some needing a more immediate
response than others), these will need to be ranked in some order of priority.
108 e THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

The task of simplifying and ranking the initial review into a workable
set of issues involves a four-step process:

Step 1: Using the ‘overall assessment’ column on the initial audit form
(Appendix 4j, page 88) transfer all resource elements listed as in ‘need of
improvement’ to the Tourism Issues Table (Figure 6.1, page 111). These
resource elements will tend to be those aspects of the destination which
cause the greatest level of concern for tourism, and would generally take
priority in the tourism development plan.
In so doing, the Tourism Issues Table should also include a brief sum-
mary of the key points which determined that initial overall rating (i.e. its
quality, uniqueness and/or appeal). This step is designed not only to help
destinations begin to identify potential changes or improvements to the
resource, but also to highlight anything which may stand in the way of
future development action. For example:

a large river-front setting may at first seem a significant tourism

opportunity, but closer inspection shows little visitor activity. In
terms of quality’, limited access points are seen to restrict visitor
use. However, this section of the river is unique because of a small
island situated in the middle of the channel. This island happens to
be a nesting site for local wildfowl, which includes a rare and
interesting species. Given the uniqueness but limited access, this
feature was seen as needing improvement on the Resource Audit, if
it was to play a more central role in the destination's tourism profile.

If nothing was considered to be in need of improvement, then the initial

analysis was probably not rigorous enough. It is unlikely that everything is
ever perfect in terms of tourism supply and demand.
When auditing resource elements for tourism it is important to remem-
ber that while some features may be considered adequate or good in the
present (and thus not a current concern), what happens in the future may
change this point of view. Continual monitoring of activity remains a vital
element of any development strategy (see Chapter 9).

Step 2: The next step is to identify which groups of existing visitors, or

expected tourist markets are most relevant to that particular resource fea-
ture or element. An understanding of the markets to which different
resources will appeal is fundamental in preparing a tourism development
strategy. For example:
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 1 © 109

the river setting and wildfowl population will not appeal to all
visitor markets. However, some of the destinations key visitor
markets would find this ‘attraction’ of interest. Further
development of this resource would thus seem worthwhile, not only
for its appeal to the destination’s key visitor markets and
contribution to the industry, but because local environmental
improvements are a benefit to the local community as well.

Current and potential visitor markets should always play a central role
when considering development opportunities. The analysis of visitors dis-
cussed in Chapter 5 should provide a good understanding of local tourism
markets and the destination’s tourism market profiles. Having this type of
information is important so that resource improvements are directed at
those areas which will most likely affect the destination’s more important
target markets. In other words, resource improvements are directed at
those visitors who are most likely to appreciate the improvement, and in
turn represent the greatest benefit to the destination.

Step 3: Once the key resource issues or concerns have been recorded,
and market(s) listed, the next step is to identify the potential opportun-
ities for tourism use of that resource, and any constraints facing its further
development. For example:

in terms of ‘opportunities’, a riverside trail or walkway could be

improved; viewing and seating points established; interpretation
panels installed, explaining the significance of the island; river
tours/ ferry services, park development or improvement, fishing or
marina developments, and commercial links could also be
established which highlight the local 'wildfowl’ experience.

However, while some aspects of the local resource base may seem central
to the tourism product and in need of improvement, there may be con-
straints on what can actually be done. For example:

in terms of ‘constraints’, these could include competing land-use

claims for the riverside which take priority over tourism use; owner-
ship of the riverside area could restrict development opportunities;
development and interpretation costs could be prohibitive;
conservation issues may limit use; or a lack of market awareness
could mean little interest in the outcome of the development.
110 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

The purpose of identifying or outlining these opportunities and constraints is

to highlight those areas where tourism development effort will make the most
significant initial impacts. It should give some indication of where development
efforts will most likely be rewarded, and identify where potential problems will
emerge. It should also help the destination recognize its limitations in terms of
tourism and identify what can or cannot realistically be achieved.

Step 4: The final step at this point in the development process is to rank
order the list of problems or concerns. The purpose of ranking is to identify
those points which will take priority in preparing the destination’s tourism
development goals and objectives. Tourism problems or concerns should be
ranked on the basis of their importance and link to the destination’s key
tourism markets, as well as the more viable in terms of taking any action:

@ higher ranking should accord with issues most directly affecting

key target markets, and/or have the most significant impact on
the widest groups of visitors;

¢ higher ranking should also accord with those issues or concerns more
easily addressed and which will readily show the benefit of action.

Those points ranked the highest will then get the attention they deserve
when it comes to writing the action plan. For example:

as the riverside area represents a key component of the

destination's natural tourism resource, it is a major concern. While
there may be other features of the destination which should and
could be improved, this issue is ranked high on the list of priorities
because it relates to key visitor markets and is a high-profile/highly
visible element of the destination.

There is little use in giving something a high priority if it will have minimal
impact on key visitor markets or will require substantial effort to imple-
ment, as these will give limited return on investment and effort in the
short term. This is not to suggest that the more difficult problems should be
ignored, but rather it is important to address concerns which can and will
lead to visible and positive results in the short term, which helps add fur-
ther support to continued and future effort and activity in the longer term.
At this point in the planning process, having completed all the previous
steps, the destination should have:
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 1 # 111
juawidojanag
sjulesjsuoy
wistinoy

juawidojanag

wsunoy
saijiunjioddg
‘uolpe

syayseyy

Aay
Ayolid
Ul swe}
40

ainjea}
0} jaAa|4o

sanss|
aunosay
Bulpsorre
adunosay sainjea4

(jeadde
‘Ayenb)
‘ssauanbiun

ainjeay
'S8D1M9S

adunosay
yueY,

7yeanyin> :sjuaAq +
SOIIANDY 2|qD
aunbiy
:[°9
wsiunoy
Sansst
112 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ aconcise, ranked listing of development issues;

agood understanding of its tourist profile;

¢ some idea of what needs to be done to improve tourism potential.

The reason for assessing development opportunities and constraints is to

provide direction and a focus for future development. The destination
should now be ready to begin thinking more about the next stage of the
tourism development process: setting development goals and objectives.

STAGE 2 - Setting Development Goals and Objectives

Stage 1 of the strategy process (discussed above) is designed to help
destinations evaluate their past and present conditions of tourism
supply and demand, providing an answer to the question: ‘where are
we now?’ Stage 2 looks to the future, and asks: ‘where do we want to
be?’, or ‘what would we like to accomplish through the development of
tourism?’ The tourism development strategy provides the link between
the status quo and ‘where we'd like to be’.
Setting goals and objectives forms a core element of any strategic
planning process. It creates a bridge between development policy and the
series of actions designed to pursue that policy. A destination’s tourism
policy is effectively a broad mission statement (see Chapter 3) which
steers development activity in a particular direction. Goals and objectives
represent the framework through which this policy is defined and acted
upon.
The system of setting goals and objectives represents a means to the
end of putting that policy into practice. Without a clear set of specified
goals and objectives, a destination will have nothing to guide its activities,
assess whether it has been successful, or be able to show what progress
has actually been made (see Figure 6.2, page 113).

Tourism Goals provide a general direction or focus for the tourism

policy. They are:

¢ statements of intent or desire about the way tourism should be

developed to improve its potential and mitigate problems;

# continuous - they are never actually reached, but always pursued;

 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 1 # 113

¢ short, clear and concise statements outlining the direction of

future development;

¢ the foundations for setting more precise objectives which follow.

Tourism Strategic Planning Process

. To maximize the benefits of tourism in the destination, while encouraging a

sustainable use of local resources.

Lt
e.g.: 1. To improve standards of service offered to visitors.
2. To encourage more tourists to visit other areas.
3. To extend the tourist season.

i
Objectives e.g.: 1. To increase customer service training programmes by 50% over 2 years.
2. To increase non-core area tourism trips from 20-30% of all trips in 3 years.
3. To increase off-season tourist trips by 10% over 2 years.

ale aI
1.1 Review availability of current customer care training opportunities in the area. G
1.2 Contact local businesses to arrange classes with customer care trainers.
1.3 Co-ordinate customer care training sessions with 50% of local businesses. T

Figure 6.2: Tourism Strategic Planning Process

Tourism Objectives are more specific than goals. Each goal may have
several objectives. Objectives are meant to accomplish tourism goals and
address tourism issues identified in the resource analysis. They break goals
down into detailed statements of intent and define how the goals will be
realized. They provide a definite direction for tourism and act as a bench-
mark for measuring success in the future. As such, tourism development
objectives must be:

¢ quantifiable or measurable;

@ achievable within a specific time period;

¢ concise, specific and clear to anyone reading them;

114 e THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ realistic, not some impractical wish list.

Touri Acti eps then provide the ‘who, what, where and how’,
the detail of how these goals and objectives will be pursued. Tourism
actions state what precisely will be done, when it will be done and by
whom. It is very likely that several action steps will be linked with each
objective. Tourism Action Steps are therefore:

¢ specific as to what exactly should be done, and by whom;

¢ are precise so as to avoid ambiguity of purpose;

¢ have a specific time-scale and expected outcome;

¢ can be delegated to individuals or groups to undertake.

Writing Tourism Goals

Writing goals and objectives can be a quite difficult if not frustrating task.
But it is a necessary element of the tourism development process, to
ensure development action and activities are complementary to each
other and all pulling in the same direction.
Tourism goals tend to arise in one of two ways, generally depending on
the level of planning being considered. At the national level, goals are often
developed via further elaboration of national policy. At the destination, how-
ever, while goals are meant to reflect local policy, they tend to come from the
strategic planning process and address issues identified during the resource
audit, market analysis and the Tourism Issues Table discussed earlier.
Tourism goals should be relatively simple statements, concerned with such
fundamental things as improving standards of service offered to tourists,
increasing the diversity of local attractions, or encouraging tourists to visit a
wider area in the destination (i.e. spreading the load).
Those issues and opportunities that are ranked the highest in the Tourism
Issues Table should become the key elements in determining initial develop-
ment goals. By addressing each of the major areas of concern highlighted in
the initial analysis, most problem points will be reconsidered in the setting of
goals and objectives. For example:

¢ Issue 1: During the analysis phase it was discovered that there

were problems with the diversity of attractions in the
destination. Tourists had complained that there weren't enough
contd
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 1 # 115

things to see and/or do in the area, especially if they were to

stay more than just a few hours. In this case the goal might be:

Goal 1: 'to increase the volume and diversity of tourism

opportunities in the destination’.

Issue 2: Another problem area was seen to exist with the

services available at the tourist information centre; some
businesses were not tourist friendly; and the destination
suffered from a lack of identity. These issues of customer
service and hospitality might suggest that the destination would
need to focus part of its development efforts on seeking to
improve its hospitality services. In this case the goal might
simply be:

Goal 2: ‘to improve the quality of tourism hospitality in the

destination’.

Issue 3: The market analysis also highlighted another key

weakness for the destination. Most current visitors fell into only
one or two key market groups. Any future change in travel
patterns, preference or other aspect of market competition
could lead to a significant decline in overall visitor numbers. In
this case, another goal might be:

Goal 3: ‘to increase the diversity of tourist markets coming

to the destination’.

As these examples suggest, tourism goals are meant to be continuous. The

objectives and action steps which follow will work towards a particular goal,
but will never fully achieve it. This is because there is always room for
improvement, with the whole tourism planning process being one of on-
going evaluation and review. As conditions change, priorities shift, and issues
become resolved, a new set of goals and priorities need to be considered.
Once the initial tourism goals have been set, the next step is to develop
a series of objectives, each designed to respond to one of these goals.

Writing Tourism Objectives

Writing tourism objectives is a five-step process using the Goals and
Objectives Table (see Figure 6.3). Like tourism goals, objectives flow from
116 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

the strategic planning process. They are broadly conceived to address

tourism issues and opportunities as expressed by goals, but precise enough
to be readily obtainable within a given time frame.

Tourism Development Goals and Objectives

Goal:

Key issue or opportinuty:

affected

Figure 6.3: Tourism Development Goals and Objectives

Setting tourism objectives, however, can be a little more difficult than

deciding on development goals. Yet this need not always be the case. By
focusing on one goal and issue at a time, the process becomes much sim-
pler. Each goal may have several objectives, and objectives can relate to
more than one goal. However, for the sake of simplicity, each objective
should initially be written in relation to only one goal at a time. If an
objective will help achieve more than one goal, so be it, however, problems
tend to emerge when trying to write objectives which cover too many
issues all at once. They become vague, difficult to implement and imposs-
ible to measure.

Step 1: Restate each goal, one at a time, each on a separate table.

Summarize the key issue or opportunity which that broad goal is meant to
address. Each table should relate to one goal and one of the key issues
identified in the previous stage of the analysis. For example:
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 1 # 117

If one of the top-ranked issues previously identified was a lack of

quality information for visitors to take away, such as local maps and
brochures, etc., then a goal to which this issue relates might be:

¢ to improve the quality of tourism hospitality.

As the initial set of goals have been written in relation to the top-ranking
issues, the series of objectives which follow should then reflect the des-
tination’s top priorities in terms of tourism improvements.

Step 2: Briefly re-examine the issues that are associated with this
particular goal. There are likely to be a number of sub-issues which can be
considered and addressed through a series of specific and related object-
ives. For example:

If a key issue was considered to be 'a lack of quality information

for visitors to take away, such as local maps and brochures, etc.’,
the sub-issues might be:

(a) the lack of a quality destination map for visitors showing

key locations of attractions and services;

(b) the lack of quality brochures which serve to inform and

promote the destination's different attractions.

Writing objectives which deal with these issues (and which work towards
the original goal), becomes one of restating these issues or problems in a
positive light. For example:

¢ Sub-issue A: ‘the lack of a quality destination map for visitors

showing key locations of attractions and services’.

can be reworded as an objective,

¢ Objective A: 'to provide a new map of the destination high-

lighting the location of local attractions and visitor services’.
118 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

@ Sub-issue B: 'the lack of quality brochures which serve to inform

and promote the destination's different attractions’.

can be reworded as an objective,

¢ Objective B: 'to encourage all local attractions each to supply

one new brochure which provides information on location, access
and activities associated with that attraction’.

This process continues until all the sub-issues have been rewritten as
objectives. This step is then repeated with another key issue until all the
top-ranking issues and opportunities associated with the original goal
have been written out as tourism objectives.

Step 3: Once all the objectives for a particular goal have been devised,
they are then given a time frame for implementation. Each objective must
be measurable, wherein at the end of a specified period of time the des-
tination should be able to determine the extent to which the objective has
been accomplished — fully, partially or not at all. For example:

¢ Objective A: ‘to provide a new pocket map of the destination

highlighting the location of local attractions and visitor services’.

¢ time-scale: 2 months

¢ Objective B: ‘to encourage all local attractions each to supply

one new brochure which provides information on location, access,
and activities associated with that attraction’.

¢ time-scale: 6 months

When all of the issues related to the initial goal have been addressed
through this process the cycle begins again with Step 7 for the next major
goal. When all the initial goals have been written up with their own set of
objectives, this process then moves on to re-examine the importance and
attainability of each objective.
It is important in the strategic planning process for objectives to be
achieved, because success tends to feed off success. Unrealistic expectations,
overly ambitious or vague targets for tourism will inevitably lead to
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 1 ¢ 119

unrealized ambition, which can easily destroy motivation and all the hard
work that has already gone into the planning process.

Step 4: The next step therefore is to conduct a reality check and re-eval-
uate the objectives. It may be necessary to rethink an objective, down-
grade what it seeks to achieve, or break it down into smaller objectives
with a more realistic time frame. For example:

¢ Objective B: ‘to encourage all local attractions each to supply

one new brochure ...’may be too ambitious within a six-month
time-scale.

It also may be that the destination needs first to produce a

general guidance note on what basic or minimum tourist information
the local tourism committee would like to see in these brochures.

As a result it may be that this objective should be given a longer

time frame, or rewritten with an emphasis on encouraging the
destination's key attractions first to produce the brochures, rather
than all attractions, at least during this first phase of development
activity.

It is very likely that during the previous four steps, several different object-
ives will have been developed. However, not all of these can be accom-
plished at the same time, nor will they all have an equal impact on the
various tourism issues they are meant to address. It is therefore important
to give some priority to these objectives in terms of what will be tackled
first, and so on.

Step5: The final step in setting goals and objectives (before moving
on to prepare tourism action steps in STAGE 3), is to assess all the objec-
tives together and then to establish some order of relative priority or
importance.
To rank the objectives in order of importance, all goals and objectives
are listed on one table (see Figure 6.4). Each member of the committee
preparing the development strategy should then have their own identical
copy of this table (or some form of list which relates to the ‘master
table’), and individually rank each objective out of 20 (irrespective of the
goal to which it relates). The higher the number, the higher the priority
120 «©THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

or importance of that particular objective. While there may be many

objectives to choose from, ranking should be limited to what individuals
feel are the seven to ten most important objectives. By using a scale of 1
to 20 it allows for a greater flexibility and emphasis to be placed on dif-
ferent objectives.
These ‘top priority’ objectives should be chosen on the basis of:

¢ how well they enhance or help improve the local tourism industry;

¢ their relationship with the destination's key tourism markets;

¢ those which can realistically be achieved with local resources and

effort:

¢ how quickly they can be achieved;

¢ their visibility to the wider public.

Objective Priority List

Objectives

Figure 6.4: Objective Priority List

When complete, the overall importance or rank of an objective is then

determined simply by the sum of individual rankings for each objective.
The objective with the highest total score becomes the top priority, the
second-highest score becomes the number 2 objective and so on. In the
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 1 @ 121

event of a tie, a simple majority vote should be taken in order to reach a

quick decision.
This initial priority list sets out the destination’s most immediate
concerns and provides a sense of direction for the subsequent Action
Plan. By limiting the list of priority objectives to 7 to 10, the destination
will be in a better position to make an immediate impact on tourism and
realize its own accomplishment. Achieving these will help build confid-
ence, support and pride, allowing subsequent objectives to be addressed.
Once the initial set of objectives have been dealt with, the process can be
repeated and those remaining objectives can be reassessed with a new
order of priority.
Writing out goals and objectives in this fashion may seem a tedious and
somewhat laborious exercise, but it is essential to get these points down
on paper. Writing things down works very well to help focus the mind and
promote action. Once opportunities and constraints, issues, goals and
objectives have been written out they can be altered, amended, edited,
ignored, added to, improved or deleted as the case may be. However,
experience has shown that when this stage is skipped over the develop-
ment actions pursued, in response to key problems often fail actually to
address the original issue or concern.
When the process of writing our goals and objectives is complete, the
emphasis then shifts to devising a set of actions which translate these
goals and objectives into practical activity - the action plan.

STAGE 3 - Devising the Action Plan

In its crudest form, the tourism development strategy is essentially a series of
action steps designed to help realize or put into practice some predeter-
mined tourism policy. Devising a set of actions is the last stage of the basic
development plan, setting out the destination’s tourism objectives, describing
in detail how this will be achieved, who will do it and when the expected
outcome will be realized. Tourism action steps are designed to provide the
means and method of reaching a particular tourism objective. More often
than not, each objective will require several steps to reach a conclusion.
The tourism action plan is effectively a detailed sequence of steps, describ-
ing exactly what is to be done and in what order of activity. The action steps
are very specific and if written properly, leave no room for ambiguity as to
what is expected. However, actions steps are only an estimate of what needs
to be done to achieve each objective. They are not absolute, and it may be
that as work proceeds subsequent actions may need amending to complete
the task as new issues arise or problems are encountered.
122 «©THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

frame
Time

tS
a
1
r=)
2.
2
i)
—
C-)
v
5wv
Objective:
Ae Action
steps
Table
6.5:
Actions
Figure
Tourism

Writing Tourism Action Steps

Tourism Actions Steps are prepared by taking one objective at a time,
starting with the top-ranked objective from the Objective Priority List
(Figure 6.4). Using the Tourism Actions Table (see Figure 6.5), restate the
key issue, goal and objective which the actions are meant to address
before beginning to write the individual actions steps. This information
will help in establishing and identifying the background to the actions
steps which follow.
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 1 ® 123

Step 1: Start to write out actions steps by briefly stating what needs to
be done, in a step-by-step fashion, to meet the objective. For example:

if the objective is:

¢ ‘to provide a new pocket map of the destination, highlighting the

location of local attractions and visitor services’

the actions steps might be:

1. Obtain detailed costs estimates of producing the new town map,

including printing costs and cartographic fees.

. Contact local tourist businesses, chamber of commerce and town

council to seek support, sponsorship and funding for the map.

. Identify the location of all attractions and tourist services ona

basic street map of the destination.

. Decide and locate which other features will also be included on

the map.

. Find a cartographer or graphic artist, preferably local, who can

prepare a stylized map of the destination including these key
features, attractions and tourist services.

. Find a printer, preferably local, who can print the quality and
quantity of maps required.

Step 2: When each action has been identified the next step is to assign
someone with the responsibility to complete the task. This should also
include some indication of the expected start and completion of the
task(s). Action steps should be listed in chronological order, with one step
normally commenced before the next is considered. When the action steps
are actually undertaken and complete, a note on the result of the action
should be entered on the Tourism Actions Table as a record of the activity.
If it is difficult to identify any action steps for any particular objective it
may be the objective is too vague, overambitious, or even unrealistic in
what it seeks to achieve. If this is the case, it will be necessary to rework
124 « THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

the objective to reflect more specific outcomes, break it down into smaller
more manageable sub-objectives, or even delete it altogether. Similarly, if
it is unclear what is actually required by the action steps or if there is some
ambiguity as to how this will be achieved, then those action steps will also
need to be restated and be more specific.

WHAT TO DO NEXT?
Once the complete set of actions steps have been prepared for the 7-10
priority objectives previously identified, then all that remains at this point, is
to begin to put these plans into practice and begin to implement the actions.
This of course is not the end of the tourism development strategy, and the
belief that once attractions are in place visitors will flood in, is a common mis-
take in tourism development. Rarely will destinations sell themselves.
If these actions are intended to attract more visitors, encourage them
to stay longer, create more of an economic benefit, and perhaps encour-
age them to come back again in the future, then a marketing plan will be
necessary. Marketing, however, is so much more than simply selling the
destination at one point in time. As much as it is important to understand
the opportunities and constraints, assets and liabilities of tourism supply, it
is equally important to understand the needs, wants and wishes of the
tourists themselves (tourism demand).
The marketing plan, like the development plan discussed above, needs
to be thought through, organized, realistic and written down. The discus-
sion in Chapter 5 focused on better understanding a destination’s tourism
markets (the who, what, where, etc.), now the point is to link this infor-
mation with the actions developed in this chapter and prepare a tourism
marketing plan. To this end, the next chapter outlines the basic structure
and steps involved in preparing a marketing plan for tourism destinations.

FURTHER READING for Developing a Tourism Plan

Blank, Uel (1989) The Community Tourism Industry Imperative: the necessity, the
opportunities, its potential. State College, PA: Venture.
Gunn, C. (1994) Tourism Planning: basics, concepts, cases (3rd edition). London:
Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Mill, R.C. and Morrison, A.M. (1985) The Tourism System: an introductory text.
London: Prentice-Hall International.
CemrAcP TER. SE VEN

How do we get them? Part 2

Developing the marketing plan

INTRODUCTION
Too often, marketing is seen by destinations as synonymous with promo-
tion or communications activity. In fact, marketing is a strategic process that
aims to fit the resources of a destination to the opportunities existing in the
market. It is as much about retaining the tourist as it is about winning new
business. Additionally, it is complementary to planning, as will become
apparent in this chapter. Indeed, the glamour often associated with mar-
keting is in reality based on much hard work behind the scenes. The glam-
our without the preceding analysis and strategic framework often results in
a series of inconsistent communication campaigns that confuse the tourist
and do nothing to develop a solid proposition. So, although this chapter
focuses on the communications mix as a unique contribution from market-
ing practice, it is rooted in a wider appreciation of the hard graft.
A marketing plan is a written, working document that should be pre-
pared by a cross-section of the destination community (see Chapter 3),
ideally under the guidance of a marketing practitioner, or by an inde-
pendent marketing consultant working in close collaboration with the
destination (see Chapter 10). Its content, as copies or verbal presenta-
tions, must be freely disseminated amongst those with an interest in the
area’s tourism. The plan needs to be strong enough to give direction
and unity of purpose, yet flexible enough to allow businesses to pursue
their own initiatives. Unlike a marketing plan for a commercial organ-
ization, the destination marketing plan relies on co-operation and per-
suasion. It is imperative that those working with the plan feel a sense of
ownership.
Essentially, there are two different time-scales attached to marketing
plans and the nature of these plans will vary accordingly:
126 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ the 3-5 year strategic marketing plan sets the direction for the
annual plans and the broad outline for activities.

¢ the annual or tactical marketing plan sets the detailed actions

and methods of monitoring achievement. The sum of the annual
plans should meet the objectives set in the strategic marketing
plan for the relevant time period.

Strategic marketing plan (3-5 years) Annual or tactical marketing plan (1 year)

Situation analysis Summary of

external situation analysis
internal SWOT

key tourer segments

Key factors for success Annual marketing objectives
Distinctive competencies Product objectives
strategies
acti
SWOT analysis Price objectives
strategies
tactics
Key tourist/other segments Distribution objectives
strategies
tactics
Positioning statement Communication objectives
Strategies
acti
Marketing objectives Monitoring, evaluation and control

Strategies for
product
price
distribution
communication

Table 7.1: Comparison of Strategic and Annual Marketing Plans

Take the analogy of planning a car trip from points A to B. First, you
would investigate the alternative route options and then outline the pre-
ferred choice and approximate timings and cost (strategic marketing plan).
Secondly, you would work on a detailed plan; time of day to leave, what
to pack, car maintenance, en route stops, who is driving and so on (tactical
marketing plan). It would be pointless to plan the detail before some
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 © 127

thought was given to where you wanted to go and the best route of get-
ting there. The same can be said for marketing plans. Table 7.1 contrasts
the typical headings in a strategic marketing plan with the typical head-
ings in an annual tactical marketing plan. An understanding of the con-
tent of the different headings will develop with this chapter.
The marketing process and the resultant marketing plan focus on
answering four classic questions:

¢ where are we now? [situation analysis and SWOT];

¢ where do we want to be? [marketing objectives];

¢ how do we get there? [strategies and tactics];

¢ how do we know if we've got there? [monitoring, evaluation and

control].

This chapter will address each of these questions in turn, indicating other
relevant chapters as appropriate.

WHERE ARE WE KNOW?

Before a destination can plan for the future, it is essential that it has an
objective grasp of its current situation and of the trends affecting it.
The situation analysis (or its fuller version, the marketing audit) encom-
passes both external and internal factors. Information can be obtained
from a combination of secondary and primary research (see Chapter 9),
depending on availability and resource constraints (here Chapter 4 is
particularly relevant). Not information for information's sake, but as a
sound basis for action.

Situation Analysis at the Macro Level

At the macro level, the analysis focuses on the wider environment in which
the destination operates. It investigates facts and trends that are external
to the destination as a product but relevant for decision-making. These
external factors in the environment can be categorized as:

¢ political and legal factors, such as political stability, nature of

political organization and concentration of power, statutory
planning requirements, consumer protection legislation, visa and
entry requirements, green legislation, accommodation classification
128 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

and grading, health and safety legislation, national and local

government support for tourism, international relations and so on.

¢ economic factors, such as stage in business cycle, distribution of

wealth, balance of payments, inflation/deflation rates, banking
system, interest rates, saving and expenditure patterns, taxation,
discretionary incomes, balance between private and public sector
ownership, employment patterns in terms of occupation, skills,
costs, availability, part-time/job share structure, seasonality,
gender etc., foreign exchange rates, issues around emerging
currencies, etc.

¢ social, demographic and cultural factors, such as government

social policy, e.g. social tourism, cultural norms and values,
language, religion, social roles, gender issues, racial issues,
standard of living, life expectancy and healthy life expectancy,
balance between work and leisure participation, travel habits,
migration patterns, class structure and mobility, attitudes towards
environment and consumption, distribution of population spatially,
degree of urbanization, educational levels, age/gender profiles,
household size and structure, marriage and divorce rates, levels
and types of crime and so on.

¢ technological factors, such as knowledge base and availability,

Internet usage, development of destination databases, alternative
sources of power, advances in transport technology, speeds of
adoption, video conferences, computerized global distribution
systems and so on.

Information on the macro environment should be collected on a continu-

ous basis — it is a matter of sketching the patterns and scanning for signs of
change. The headings for the standard analysis of the external macro
environment form an English acronym, PEST. Hence, this type of analysis is
sometimes referred to as a PEST analysis. A summary of the key points is
often presented on a single page of the marketing plan.

Situation Analysis at the Micro Level

At the micro level of the situation analysis, the destination examines those
factors influencing its immediate business environment. At the micro level,
the external factors in the environment can be categorized as:
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 ¢ 129

¢ markets/tourists, in terms of who is visiting the destination, their

profile, what tourism components are they buying or using, where
are they buying or deciding (in home country, at home, through
travel agent, en route, at local TIC, etc.), when are they buying or
arriving (seasonality), how do they buy or decide (on impulse, after
consulting with the family, after an extensive search for
information, using which criteria, etc.), and why are they buying or
which benefits are they looking for. The who, what, where, when,
how and why are six fundamental questions asked about markets in
the situation analysis.

¢ suppliers, in terms of who contributes to the destination product,

outside of the actual producers of the tourism components. This
might include market research agencies, advertising agencies, print
companies, trainers and educational establishments, independent
consultants, and so on. Are they locally based? What are their
numbers, skills, strengths and weaknesses?

¢ distributors, in terms of who helps to sell the destination to the

tourist. This might include the TIC network outside of the
immediate area, the national tourist board or government agency,
incoming tour operators, coach/ferry/cruise operators,
wholesalers, overseas tour operators, specific interest groups such
as clubs and societies, and travel agencies. What are the
structural trends? Again, what are their numbers, skills, strengths
and weaknesses?

¢ competitors, especially direct competition. Which destinations

offer a comparable product to your own that might act as a
substitute in the marketplace? What are their strengths and
weaknesses compared to yours? Distance from major tourist-
generating areas is one important factor, but it is not the only one
of relevance. How successfully are the competition positioned in
the marketplace? What are their plans, resources and skills?
Indirect competitors or organizations which offer products that
compete for the discretionary income and leisure time of potential
tourists, might also be listed. Wider in scope, such competition
may come in the form of urban health clubs, television and video
manufacturers, home-improvement superstores, garden and plant
centres, and so forth.
130 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Tourism destinations should try to assess any options for

alliances. Other destinations may offer a complementary product,
creating opportunities for expanding the total market by
developing twin centre holidays, unifying themed trails or scenic
routes, combination attraction ticket schemes, and other ideas. A
neighbouring destination is not automatically a direct competitor.
There may be possibilities for co-operation from which both areas
would benefit.

As with the PEST analysis, the key points from the investigation of the micro
environment are often summarized on one page of the marketing plan.

Internal Situation Analysis

The internal situation analysis is a self-analysis. It critically reviews the
destination. Chapter 4 is very relevant, and this section will not replicate
material already covered. The term self-analysis should be treated cau-
tiously; the internal audit may be better done by an independent consult-
ant able to evaluate the situation dispassionately. Objectivity is the key. A
review of the marketing resources can be broken down as:

¢ marketing objectives and strategies, an evaluation of past

performance and an assessment of the reasons behind any shortfall;

¢ marketing organization, an evaluation of current structures and

their effectiveness;

¢ marketing systems, an evaluation of the marketing research and

information process, the marketing planning process and the
methods by which marketing activity is monitored and controlled;

¢ marketing functions, an evaluation of the current product, prices,

communications and distribution used by the destination. These four
functions are commonly referred to as the basic marketing mix. For
example, for distribution, how much business does the destination
achieve through each distribution channel, and what is the ratio of
sales to the cost of servicing this channel? Which channels are best
for last-minute business or for precious out-of-season business?

These findings should be contrasted with any close competitors, creating a

relative verdict for marketing resources. As with the external assessments
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 # 131

of the situation, the internal audit is usually summarized on one page of

the marketing plan.

Developing on from the Situation Analysis

Having summarized the three parts of the situation analysis by highlight-
ing the key points, the destination should then consider:

¢ a forecast of these key points, showing how they might develop in

the future. Outlines of future scenarios can be invaluable when
mapping out a vision for the destination or for comparing
alternative strategies. Forecasts also help prepare any assumptions
considered necessary to set the context for objectives;

¢ key factors for success (KFS), or factors that each destination

competing for similar business must get right if it is going to be
successful in the medium to long term. It is hard to imagine a
scheduled airline even surviving without a good central reservation
system. Customer care may prove a KFS for destinations (see
Chapter 8). Others may include developing a unique identity rooted in
the local area, or grappling with environmental issues. A destination
should compare its performance on KFS against that of competitors;

¢ distinctive competencies, or skills and advantages that a

destination possesses that could be developed to give long-term
advantage over competitors. The best distinctive competencies are
those that are unique to the destination and tricky for competitors
to emulate. Ideally, a cluster of competencies should be identified.

SWOT Analysis
The SWOT analysis is the culmination of the detailed work involved in
answering the question ‘where are we now?’ Often presented as a single-
page summary in matrix form (see Figure 7.1), the SWOT analysis is an
honest and sometimes painful portrayal of the destination’s strengths and
weaknesses relative to the competition, and of the opportunities and
threats that it faces. For this reason, commercial companies are wary of
releasing such documents in case they are perused by competitors. The
SWOT analysis examines the destination’s:

¢ strengths, relative to the competition, derived from the internal

analysis. Strengths may be ranked or scored to indicate importance.
132 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ weaknesses, relative to the competition, derived from the internal

analysis. Weaknesses may be ranked or scored to indicate
importance.

® opportunities, taken from the external situation analysis, can be

assessed in terms of time-scale (immediate, medium, long term),
importance in terms of benefit to the destination and likelihood of
success.

¢ threats, taken from the external situation analysis, can be assessed

in terms of their time-scale, importance in terms of severity of
negative impact on the destination and probability of occurrence.

For the purposes of the destination’s marketing plan, the headings given
in Table 7.1 relating to the question ‘where are we now?’ are fleshed out
more thoroughly in the strategic marketing plan. The tactical marketing
plan presents the vital points in summarized form; the practitioner can
always refer back to the strategic plan for elaboration.

Strengths Weaknesses

: ; Importance rating 1-5

Figure 7.1: Framework for a SWOT Analysis Probability of success/occurrence 1-5
Time-scale |,M, L

WHERE DO WE WANT TO BE?

Objectives express in concrete form the vision of where the destination
would like to be after a given lapse of time, say three or five years.
Marketing objectives focus chiefly on markets and products. Table 7.2
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 ® 133

illustrates a sample of possible marketing objectives. In practice, objectives

are individual to the destination - of course, for they flow from the work
put into the SWOT analysis. Table 7.2 raises a number of points about mar-
keting objectives for destinations:

annual objectives arise from the longer-term strategic

objectives. There is a logical consistency from time-scale to time-
scale, creating a cascade of higher- and lower-order objectives.

objectives are compatible with each other. There is internal

consistency. In the examples given for destination x, the
objectives for visit numbers, length of stay, expenditure and
seasonality can be cross-compared and seen to be pulling in the
same direction. For example, the increase in expenditure also
represents an average spend increase per visit from £12.50 in
2000 (20,000 visitors) to £16.67 in 2003 (30,000 visitors). So,
they are relevant to one another.

objectives are a mix of readily quantifiable and essentially

qualitative aims. Figures and percentages or ratios can be
attached to hard objectives, allowing for easier measurement.
Soft objectives that tackle quality, positioning or customer
care, can still be measured through marketing research. All
objectives should be measurable.

stated objectives must be as specific as possible. For example, it is

more specific to state a time-scale as running from January 1998
to January 2001 than simply to say ‘over the next three years’.

objectives need to be timed as, without this, success in

achieving objectives cannot be measured. Breaking down tactical
objectives into monthly or weekly targets allows contingency
plans to be used to close any gaps before achieving the
objective becomes a matter of crisis management. Without a
deadline, there can be no control mechanism.

objectives should be achievable. A benefit of good objectives is

that they stretch and motivate participants, but overambitious
statements lose both credibility and participant enthusiasm.
134 «© THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Strategic marketing objectives Tactical marketing objectives (1 year)

¢ numbers of tourist visits to destination e.numbers of tourist visits broken down to annual
expressed in actual figures ('000s) and/or as a target in line with 10,000 increase (e.g. 6,000).
% increase/decrease on current figures. Time- By international/domestic visits? By key
scale? e.g. to increase the number of tourist segments? Key nationalities? New versus repeat
visits to destination x from 20,000 to 30,000, a business?
50% increase from 1999 to 2002

¢ expenditure by tourists visiting destination, e expenditure figures broken down to annual

expressed in actual figures (‘000s etc.) and/or target in line with (£)250,000 increase (e.g.
as a % increase on current figures. Time-scale? £90,000). By spend per head? Spend per visit?
e.g. to increase expenditure by tourists visiting By key segment? By destination component
destination x from (£)250,000 to (£)500,000, a (accommodation, attractions, etc.)?
100% increase from 1999 to 2002

© length of stay of tourists visiting the e length of stay broken down by key segments?
destination, expressed in actual figures (days/ By accommodation components (hotels, self-
nights) and/or as % increase on current figures, catering, private pensions, etc.)? By month/
Time-scale? e.g. to increase the average length season?
of stay of tourists visiting destination x from 1
night to 3 nights from 1999 to 2002

© extend the season for tourist visits to the e extend the season for destination x in shoulder
destination, expressed in actual figures and as and trough months broken down to annual
% increase on current business in shoulder and target in line with 5,000 increase (e.g. 2,000).
trough months, e.g. to extend the season for By key segment? By shoulder or trough month?
destination x in shoulder and trough months By destination component?
from 5,000 visits to 10,000, a 100% increase
from 1999 to 2002.
* applies to expenditure/length of stay
* applies to spatial dispersion/concentration of
tourists visits/expenditure

© strengthen positioning or reposition the © year-on-year improvement shown by

destination in the minds of key segments, e.g. measurement? By key segments? (Use of
to strengthen the current positioning of surveys and/or focus groups)
destination x as a historic market town
offering value for money

© improve standards of service and consistency of ® year-on-year improvement shown by

delivery throughout the destination, e.g. to measurement of satisfaction levels? By
improve the standards of service and destination component? By key segments? (Use
consistency of delivery at destination x of surveys and/or focus groups)

¢ increase numbers/skills/participation of tourism © by tourism component? By type of skill?

suppliers at the destination, e.g. to increase the
number of tourism suppliers participating in
group marketing activities from 15 to 30, a
100% increase from 1999 to 2002

Table 7.2: Illustrative Marketing Objectives for Destination X

 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 ¢ 135

Commercial organizations also set out marketing objectives relating to

market share and profit levels. These are open to a local destination for
consideration, but such issues may be more relevant to individual business-
es. For a local destination, market share data may be difficult to determine.

Key Tourist Segments

A summary of the profiles of the key tourist segments that:

¢ the destination is most suited to satisfying vis-a-vis tourist needs

and benefits sought and the strength of the competition (market
perspective);

¢ are most able to assist the destination in achieving its objectives

(destination perspective).

A destination should work with a portfolio of segments to offer flexibility

and opportunities for the individual businesses to address. Chapter 5
investigated the identification and preparation of major groups of tourists
in greater detail. Marketing mix decisions are made around the know-
ledge of key segments.

Positioning
Positioning is the image of the destination against other destinations that a
tourist holds in their mind. Any discrepancy between actual positioning and
desired positioning by key segment must be assessed. Indeed, strengthening
the positioning or repositioning a destination is a commonly stated market-
ing objective. Destinations should realize that improvements to the product
may be necessary before any attempt is made to correct the positioning.
Perceptual maps can be used to represent positioning statements pictorially
or graphically where research data is collected (see Figure 7.2, page 136).

HOW DO WE GET THERE?

Strategies are the routes used to achieve objectives, and, as different routes
are available, the destination needs to make choices. For the strategic mar-
keting plan, a destination might consider the following choices:

¢ sell more of the existing product to repeat tourists (increased

frequency) or to sell the existing product to new tourists from
existing tourist segments (segment penetration);
136 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ sell the existing product to new tourist segments (segment

development);

¢ sell a new product to existing tourist segments (product

development);

¢ sell a new product to new tourist segments (diversification).

Year-round activities
MW
High

x1
Value for money
X

o)=

30 35 40 45 50

645
240
35°
30,
|2586
150-209 Destination x1: positioning in 1999
10 Destination x2: desired positioning by 2002

Competitor C: positioning in 1999

Figure 7.2: Perceptual Maps to Support Positioning Statements

 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 © 137

The level of risk involved and the required investment increases from fre-
quency through to diversification. This framework (a simplified Ansoff
matrix) is related directly to destination objectives in the strategic gap
analysis shown in Figure 7.3. It suggests that a destination should first
assess the potential of increased frequency to close the gap between the
line of inaction and set objectives as the lowest-risk option, and then
move logically through the levels of risk until the strategic gap is finally
closed.
For the strategic marketing plan, strategies need to be decided for each
element of the marketing mix, or those factors controlled by the destina-
tion marketing team. These basic marketing mix elements can be categor-
ized as product, price, distribution, and communications. In practice, these
categories are not mutually exclusive. All four need to be co-ordinated so
that they support each other in meeting objectives, and the strategies are a
summary or overview of the proposed activities.
For the tactical marketing plan, the strategies of the longer time-scale
are converted into marketing mix objectives at the annual level. In turn,
these objectives are translated into annual strategies and then detailed
marketing tactics or programmes of activities. The logical consistency runs
through both plans. Each of the marketing mix elements will now be dis-
cussed, with a particular focus on communications.

Objectives
30
Diversification

Market development
25
“ Segment development
oS 5
S20 perrrrrvesvssesssnssessssssseseesseseeseeeteereetsesceecceseeees., Increased frequency and segment penetration
3
= AEE i Bay
S Forecast line of no action
2 15
5
2
10

1999 2000 2001 2002

Time (years)

Figure 7.3: Strategic Gap Analysis

138 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Product
Any destination needs to decide which combination of product strategies,
integrated with the rest of the marketing mix, will best meet the strategic
marketing objectives set (see Table 7.2). Strategy options may be reviewed
by the local destination in the light of:

¢ the destination life-cycle. Like a human life, a destination will

move through a series of stages from introduction to the
marketplace, growth (rapidly increasing revenue from tourists),
maturity (a slow-down in revenue growth accompanied by an
increase in competition), decline (a fall in visitor numbers and
revenue) and possible rejuvenation or relaunch. The types of
tourist visiting the destination may vary by cycle stage. Different
product offers or tourism components within the destination may
be at different stages of the life-cycle.

¢ the product portfolio. Simply stated, destinations should try to

assess all the product offers in terms of the relationship between
revenue produced and resources absorbed, the overall size and
growth rates of the appropriate tourist market and, where
possible, the relative market share compared to close competitors.
This information can help decisions about which product offers to
develop and which to cull or discourage in order to achieve a
balanced portfolio of products in the medium to long term.

¢ relevant gaps in either the product lines and/or the product

length and depth for a particular line. A destination product line is
a category of products offering either similar benefits or
positioning, for example, an events/festival line or a 'white-knuckle’
adventure line. Product lines can be widened by adding a new
product line, for example, by adding a famous personality (real and
mythical) line to the above. A product line can be lengthened by
adding products to an existing line, for example, medieval son et
lumiére events to the existing events of agricultural shows, weekly
markets, beer-drinking festival, etc. Product lines can be deepened
by adding additional product items to existing products, for
example, increasing the number of caves open to the public from
two to four, or by increasing son et lumiére events from one site to
five. Conversely, product lines, products and product items can also
be rationalized.
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 ® 139

¢ analysis of tourist satisfaction with each product offer in terms

of benefits sought, key choice criteria, individual product
attributes rated by the tourist as important, and scoring of
associated satisfaction levels against close competitors.

¢ development of product differentiation relevant to the target

market and distinct from competitors. Can the distinctive
competencies and strengths identified be used to build long-term
advantage? A unique selling proposition?

Table 7.3 illustrates three possible product strategies for the longer time
period, and how these strategies then logically translate into the annual
product objectives and strategies. Naturally, creativity is the source of suc-
cess, and the choices at each successive level are numerous. A marketing
plan may consist of a large number of chosen strategies. Strategy level
options may involve extending or rationalizing the product line, length or
depth, improving product quality, improving environmental credentials,
developing special interest packages, building the local identity in the des-
tination product, strengthening the destination image, developing new
attractions (or any other tourism component), renovating mature product
offers, improving products for resident use, and so forth.

Examples of product strategies 3 year

e develop products to increase destination y's season through events in the shoulder months and
improving all-weather or undercover activities
© co-operate with destination z to expand the total market by developing joint product offers
© improve the aesthetic environment of destination y (secondary target residents)

Examples of product objectives 1 year

e launch two events/festivals for tourists, one in May 2000 and one in October 2000
¢ pilot a themed scenic drive unifying the two destinations in a circuit tour for testing in June 2000
¢ introduce three resident-driven initiatives to improve the overall appearance of destination y by
December 2000

Examples of product strategies 1 year

e develop the existing May livestock show to appeal to tourists and to launch a new ‘living arts’ festival
in October
e develop the culinary theme of spice production, trade and use in the combined area, with a focus on
small holdings with visitor potential for spice production, markets selling spices, local restaurants and
and accommodation specializing in spice use and the forthcoming (2001) spice visitor centre
e harness local youth groups to renovate the main entrance and exit points as part of their fund-raising
campaigns, launch destination y's ‘best garden’ award in conjunction with the gardeners’ association,
and to introduce a ‘sponsored litter bin’ scheme amongst local businesses

Table 7.3: Illustrative Product Objectives and Strategies

140 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

‘People’ may also be thought of as part of the destination product

when viewed from a marketing perspective. Customer care training (see
Chapter 8), language, health and hygiene training may aid incremental
product improvement. Motivation and award schemes linked to tourist
satisfaction could be introduced. On the opposite side of the equation,
how might tourist behaviour be influenced beneficially?
The product tactics map out the essential detail for implementing the
product decisions. A Gantt chart may be used to break down discrete
actions with timings and responsibilities attached (see Table 7.4).

Time periods, e.g. months or perie Responsibility

1 Abbi. Oa Bea, fs
Identify main entry/ Mrs ‘J’
exit points

Initial meetings with Mrs ‘J’ &

eu Grout youth groups

Analysis & Gee Committee &

of work eye youth groups

Donation afmaterials
from DIY store

Work on entry/exit
points

Publicity for aed

Table 7.4: Example of a Simple Gantt Chart

Price
The marketing mix element over which a local destination has little con-
trol (assuming no regulatory powers), compared to the individual tourism
supplier. Nonetheless, price is important for the destination marketing
plan because it:

¢ directly influences revenue obtained, and can be used to

manipulate number of visits and even length of stay according to
the marketing objectives set;

¢ signals product quality to the tourist, helping to establish

expectation levels and resultant satisfaction;
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 ¢ 141

¢ is flexible and can trigger an immediate response in demand (see

sales promotions);

¢ is easy to copy and can leave a destination vulnerable to price

wars if the destination fails to build product differentiation and
local identity;

¢ refers to costs from a tourist perspective and may, therefore,

include effort, time spent, uncertainty and risks (financial,
temporal and psychological) associated with the decision to visit.

In general, with due reference to the tourist segments targeted, a local

destination is best advised to encourage a full range of prices amongst the
total number of different tourism components. Destination prices are too
often decided on a competitive-parity basis, as local destinations find it
hard to escape from the trap of neighbouring competitors’ prices.
However, it is preferable to relate prices to the value perceived by tourist
segments, their sensitivity to price changes and to the desired positioning
in the target’s mind. Generally, a tourist who has paid substantial amounts
of money to arrive at the destination is less price sensitive to individual
tourism components (one obvious exception being the backpacker taking
a ‘year out’ to travel).
On the surface, it appears that there is little that the destination itself
can do with regard to prices. Pricing is the concern of participating organ-
izations and businesses. Yet consider the following points that might
require co-operation, negotiation, or even fall outside the pricing deci-
sions of individuals:

¢ Is there a common policy towards residents in the destination

regarding access to tourist facilities that they might rightly
regard as theirs? Free access on production of identity? Free or
reduced price access at off-peak times? Residents may have
guests staying (VFR travel) and can be encouraged to bring
these visitors frequently if there is no additional cost to
themselves. A ‘friends of destination x' scheme with certain
privileges can be an asset.

Is there a common policy towards tourist and / or resident

groups less able to afford access? Unemployed? Retired?
contd
142 e THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Students? Discounts should be ‘fenced’ with clear rules

regarding eligibility and acceptable identification of status to
avoid revenue dilution.

Pricing, if any, of amenities such as car parking or public

lavatories.

Development of pricing schemes to support the environment. For

example, voluntary percentage donated to a trust, discounts for
tourists arriving by public transport, tourist taxes (if legally
viable), or voluntary parking charges.

Combination ticket prices of a temporary or permanent nature,

either between components within the local destination or
between two or more local destinations. All inclusive price?
Discount structure? Multi-visit? Added value in addition to price?
Tailored to which tourist segments? For which time periods?

Voluntary pricing policies for not-for-profit attractions and

activities, perhaps using donation, honesty or special project
appeal boxes.

Negotiating with incoming tour operators as a group for more

favourable trade prices? Commission rates to distributors such
as TICs or travel agents?

Computerized destination management systems, which act as

reservation systems for a local destination. Pricing parameters?
Time booked in advance, including last-minute bookings? Method
of payment? The system captures tourist data that can feed
back into the intelligence-gathering process for decision-making.

Table 7.5 illustrates three examples of possible destination pricing strat-

egies. They are more oriented towards group schemes and encourage-
ment of common policies than the traditional pricing strategies of
individual businesses directly controlling price setting. Gantt charts for
required activities, timings and responsibilities can be designed as for the
product example shown before (see Table 7.4).
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 © 143

Examples of pricing strategies 3 year

© co-operate with destination to expand total market by agreeing mutually beneficial pricing schemes
¢ develop pricing schemes to assist in environmental improvement
* encourage resident (and their guests) use of tourist attractions and amenities, particularly in the off-
peak period

Examples of pricing objectives 1 year

© test market a combined attractions ticket offering 40% discount plus added value during June 2000
¢ £1 voluntary contribution per person to be suggested addition to accommodation bills for
conservation project x. To raise £10,000 between January and December 2000
e achieve 80% of attractions and activities offering either free entry to residents (guests full price) or at
least 50% discount to residents (quests full price) at off-peak times by December 2000

Examples of pricing strategies 1 year

combined attractions ticket to bring together voluntary participants (attractions and activities) on the
‘heroes and villains’ themed route valid for 7 consecutive days from the date of purchase and targeted
at the independent family drive market
¢ establish a trust fund for project x with monitoring and visible publication and dissemination of results
¢ persuade potential participants that, as shown by 1998 research, additional VFR business gained
outweighs ‘lost’ resident revenue. Recruitment drive with group presentations and personal meetings

Table 7.5: Illustrative Pricing Objectives and Strategies

Distribution
Distribution channels or pipelines are ‘routes of exchange’ through which a
tourist accesses, books, confirms and pays for a tourism product. Inter-
mediaries or distributors that might be involved in a pipeline include tourist
information centres, national or regional tourist boards, incoming tour oper-
ators, wholesalers, overseas tour operators, travel agencies, special interest
groups, bus/coach/ferry/airline/cruise ship operators, car-hire companies,
incentive travel firms, meeting and conference planners, satisfied tourists,
and so on. Essentially, a destination can choose from two strategic options:

¢ Adopt an intensive (maximum number of outlets), selective or

exclusive (small number of outlets) distribution strategy
regarding outlet types and numbers. Those local destinations with
a luxury or premium positioning may adopt an exclusive distribution
strategy, selecting outlets enhancing their positioning. Most local
destinations would opt for a selective or intensive distribution
strategy within the confines of resource constraints to maximize
potential tourist access. Of course, individual product offers may
144 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

prefer different strategies so that, in practice, a mix emerges for

the destination as a whole.

¢ Adopt a push or a pull strategy. A push strategy focuses on

distribution outlets urging them to sell to the tourist, while a pull
strategy is directed at generating tourism demand which is then
sucked through the appropriate distribution outlets. Closely
associated with communications strategy, most local destinations
use a combination of the two.

Individual tourism businesses have their own distribution channels, and the
involvement of the destination itself will vary from a facilitating or top-up
role to more active engagement. The following points should be discussed:

¢ Portfolio of distribution channels. What types of distribution

channel are currently used? Numbers in each type? Cost of
servicing the channel versus revenue produced? Used by which
tourist segments? Suited to domestic or international business?
Cross-comparison for early bookings, last-minute bookings and of f-
peak bookings?

¢ Potential for channel conflict. Each intermediary has its own

objectives, which may not coincide with those of the destination.
Where is the balance of power between the local destination and
its intermediaries? Local destinations often have less power than
many of the intermediaries. Maintenance or development of a
balanced portfolio of a variety of distribution channels that avoids
dependency on one particular type could be a wise decision.

¢ Overlaps with communications. Many communication tools in tourism

can and do double as distribution channels. Check that contact name,
address and telephone number and/or e-mail and web site addresses
are included on advertisements, brochures and leaflets, sales
promotions, backs of postcards, etc. Attention should also be given to
letter-writing skills and telephone behaviour (see Chapter 8) so that
responses are professionally handled. Communication is a two-way
process. A database can catch the information for subsequent use.

¢ Opportunities for co-operation in distribution with nearby

destinations, serving to stretch limited resources further.
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 ¢ 145

¢ Opportunities in electronic distribution, such as web sites, that

may be particularly relevant for independent international tourists
in higher socio-economic groups.

¢ Physical distribution and monitoring of print. Some destinations

use tourism trade fairs, travel brochure swap shops organized by
tourist boards, the TIC network, libraries, garages, dentists’ and
doctors’ surgeries, direct mail to previous tourists or enquirers,
Special interest groups, clubs and societies, regionally based
businesses and factories, special events related to the destination,
car-hire outlets, retail outlets, and so on. If brochures and leaflets
are coded and tourists asked, the rough cost/revenue profiles for
print outlet types can be monitored to guide future decisions.

Table 7.6 illustrates three examples of possible destination distribution

strategies. Gantt charts for required activities, timings and responsibilities
can be prepared as shown previously in Table 7.4.

Examples of distribution strategies 3 year

reduce dependency on large tour operators and coach operators based outside the country
¢ increase the number of outlets good at generating off-peak business
¢ rationalize the numbers and types of destination outlets used according to cost-revenue profiles

Examples of distribution objectives 1 year

e reduce the % of business from the dominant three-coach and large tour operators from 50% to 40%
by December 2000 without detriment to local businesses
¢ increase outlet type a from 15 to 25 and outlet type b from 5 to 15 by December 2000
© decrease leaflet outlet type c from 20 to top 3, and remove all leaflet outlet types d and e by
December 2000

Examples of distribution strategies 1 year

¢ dual strategy of increasing independent travel and specialist package operators, plus renegotiation of
contracts with dominant 3 tour and coach operators
° recruit outlets type a and b that best match existing successful outlets in (a) existing main generating
markets for off-peak business (b) the 2 leading growth markets for off-peak business where the
destination has no current presence
¢ final monitoring of leaflet outlet performance during peak season, adjustment of database and roll-out
culling programme from September to December with explanation

Table 7.6: Illustrative Distribution Objectives and Strategies

146 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

FOCUS ON COMMUNICATIONS
The final element of the marketing mix to be introduced here is commun-
ications, the tool for achieving objectives, so often confused with market-
ing itself. Informal communication occurs every time a resident meets a
tourist through appearance, words and body language (see Chapter 8). It
is easier, of course, for destination marketers to control the formal com-
munication tools; in essence, advertising, public relations, sales promo-
tions, personal selling and print. The combination of these tools makes up
the basic communications mix. If required, separate plans can be drawn up
for each of the communication tools, covering target audience, objectives,
strategy, tactics, and evaluation and control, including the budget.
Three introductory points pertinent to the communications task for
local destinations should be noted:

¢ Increasingly, local destinations are adopting a facilitating role for

their individual providers. The production of shell leaflets for
different businesses to adapt, or the negotiation of banner
advertisements in newspapers using a destination logo under which
individuals buy their space, are both examples.

¢ Communication campaigns should be integrated, so that different

communication tools are used to support each other for maximum
benefit. Sales promotions can be supported by advertising and
advertising by public relations. Sponsorship needs the support and
spin-off from a preplanned communications programme if
opportunities are not to be wasted.

¢ Opportunities for joint communications campaigns with tourism

components, other destinations, or even complementary physical
goods or services should be pursued. Tourist boards at a national
or regional level may also offer opportunities as part of their own
facilitating role.

The link between the three points is the reality of financial resource con-
straint for local destinations using communications; all three help to
stretch a minimal budget.

Target Audience
Tourist segments form the most obvious target audiences, but there are
other stakeholder groups with which the destination may need to
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 © 147

communicate. Additional target audiences might include the travel trade,

media, financial sector, local and national government, tourist boards,
business communities, resident groups, employees, pressure groups, other
industries impacting on tourism in the area, and so on. As part of the pro-
file of the target audience, media habits need to be understood if the
audience is to be reached through communications.
The communications process is often described as a two-step process, with
opinion leaders intervening between the destination and its potential
tourists. Opinion leaders may be heavy users of tourism products, or frequent
users, or those swift to try new tourism products; identification of these peo-
ple and the media required to access them can improve the communication
process. Destinations should realize that residents and workers within its
boundaries form a secondary audience for all communications targeted at
external audiences. Over-promising and misrepresentation in advertising has
led marketing to be berated by local communities resenting the images por-
trayed. Such advertising is not motivating for the internal audience.
The AIDA model suggests that tourists move through Attention (aware-
ness), to Interest, to Desire and, finally, to Action. An understanding about
the target audiences’ awareness and knowledge of the destination, feel-
ings, beliefs and attitudes towards the destination, and behaviour con-
nected with the destination, drives successful communications. It is no
good communicating a special offer of a two day mini-break if the target
audience have a negative attitude towards the destination itself, or are
uninformed about what is has to offer.

Communication Objectives
Different communication tools are better at achieving different commun-
ication objectives. Broadly speaking, advertising and public relations are
good at building awareness and interest, while sales promotions and
personal selling are good at building desire and action. Communication
objectives may include:

increasing awareness, interest, desire or action in the target

audience, or by moving the target audience from one stage to
the next;

strengthening or changing destination image or positioning;

¢ depositioning a competing destination or altering its image;

contd
148 * THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ persuading the target audience of the benefits of the

destination;

@ changing the relative importance of buying criteria, e.g. reducing

the perceived importance of price in decision-making;

# regaining public confidence in the aftermath of a crisis, e.g. a

food scare, mugging, or natural disaster;

¢ generating prospects for visiting the destination;

¢ including the destination amongst the set of possible choices

from which the final decision to visit is made;

¢ improving conversion rates from print pick-up rates through to

enquiries through to bookings;

¢ shifting buyer behaviour patterns according to seasonality or by

the time lag between purchase and use;

# encouraging trial use in the target audience;

¢ launching a new product offer, or relaunching an existing

product, within the destination;

¢ stimulating additional purchase, perhaps relating to length of stay:

# prompting repeat usage;

¢ developing word-of-mouth recommendation to boost referred

business;

¢ reassuring tourists experiencing post-purchase anxiety of the

soundness of their decision;

# reminding potential repeat tourists about the destination;

¢ changing tourist behaviour patterns at the destination, perhaps

in respect of negative impacts.
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 © 149

The list is not exhaustive, but illustrative. Like the marketing objectives,
the communications objectives agreed need to be stated in a format that
is specific, timed and measurable. An example might be ‘to raise aware-
ness of destination X amongst American ABC1 couples repeat visiting in
the UK from 5% in June 2000 to 25% in June 2001’.

Communication Strategies
These summarize the mix of communication tools — advertising, public
relations, sales promotions, personal selling and print, outlining how each
will be used in the plan. To arrive at these strategies, each of the main
communications tools is now examined by turn.

Advertising: Defined as non-personal, paid for, mass communication by

an identified sponsor in a commercially available medium. In this case, the
sponsor is the local destination and any partners involved in the campaign.
An advertising agency offers skilled creative work plus advantageous rates
for purchasing media space; even a destination with a small budget should
weigh up the benefits of employing an agency. Table 7.7 outlines the main
media available for advertising destinations.

Media type Comment

e Press: newspapers National/regional/local; daily/weekend; paid for/free; broadsheet/tabloid.
Opportunities for inserts? Newspaper supplements? Special editions?

Press: magazines Lifestyle, gender-based, professional, special interest. Opportunities for

inserts? Special editions?

Tourism print Guidebooks, tourist board brochures/trade manuals, local govt. print, travel
trade magazines, national park papers, airline inflight magazines/other
component equivalent

e Videos Inflight videos, tourist board videos, movie videos for rent
¢ Billboards/posters Outdoor sites, transport stops and stations, vehicles (taxis, buses, trams,
airport trolleys, etc.)

Radio National/local; commercial/government

Web sites Banner advertisements, screen savers, placing links at other sites

Cinema Prohibitively expensive (unless joint campaign)

Television Prohibitively expensive (unless joint campaign)

Unusual Floor posters, ceiling Hae parking tickets, petrol pumps, ariel banners,
balloon (display or release), golf balls & tees, food and drink packaging
associated with area, etc.

Table 7.7: Advertising Media for Destinations

150 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

As a rough guide, of the total advertising budget, typically only 10-15% is

spent on creative and production costs, with 85-90% being earmarked for
purchasing space in appropriate media vehicles. Television and cinema
may be prohibitively expensive for a local destination to consider, quite
apart from the relevance of the audience. If a destination were to examine
its advertising spend in the context of total advertising spend on travel
and tourism, it would discover that it had a minute ‘share of voice’ in the
market. Consequently, only creative advertising whose results are mon-
itored will make that spend worthwhile.
In choosing the desired media, the destination should think through:

¢ audience size and type and the fit to the profile of the
destination's target audience, using information provided by the
media vehicles themselves or by an independent body.

¢ audience mood and receptivity to message at the time when the

advertisement is seen and/or heard. Relaxed? Concentrated?
Happy? Contemplative? Pressed for time?

¢ cost of production and cost of space for series of

advertisements. Media vehicles produce rate cards of prices
which can then be used to compare costs across different
vehicles on a cost per thousand of target audience basis.

¢ advantages and disadvantages for message communication with

regard to sight, sound, movement, colour, reproduction, ability
to convey information and/or image, ability to refer back versus
transitory nature, etc.

¢ process of buying media space regarding lead times, deadlines,

legal approval process (if required), danger of loss of space to
higher bidder, etc.

The media buyer needs to calculate the amount of space required, the
position of the advertisement, frequency of insertion or equivalent and
timing. A drip strategy places advertisements consistently through time,
while a burst strategy concentrates advertising for a set time period, some-
times following up with a second burst later.
Alongside the media planning is the creative planning, which focuses on
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 ¢ 151

the message itself, tone of voice required, its translation into creative con-
cepts, evaluation of creative concepts using the target audience, develop-
ment into the full advertisement, additional testing and, finally,
production. If working with an advertising agency, a destination will expect
to sign off key stages to give approval to ideas. Someone will need to take
responsibility for the finished advertisements arriving at each media vehicle
by the deadlines. The tactical Gantt chart can look quite complex.

Public Relations: Defined as the planned and sustained effort to establish

and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between a destination
and its publics (adapted from the UK Institute of Public Relations). Good
public relations is about credibility, not about papering over the cracks.
Public relations, or PR, is increasing in popularity with destinations, partly
due to the intrinsic nature of tourism lending itself to newsworthy stories
and partly due to the rising costs of purchasing advertising space. Handled
professionally, PR can create awareness, interest, understanding, and infor-
mation at a fraction of the cost of advertising. Public relations can be used
to target a wide range of audiences, apart from the tourist segments. Table
7.8 highlights the main PR tools and techniques available to a destination.

Tools and Comment

techniques

Publicity & media Generating publicity and media coverage through database of media contacts,
relations press releases, feature articles, photocalls, press conferences, press
interviews, journalist visits, press packs & photographic library
Product placement Negotiating for destination use in film, television, advertisements, radio, etc.
Familiarization trips | For intermediaries, opinion leaders, other target audiences
Product launches and | Based around new products, product relaunches, personality appearances,
staged events or stunts | special events focused around a story, launch of a communications campaign
Exhibitions Trade/public; stands at conferences and meetings, travel fairs, workshops, etc.
Sponsorship Either as a sponsor of the community, arts, sports, education, media or
unusual vehicle, and/or as a sponsoree with a portfolio of opportunities for
others to sponsor. Joint sponsorship opportunities? Be wary of any potential
for competitors to ambush the planned sponsorship programme.
Public speaking Lectures, conferences & workshops, speeches, presentations, guest ‘expert’ for
local media, etc.
Corporate identity For destination; consistency in logo, letterheads, styling and colour, signage,
maps, leaflets, etc.
Crisis management | Rehearsed scenarios for dealing with natural/man-made disaster, blackmail-
type threats, crisis real or perceived as real by target audience
Internal communication} Briefing individuals representing destination, internal meetings, community
newsletters, public noticeboards, etc.

Table 7.8: Public Relations Tools and Techniques for Destinations

152 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

As a newsworthy product, a destination has similar advantages for product

placement and as a subject for external sponsorship. Conversely, it is vulner-
able to unpredictable man-made or natural events, emphasizing the neces-
sity for good crisis management.
Public relations is also involved with developing the credibility of the des-
tination. Issues such as environmental credentials, customer satisfaction, prod-
uct quality and ethical issues are all related to credibility. Raising visibility
through PR before building credibility is one short cut to self-inflicted crises.

Sales Promotions: Defined as any temporary, short-term incentive

designed to stimulate some kind of action in the target audience. Broadly
speaking, the target audience consists of:

¢ key tourist segments;

@ intermediaries and distribution outlets;

¢ internal audiences, such as residents, workers, local businesses

etc., requiring motivation.

Well-conceived sales promotions are excellent at:

¢ boosting trial usage;

# generating extra usage in shoulder or trough months

(weeks/days/hours etc.);

# increasing frequency and/or volume of use.

Some sales promotions, such as discounted prices, have an immediate effect,

while others, such as competitions, have a delayed effect. Table 7.9 outlines
the main sales promotions techniques open to a destination, subject to the
varying legal restrictions, country to country, governing its use. According to
Middleton (1988), an important distinction should be made between those
sales promotions based on discounted price and those based on added
value; added value may be the superior proposition where destinations are
trying to move away from price comparison. Certainly, all destinations
should assess sales promotions in the context of the effect on their image
and positioning, even though this is unlikely to be cited as an objective for
the tool.
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 ¢ 153

Type of sales promotion Comment or example

* Reduced prices £2 off third night from 1-30 Nov. 2000

e Discount vouchers and coupons (from 10% discount for attraction entry on presentation
direct mail, newspaper ad., flyer, etc.) of voucher from 1-30 Nov. 2000.

© Disguised price cut First child goes free from 1-30 Nov. 2000

¢ Added value of physical good or service Free bottle of local wine on arrival from 1-30 Nov. 2000.
Check relevance of added value to target audience.

* Buy two and get one free Buy two full-priced adult entry tickets and get third free
between 1-30 Nov. 2000
© Competitions, prize draws and Complete the sentence in no more than 12 words:
sweepstakes ‘My family visits destination x because ... ’
© Charity promotion On each accommodation night per person between
1-30 Nov. 2000, participating suppliers will donate 50p to
charity x

¢ Self-liquidating premium Tourist posts one or more proofs of purchase, e.g. two
tickets plus money and receives destination video/T-shirt/
local craft object, etc. Calculate and monitor take-up rates

e Free premium Tourist posts in one or more proofs of purchase and

receives destination video, etc. free

e Refund offer Tourist sends in one or more proofs of purchase and

receives refund of fixed amount, e.g. £3

© Override commissions Intermediaries receive additional commission, e.g. extra

5% on each sale made between 1-30 Nov. 2000

© Point of purchase displays Displays in distribution outlets, windows or by service point

® Merchandising Giveaways or for sale items carrying destination message or

or logo, e.g. T-shirts, etc. For intermediaries or consumers

Table 7.9: Sales Promotions for Destinations

Personal Selling: Defined as oral communication between one or more

prospective purchasers and a salesperson for the purpose of making a sale.
There are two main categories of this personal form of communication for
a destination:

¢ communication through every encounter between a destination

resident or worker and a tourist (see Chapter 8). A tourist may
experience hundreds of such encounters each day, and some may
present an opportunity to make an additional sale. For example, the
waiter enquiring after desserts or coffee, the barman checking
drinks, etc.:
154 e THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ face-to-face conversation between a destination representative

and a high-value customer, whether or not they are the end-user.

Personal selling in the latter case is an expensive communications tool best

used where the individual prospect can bring high-value business to the des-
tination. Individual targets may include meeting and conference organizers,
incentive travel organizers, large tour operators or coach companies, special
interest groups and so on. Personal selling is as much about retaining such
customers and building a strong relationship with them through client serv-
icing as it is about winning the initial business. Representatives also feed
back useful information on external trends or on competitor activity.

Tourism Print: This includes brochures, leaflets, postcards, business

cards, maps, codes of conduct, timetables and tickets. They are all tangible
clues about the tourism experience and they may be designed to:

¢ create or strengthen an image or positioning for the destination;

¢ give information about the destination;

¢ package together separate components of accommodation,

attractions, activities, excursions, etc. ina fixed or flexible format:

¢ act asa purchasing device through, for example, a booking form or

sales promotion coupon;

# minimize post-purchase anxiety by providing tangible reassurance

after a booking has been made;

¢ alter tourist behaviour to minimize negative physical and socio-

cultural impacts.at the destination;

¢ facilitate tourist use of the destination, perhaps influencing

patterns of usage or increasing length of stay.
(adapted from Middleton, 1988)

The use of colour, photographs of the target audience using the destina-
tion, line drawings, typeface, density and style of text, thickness and qual-
ity of paper all relay messages about the destination to the tourist. These
messages should support rather than undermine the destination image.
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 ® 155

Destinations should also discuss print distribution issues before producing

the print, for example, total weight for mailings and related postage prices,
or size, layout and positioning on racks for maximum visibility. If production
costs are an issue, the shelf life of a piece of print can be prolonged by
inserting current prices on a loose sheet of paper that is cheap to update.
Coding print by outlet can assist with monitoring, and all print should
carry contact information. Print should be co-ordinated with a corporate
or destination style; much destination print consists of a motley collection
of one-off productions that does little to enhance the destination’s posi-
tioning over time. The downside of print is that the marketplace is clut-
tered with tourism and leisure contributions, and conversion rates from
tourist pick up to usage are small. Creativity, attention to print objectives,
and precise targeting are essential for print success.

C ication Tools: These may also be incorporated into the

communications mix. Of the formal tools under the control of the destina-
tion, the design of web sites and the use of direct marketing campaigns
drawing on information captured on databases can be very worthwhile
for local destinations. Information can be collected from previous tourists,
enquiries, sales promotions campaigns, direct response advertisements, des-
tination print, and so on. Lists may be bought in from other organizations,
or taken from published sources, such as Yellow Pages. Geodemographic
tools, where available, may be used to locate other prospects with match-
ing profiles. The key to success in direct marketing is to target tightly.
Word of mouth is a form of communication not controlled by the des-
tination, yet it is highly influential to the success of the area’s tourism. As
bad word of mouth spreads faster than positive recommendation, atten-
tion to customer care and to quality is vital (see Chapter 8).
The focus on communications ends the review of the marketing mix.
Decisions about the marketing mix allows the destination to answer the ques-
tion ‘how do we get there?’ It is then necessary to move on to the final ques-
tion of the marketing process, namely ‘how do we know if we've got there?’

HOW DO WE KNOW IF WE'VE GOT THERE?

Simply stated, a destination needs to check that its objectives have been
achieved. An additional question could quite legitimately be tacked on to
the classic question of ‘how do we know if we've got there?’ In short, ‘how
do we make sure that we get there?’ This stage of the marketing process is
all about evaluation, monitoring and control:
156 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ Evaluation is the periodic assessment at the end of a marketing

plan to check whether objectives were indeed achieved. A
marketing audit or in-depth review can provide a very thorough
assessment of performance.

¢ Monitoring is the ongoing systematic measurement of

performance. It compares actual results against the translated
objectives into daily, weekly and monthly targets. It therefore
allows for gaps in performance to be spotted early on and for
corrective action to be taken.

¢ Control is the tactical activity carried out to close the gaps

between actual performance and daily, weekly or monthly targets
identified by monitoring. It can only be done after an analysis of
the cause of the performance shortfall, for example, unforeseen
competitor activity or unusual weather patterns. To be effective,
control may require preplanned contingency actions and access to a
contingency budget labelled for such eventualities.

Gantt charts as recommended under tactics can provide a map of order,

timings and responsibilities for discrete activities. The marketing activities
will require human input (men), financial input (money) and time
(minutes). The fourth M of measurement allows the use of these resources
to be monitored for their productivity.
The budget is the sum of the costs of all the activities judged necessary
for meeting objectives, plus a percentage as a contingency budget. Budget
setting is best achieved through an objective and task method, where the
costs of tasks are related to the objective set. The budget is then split
between the different marketing mix components. The budget is usually
expressed within the text of the marketing plan in actual terms and as a
percentage of tourist revenue.
In monitoring performance, destinations should consider how best to use:

¢ destination records of number of visits, tourist expenditure,

number of nights, length of stay, activity patterns, etc.
Comparison of such internal data against weekly and monthly
targets can aid the identification of any gaps in performance.

* variance and trends in customer satisfaction from ongoing

surveys.
 HOW DO WE GET THEM? PART 2 © 157

¢ before-and-after research to examine changes in attitude,

feelings, destination images and so on, using surveys and focus
groups both before and after a communications campaign.

¢ marketing productivity ratios, both as a trend over time and as a

variance to any objectives set. The ratios of outputs to inputs, for
example, the revenue produced by a particular distribution channel
to the costs of servicing it, the number of enquiries generated to
the costs of advertising ina particular media vehicle, the number
of hits ona web site to the costs of establishing and maintaining
the site and so on.

¢ key marketing indicators, which can be traced over time.

Examples include the mean advertising cost per visit, the mean
communications cost per visit, the conversion rates for different
forms of print and so on.

For monitoring performance, some forms of data will be collected from

existing records, although methods may need adjustment to ensure that
the right type of information is captured. Other data will require specific
research tailored to the specific problem. Chapter 9 explores research in
greater detail. Co-operation of individual tourism businesses in collating
destination records is recommended but fallible. Individual operators are
sometimes reluctant to relinquish data considered competitively sensitive.
The destination should not rely on such information to monitor perform-
ance and should develop alternatives over which it has greater control, for
example, records of visits to the local TIC.
Referring back to Table 7.1 (page 126) should show how the framework
of the marketing plan has progressed, and how it answers the four classic
questions posed in the introduction. Naturally, the process of marketing
rolls over from one set of plans to the next, with monitoring and evalu-
ation feeding into subsequent rounds of decision-making.

WHERE TO NEXT?
This chapter has examined the development of the destination marketing
plan, stressing that the local destination needs to make improvements in
many areas rather than relying on a single ‘big idea’ breakthrough. While
appreciating the wider remit of marketing, the communications mix was
given special treatment. One of the additional areas that merits attention
from all local destinations is that of customer care, destination welcome
158 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

and customer satisfaction, which are sometimes collectively referred to as

destination hospitality. It is this topic that Chapter 8 will address.

FURTHER READING for Developing the Marketing Plan

McDonald, M. (1995) Marketing plans. How to prepare them: how to use them
(3rd edition). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Middleton, V.T.C. (1994) Marketing in travel and tourism (2nd edition). Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
World Tourism Organization (1997) Shining in the media spotlight. Madrid: WTO
(good directory of key media contacts relevant for tourism).
World Tourism Organization (1998) Travel and Tourism Fairs. Madrid: WTO
(practical advice for participating in tourism trade fairs).
Saieece
|) ER E-1 GH T

Keeping the tourist

Destination welcome and customer care

INTRODUCTION
In the globally competitive marketplace, attention to every detail of the
tourism product and the tourist visit repays the time and effort spent. It is
not enough to be good in one or two areas; to compete, a tourism destina-
tion needs to offer a total quality experience. This simple fact is sometimes
overlooked by local destinations, who tend to focus on providing accom-
modation to the detriment of attractions, activities and support services.
Close attention to the detail as explained in this chapter can help to:

¢ increase tourist satisfaction with the experience;

¢ increase the length of stay in the locality where flexibility is a

characteristic of the tourist (see Chapter 5);

# generate positive word-of-mouth recommendation which boosts

referred business;

# encourage repeat visits from previously satisfied tourists;

¢ differentiate the local destination from competitors over the

longer term.

Gaining visits from new tourists is an expensive option as this involves

either expanding the market or diverting business from competitors.
Repeat visits and referred visits are much more cost-effective. As a guide-
line, it costs five to ten times less to keep an existing tourist than it does to
replace one. Any destination should strive to fulfil the potential of retained
160 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

and referred business. Ideally, a healthy balance between new, referred and
repeat business should be sought, and a destination would be wise to
monitor the trends in these types of custom (see Table 8.1).

% 2000 % 2001

Table 8.1: The Balance of Destination Business

This chapter, in following the remit of attention to detail regarding the

tourism product and tourist visit, touches on many different topics and
issues. The topics are equally applicable to a single tourism organization or
business and to the tourism destination. The most noticeable difference is
that the individual tourism organization, particularly those operating in
the commercial sector, will have immediate control over decision-making
and resulting action. The tourism destination, however, will need to rely
On persuasion and co-operation to achieve similar things. This chapter
adopts the perspective of the tourism destination.
Binding together the many different topics and issues are five key
themes. These are highlighted in Figure 8.1 (page 161), and will resurface
throughout the chapter. To be influential, these five key themes need to
be embedded in a framework that locks together strategy, people and
processes. Some initial explanation of the five key themes is required:

¢ tourist focus - creating tourist satisfaction is paramount to achieving

destination goals;.the tourist must be placed at the centre of activity.
The process of selecting tourist segments has already ensured that
only those types of tourist beneficial in achieving destination goals are
encouraged (see Chapter 5), so the focus of attention on these groups
should not be misplaced. Activity is aided by the destinations
understanding of the wants and needs of these groups. Within the
segments, individual visitors must be made to feel special. Satisfaction
with an experience occurs at the individual, rather than segment, level.
Individuals vary by mobility, health, dietary requirements, size and
shape and so forth. All have needs that must be catered for.
 KEEPING THE TOURIST © 161

STRATEGY

Tourist focus

eens ntegration

PROCESS PEOPLE

"igure 8.1: Five Key Themes for Keeping the Tourist

» quality - this is typically misunderstood as being upmarket for

good quality and downmarket for poor quality, for example, a
luxury hotel being high quality and a campsite being poor quality.
This is not true. Quality in tourism is concerned with consistency
and reliability; it is about satisfying the tourist 100% of the time.
As satisfaction is based on expectations, both the luxury hotel and
the campsite can be equally successful in attaining quality.

» authenticity - again, this is sometimes misunderstood as being an

attempt to halt progress at a local destination, to turn the area
into a museum-piece. In practice, authenticity is about identifying
those social, cultural, economic and physical features that helped
to create the special character of the area. The debate
surrounding the use and abuse of authenticity in tourism is a
complex one; however, authenticity can provide the basis for
developing a unique identity for the destination in line with global
trends. It is tricky for a competitor to copy features that are not
typical outside of the area. With time, attention to building
authenticity into the tourism product can help differentiate a
destination from its competitors. All destinations should be aware
that what may seem ordinary, even bordering on the forgettable,
for inhabitants, may be of interest to the tourist. The may is
162 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

stressed, for some destinations develop an inward focus on the

product. A tourist-focus, or the ability to see things from the
tourists’ perspective, is vital.

¢ innovation - for medium- and long-term success, local destinations

must continuously improve their product. Tourist expectations rise
and competitors improve, so that the destination that stands still
is liable to lose out. Innovation implies creative thought, but,
although the single breakthrough idea is possible, development is
more likely to be achieved by lots of small improvements in many
areas. Destinations should analyse every aspect of the product,
including the people and processes involved.

¢ integration - owners, managers and employees of the different

tourism components must recognize their interdependence with
one another, and co-operate to offer a seamless tourism
experience to the visitor. In reality, rivalry will be apparent
between commercial operators in the same sector, for example,
amongst accommodation units of a particular class. However, the
broader understanding that co-operation and integration helps to
expand total business for the area should be appreciated. A spirit
of co-operation should be nurtured. Likewise, every person in every
facet of the local tourism industry, from hotel receptionist to taxi
driver, tour guide to shopkeeper needs to understand their role in
delivering the tourism experience.

Figure 8.1 also displays an outer ring consisting of strategy, people anc
processes. These provide the framework within which the key themes are
located.

¢ strategy - the-local destination needs to understand its mission,

its goals and objectives, and its strategies for achieving these
(see Chapters 6 and 7). Such an understanding creates a sense of
direction for decision-making and facilitates integration between
different people through a shared sense of purpose.

¢ people - tourism is a people-based experience rich in human contact.

This creates differences between every tourist visit. Each one is
unique. It is difficult to control quality when the human factor is so
dominant. However, it is easy for a competitor to copy the physical
 KEEPING THE TOURIST © 163

features of a tourism product, but much harder to copy the people

skills, motivation and ambience. The people involved in the tourism
product are the tourist, the other tourists present at the same time
and place who influence the individual's satisfaction with the
experience, the contact staff who interact with the tourist, and the
non-contact staff who never meet the tourist but who provide
support services and processes. Of course, contact staff include
those who work in the tourism industry, but also residents who meet
tourists yet do not feel associated with the industry. Destinations
should try to influence the behaviour of all these participants.

¢ process - these are the systems, or the ways of getting things

done, that are used to deliver the tourism product. Processes may
be computerized, partially computerized, or manual. Examples
include reservation and booking systems, grading and classification
systems, staff reward systems, complaint management systems,
marketing research systems, and so on.

This chapter concentrates on strategies, people and processes. However,

‘practical tips’ are given in boxes to guide thoughts on operational prac-
tice. These are not intended to be comprehensive, but rather illustrative of
the possibilities.

GETTING THE BEST FROM QUALITY

Quality for the tourism destination is primarily concerned with consistency
and reliability in satisfying desirable tourists 100% of the time. In order to
be satisfied, a tourist’s perception of the experience received must equal
or exceed the expectations held concerning that experience. Tourists judge
both the process and the actual outcome. If perceptions fail to match
expectations, dissatisfaction arises. This shortfall has been labelled as a
quality gap (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry, 1985). The quality gap is
dynamic. The size of the gap will increase as tourist expectations increase,
unless the destination uses continuous improvement as suggested to close
the gap. Tourist expectations rise:

¢ with increasing experience of tourism products;

¢ with increasing standards of living in the home environment. For

many tourism products, tourist segments expect an equal or
greater standard of comfort than they experience at home;
164 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ through comparison with other service sectors, such as retailing,

where standards may be higher yet can be cross-compared against
tourism, for example, queuing.

Parasuraman et al. (1985) identified types of quality gaps that could con-
tribute to the overall gap between tourist perception and expectation.
The three highlighted here are:

@ the gap between the tourist's expectation of the experience and the
destination's understanding of that expectation. This emphasizes
the real importance of a tourist-focus. It also emphasizes the
importance of marketing research.

¢ the gap between the design of the tourism product and the
standards set, and the actual delivery of the tourism product.
This may be caused by failure in any of the processes due to
faulty equipment or human error, but it can also be triggered by
poor human resource management.

¢ the gap between the perceived promises of communication campaigns

and the actual tourism experience. Over-promising in advertising is
rife in the tourism industry, yet exaggerated claims raise tourist
expectations beyond the reality, leading to disappointment.

The destination tourism product is usually a customized experience that

cannot be standardized across the total product (the exception being the
inclusive resorts under single ownership). However, it is possible for certain
aspects of the product to be standardized. Standards set should be tourist:
driven; they should reflect expectations. Such tourist-defined standards
become goals and guides for staff in performing tasks. Zeithaml and
Bitner (1996) divide standards into:

¢ hard standards, or tourist-defined standards that can be counted,

timed, observed ina structured manner, or otherwise quantified.
Examples may include the number of days for a written response to a
letter of enquiry or complaint, the number of seconds or minutes that
elapse before a tourist is greeted upon entering an establishment,
and the number of rings of a telephone before it is answered.
 KEEPING THE TOURIST © 165

¢ soft standards, or tourist-defined standards cannot be measured

by the methods used for hard standards. These are based on
tourist opinion and can only be collected through marketing
research. Examples include staff friendliness, courtesy, empathy,
knowledge, ability to solve problems and tone of voice.

Figure 8.2 shows the process for establishing tourist-defined standards.

The process relies on feedback mechanisms and marketing research (see
Chapter 9). Research methods of relevance here are summarized in Table
8.2 (page 166). The results can be plotted on a matrix similar to the one
shown in Figure 8.3 (page 167). This exercise is best conducted separately
for the key tourist segments, and through time so that trends can be stud-
ied using a series of matrices. It is also possible to add the performance of
competitors into the equation. An alternative way of tracking trends over
time is shown in Figure 8.4 (page 167), where results are plotted against
target levels. Discrepancies should be examined for underlying causes and
the necessary corrective action taken.

UPDATE Establish tourist expectations

Feedback results to participants ; and importance rating for each
contact point

-
ale
Translate tourist expectations into
Monitor standards and analyse gaps
participant behaviour and activities

Design feedback mechanisms

Set hard and soft standards and
and research methods to monitor
target levels
standards (see Table 8.2)

(adapted from Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996: 224)

Figure 8.2: Process for Establishing Tourist-defined Standards

STAGES OF THE TOURIST VISIT

Destinations are apt to focus on the tourist stay itself. However, from the
tourist's perspective, a visit can be broken into five different stages as
shown in Figure 8.5. The tourist has potential contact points with the des-
tination at all of the five stages. Any of these contact points or encounters
166 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

may result in tourist satisfaction or dissatisfaction and provide the tourist

with an opportunity to judge the quality. There may be thousands of
encounters attached to any one visit.
Some organizations map out, or blueprint, the entire chain of encoun-
ters, showing participants, activities, timings, bottlenecks, fail points and
support activities invisible to the tourist. Blueprinting increases staff under-
standing of the product and aids continuous improvement by highlighting
weaker areas. Again, it is important to develop this blueprint from the
tourist's viewpoint. Some organizations conduct a blueprint for key seg-
ments and a blueprint for employees; the two are then compared for
discrepancies.

Marketing research tool Examples of uses

¢ Tourist surveys (by key segment) To measure expectations and importance ratings
To measure soft standards through opinion
To monitor satisfaction levels and performance ratings
To measure competitors’ performance
e Staff/other participant surveys To establish staff behaviour and activities
To monitor satisfaction levels
To identify common errors and fail points in processes
Mystery shopping To measure staff performance
To measure competitors’ performance
To benchmark against better performing destinations/
establishments to improve product
Focus groups To explore range of expectations and opinions
To discuss trends and changes in expectations
® Observation studies To measure hard standards
To measure staff performance
To identify staff behaviour and activities
@ Exit interviews and surveys To identify reasons for tourist dissatisfaction
To identify reasons for tourist defection to competitors
° Tourist panels To monitor changing expectations, importance ratings and
opinions through time
¢ Complaint solicitation To identify and recover from negative incidents
To identify patterns of errors and fail points
° Critical incident studies To identify tourist expectations
To identify common errors and fail points
To analyse best practice at contact points
* Telephone trailer calls To provide instant feedback on performance
To assess individual staff performance

Table 8.2: Marketing Research Tools for Measuring Tourist-defined

Standards
(adapted from Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996: 141)
NB Techniques can be used for other participants, such as staff and residents
 KEEPING THE TOURIST © 167

Key tourist segment:

Importance rating

Performance rating

Figure 8.3: Plotting Results on a Matrix

Key tourist segment: Criteria:

Target level
Performance rating
t=)
= Lower level of tourist zone of tolerance
_
o
—
vo
o
i=
oO
=
—
o
3
ao
Q.
cs
i=
oC
o
>
ae
-_
ao
fo)

=o

Time (days/weeks)

Figure 8.4: Plotting Results Over Time

168 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Information provision, providing clues,

_ PRE-VISIT personal skills,reservation & booking systems
i
ARRIVAL Journey to the destination, initial impressions,
welcoming and greeting, queuing

Getting the product right, information provision,

people skills, complaint management systems

DEPARTURE Last impressions, journey from the destination

SS
Word-of-mouth recommendation, complaint
MEMORIES management system

Figure 8.5: Stages of the Tourist Visit

The Pre-visit Stage

Any local destination should pay attention to the pre-visit stage of the
tourist experience, as this is the primary stage for the formation of expecta-
tions. Destinations can influence this process through communication cam-
paigns and information provision (see Chapter 7). Overzealous promotion
could result in expectations being set above what actually can be delivered.

Providing Clues: Usually, tourists cannot test the tourism experience

before they purchase. They are likely to search for clues to help them estab-
lish their expectations. A high price indicates a high level of service, and a low
price a low level of service. The latter is less useful, particularly with reference
to the package-tour market, who may be attracted by low price but nonethe-
less have high expectations. The thickness and texture of the paper used in
leaflets and brochures, the use of colour, line drawings and photographs,
typeface, and so on, can also be used by the tourist as evidence. These physi-
cal clues should be planned and co-ordinated so that the messages conveyed
are complementary rather than contradictory. Clues can also be used to stress
individuality or to communicate the authenticity of the destination.

Personal Skills: The tourist's first indirect human encounter with the
destination is likely to occur prior to arrival, through:

¢ the telephone (see Practical Tips for the Telephone, page 169);
¢ the letter (see Practical Tips for Letter Writing, page 169);
¢ the Internet and electronic mail.
 KEEPING THE TOURIST © 169

Business can be won or lost on that initial encounter, and resources invested
in destination development can be wasted if correspondence is not carried
out professionally.

PRACTICAL TIPS FOR THE TELEPHONE

V Give the name of your organization when you greet the caller. It may be better to
give your own name later in the conversation when they have time to absorb it.
/ Smile on the phone — it helps to make your voice more enthusiastic and friendly.
V Use the caller's name where appropriate.
¥ Use open and closed questions.
Y¥ Check that the caller is satisfied with the outcome of the call before you finish.
Vv Let the caller replace the handset first — it sounds less abrupt.
¥ Keep a notebook and pen on a string by the phone and note the caller's name,
number, the date and time, message, who took it and whom it was for. It is also
useful to ask how they heard of you.
V Check that your outgoing message on the answer machine is professional. You
should be aware that callers may hang up on hearing a recorded message and
take their business elsewhere. An alternative telephone number may help.
V Allow the phone to ring more than three times; some people are disconcerted if it
is picked up quickly as they need time to think of their opening sentence.
¥ However, if it takes time for the phone to be answered, for example, in a big
house, advise potential callers to that effect in your promotional literature.

PRACTICAL TIPS FOR LETTER WRITING

V Set standards for response times to written correspondence.
V Design a filing system for all correspondence.
V Establish an appropriate ‘atmosphere’ for letters that reflects the identity of the
product and is meaningful for the tourist. Letters are physical clues. Think about
the letterhead, the thickness, colour and texture of the paper, the handwriting or
typeface used, the envelope. Should the use of names be formal or informal?
Y State dates, times, prices and contact methods and answer all questions asked.
V \s it appropriate to reply in the tourist's language? Keep a file of useful phrases if
you feel that this develops your personal touch.
/ Be aware of the weight of the letter and any enclosed information, as this may
affect the postal charge. Know the postal price boundaries.

Reservation and Booking Systems: Individual businesses at the des-

tination will develop reservation and booking systems as appropriate, but
it is important to establish a destination system so that surplus business
from any one establishment is redirected within the area (see the practical
tips below). Some systems use computers and destination databases;
170 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

others are manual. Most are designed to top up existing business and to
allocate ‘spare’ business.

PRACTICAL TIPS FOR DESTINATION & BOOKING SYSTEMS

V Issue establishments with a list of other establishments’ names, addresses, phone
numbers and relevant details.
/ Publicize two central contact phone numbers in promotional literature as
alternative choices for callers seeking neutral last-minute advice.
Y Ensure that answer messages on contact phones are cross-referenced, so that if
one is unavailable, the other number can be tried.
Y Contact people may use a wall chart or reservation diary holding the details of
other establishments.
/ Make sure that the tourist information centre displays accommodation lists and a
map outside the building, so that late arrivals can find accommodation even when
the centre is closed. Police stations and transport stations are also useful places to
display details.
Y Some destinations operate a kitty so that establishments who receive bookings
from a central contact point donate a fixed sum or % of the money. This goes
towards joint advertising or leaflet production.

The Arrival Stage

The journey to the destination is part of the total experience, yet it is one
that may leave the tourist in an unfavourable frame of mind upon arrival
(tired, hot, sweaty, thirsty, etc.). The arrival occupies only a fraction of the
entire length of stay, but it sets the pattern for the rest of the trip. It is
hard for a destination to recover from a poorly handled arrival.

Initial Impressions: These take only a couple of seconds to form, yet

tourists use them to make judgements about the rest of the stay.
Impressions include both people and physical features. Think about the
psychological impact that signposting, driveways, car-parks, entrances,
landscaping, the exterior of buildings and paint-work, the presence of
litter and so on, have on the arriving tourist. Are local features typical to
the area emphasized? Are immovable eyesores converted, perhaps with
plants, into something more attractive? Are physical features well main-
tained and free from safety hazards?
In addition the people who meet the tourist on arrival? What impres-
sion do they give? Tourists tend to judge things that they can’t see or have
yet to see, such as kitchen hygiene or bedroom cleanliness, on the initial
appearance of one person. Authenticity may also be a factor. For example,
 KEEPING THE TOURIST # 171

tourists visiting English farms indicated that they liked meeting the farmer
in his working clothes as it made the farm more real to them.

Welcome and Greeting: The welcome can help to settle and relax the
tourist, plus establish a relationship between the host and tourist that can
be most useful in solving any potential complaints before they become an
issue. Each culture has its own way of greeting, and this should be
designed into the tourism product as it is part of the identity of the des-
tination (see the practical tips below).

PRACTICAL TIPS FOR WELCOMING TOURISTS

¥ What behaviours constitute a typical greeting in the host culture? How do
greetings vary by age/relationship/gender?
V Always make the first move to greet the tourist; don't wait for them. They may feel
unsure of themselves.
V Be sensitive to any differences that may exist between the tourist culture and the
host culture, in particular with respect to physical space, touch and name use.
V If offering something is typical, incorporate it into the greeting. It may be tea,
coffee, a glass of local drink, a type of food, or a symbolic good.
Vv Use conversation as appropriate to find out names and to create a rapport that
encourages the tourist to speak to you directly should something be unsatisfactory.
V Learn a few basic words of greeting in the language of your key foreign tourist
segments. Remember that most of the message of welcome that you communicate
comes from the way you use your voice and body language. Even if a tourist
doesn't understand the words used, she Knows whether she is welcome or not.

Queuing, Line-ups and Order: Sometimes the experience involves

queuing or some form of order on arrival, and this should be made as
pleasant as possible. Insights into queue management are given by Maister
(1985). The work shows that:

¢ unoccupied time feels longer to the tourist than occupied time;

¢ post-process waits feel longer than pre-process waits, which feel
longer than in-process waits.

The wait should be designed as part of the overall process. If pre-process

waits are incorporated by using relevant activities, tourists feel that the
experience has already started. As solo waits appear longer than group
waits, queue layout can be designed to facilitate conversation, which also
occupies time. Maister (1985) also shows that:
172 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

# anxiety makes waits appear longer to the tourist;

¢ uncertain waits appear longer to the tourist than known waits;
¢ unexplained waits appear longer to the tourist than those that are
explained.

These points highlight the importance of information provision and com-

munication with the tourist. Fairness and equity in waits should also be
observed. Systems based on the guideline of ‘first in first out’ can help, for
example, a ‘take-a-number’ type system. The ‘multi-line multi-server’
queue design does not always promote a sense of justice in waiting as,
invariably, one line is seen to move more rapidly than the others.

The Stay Stage

The visit itself is the most obvious stage of the tourist stay and it incorpor-
ates many issues and topics. Many of these issues will have been addressed
by the destination prior to the arrival of tourists, for example, training pro-
grammes or the implementation of complaint management systems.
Broadly, the issues can be divided into physical feature issues (getting the
product right and information provision), people issues and process issues
(complaint management systems). Each issue is examined in turn.

Getting the Product Right: This section refers to separate components

of the destination product, for example, accommodation units, attractions
or tourist information centres. The physical detail relays messages about
product quality. The physical detail can directly influence the emotions,
physical comfort and behaviour of the tourist. In addition, contact staff,
non-contact staff and residents can also be affected. In developing the prod-
uct, objectives should be set with regard to desired feelings and behaviour
in participants. Such objectives may vary room by room for accommodation.
Possible ideas for emotional objectives include creating feelings of warmth
and welcome (the hallway), encouraging relaxation and restfulness (the
bedroom), engendering calmness (airport facilities) or excitement (white-
knuckle theme parks), formality (large dining-room), grandeur (heritage
property) or inspiration (place associated with a famous personality).
Possible ideas for behavioural objectives include prompting the tourist
to carry out certain tasks, facilitating mixing and sociability, increasing
spend per head, increasing or decreasing length of time spent, or control-
ling the direction of flow or volume of movement. Consider McDonald's as
a standardized, globally recognizable example. The hard, shiny surfaces,
fixed seating, hard chairs, big glass windows, bright lighting, bold colours,
 KEEPING THE TOURIST ¢ 173

oversized writing, spatial layout and signage are all designed to lure people
in, encourage them to spend and to participate as required in the process
(clearing away trays, fetching condiments etc.) and not to linger.
McDonald's want a fast turnaround. Compare these objectives to those of a
cosy restaurant and contrast the use of the physical detail. Table 8.3 pro-
vides a checklist of physical detail to help achieve particular objectives.
Again, authenticity can be used to create a sense of place or identity.

Checklist Comment

¢ Lighting Natural, low, bright, coloured, energy-saving ...

e Sound Music, water, volume, repetition ...

Temperature/humidity Ventilation, heating, air-conditioning ...

¢ Colour/patterns Emotion, warm, cool, hue, brightness, matt, contrast ...

Texture Hard, soft, contrast, rough, smooth ...

e Size and shape Angular, rounded, large, small, miniature, oversized ...

e Layout Space, texture of walking surfaces, signage, functionality, process

facilitation, flexibility ...

e Printed material Folders, leaflets, compliment slips, paper, texture, print, logo ...

® Clothes Uniforms, professional, maintenance, reflection of lifestyle/product ...

© Smell Cooking smells, cleanliness, fresh, disguise unpleasant odours ...

© Security/privacy Outside lighting, textured glass, locks on doors & windows, fire
escapes ...

¢ Health Ease of cleaning surfaces, first-aid box, allergies, pillows, plants &
animals ...

¢ Authenticity Local styles and materials, man-made, natural, fabrics, pottery,

local crafts, lace and embroidery, rugs, tablecloths, bowls of
locally grown fruit ...

Table 8.3: Checklist for Physical Detail

Information Provision: Although tourists will have received informa-

tion prior to their arrival, groups vary in their ability or interest in absorb-
ing facts. Once at the destination, carefully designed information can:

¢ equip tourists for day-to-day living. For example, the nearest petrol
station, dry cleaners, chemist, post office, tourist information
174 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

centre, bus and train stations, taxi and car hire. Details should
include opening days and times, contact numbers and prices.

¢ reassure tourists for emergency services. For example, the local

police, doctor, nurse, hospital, or fire station.

# give guidelines for appropriate behaviour and any explanations for

such guidelines.

@ encourage tourists to spend money locally in a range of places. For

example, bars, shops, restaurants, clubs, craft and souvenir outlets.

# persuade tourists to increase their length of stay or to return for

a second visit. For example, providing information on primary
attractions and activities, excursions, circular routes, lesser-
known attractions and activities, festivals and events at different
times of the year.

¢ increase tourist understanding of the destination through

interpretation of customs, myths, landmarks, notable characters
and so forth.

Information can be collated in a loose-leaf file allowing for the regular

updating of material. Leaflets of attractions and activities can be included.
Libraries of books and pamphlets on local history, flora and fauna, novels
by local authors and so on can also promote relaxation in rooms where
this is desirable. Language books and phrase books might be included.
Some destinations produce small leaflets or cards translating key phrases
of use to tourists into the local language.
Written information is standardized, whereas the knowledge of contact
staff allows a colourful and customized approach to imparting local infor-
mation that some tourist segments are eager to tap into. Setting time
aside to help with itineraries or to answer specific questions can greatly
enhance the tourist experience. Some tourists prefer to feel that they have
‘discovered’ a craft shop or small bistro for themselves; hosts should be
sensitive to this need for exploration.
With regard to buying non-essential goods, tourists will spend either if
the items are cheaper than they are at home (branded goods) or if the
items are different (handmade crafts typical to the locality). Destinations
must draw a clear distinction between genuine handicrafts based on tradi-
 KEEPING THE TOURIST © 175

tional skills that can command a premium price and souvenir items that
resemble local crafts but are mass produced. Tourists must be confident in
what they are purchasing; rip-offs damage repeat and referred business.
Destinations may want to explore ways of protecting traditional skills and
trade marks and communicating these to the tourist.
Some nationalities and cultures favour souvenir items, because the giving
of small presents to many acquaintances is expected of them upon their
return. Leisure shopping is a classic tourist activity whose importance in
terms of temporal and monetary spend is underestimated in survey research.
Given the opportunity, certain tourist segments tend to spend more time
and money on shopping than they are comfortable admitting to.
Finally, it is briefly noted that facilitating tourists to buy local crafts, drinks
and food produce not only spreads the tourist spend in the immediate local-
ity with beneficial knock-on effects, but can also help to stimulate export of
these goods to foreign countries, thus helping the agricultural and manufac-
turing industries. Tourism can provide a showcase for such potential exports.

People Skills: It is said that a prerequisite to long-term tourist satisfac-

tion is staff satisfaction. Unhappy staff and residents cannot produce
happy tourists. This is not always properly recognized by the tourism
industry, which is characterized by its relatively low pay, high job seasonal-
ity and high staff turnover. Notwithstanding, there is a strong emphasis on
human resource management, in particular, recruitment processes, train-
ing, motivation, appraisal and reward systems. For example, reward sys-
tems should support both the hard and soft standards set in the quality
system. Too often, reward systems focus on the hard aspects at the
expense of the soft, less-readily quantifiable elements.
The work by Parasuraman et al. (1988) suggests that organizations
should develop three dimensions (alongside reliability and physical clues)
that tourists use to assess service quality. These three dimensions are suit-
ed to the setting of soft standards:

¢ responsiveness of staff, or the willingness of staff to help

tourists promptly;

¢ assurance of staff, or the knowledge and courtesy of staff and

their capacity to invoke trust and confidence;

¢ empathy of staff, or the ability of staff to offer tourists caring

and individual attention.
176 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Destinations should also think in terms of recruiting, training and rewarding

other participants. Tourists are ‘recruited’ through the process of segmenta-
tion (see Chapter 5), and should be ‘trained’ in appropriate behaviours and
to understand their role in any service process. Non-contact staff provide
support services to contact staff, and this chain is only as strong as the weak-
est link. Destinations can create community lists of recommended suppliers,
such as plumbers, farmers, craftsmen, computer engineers, office equipment
etc., from locally based businesses. This helps to integrate tourism into other
local industry sectors, tightening links, and circulating more of the tourist
spend around the local economy. Some destinations run ‘adopt a farmer’
schemes for hotels to strengthen and diversify local agriculture and to
decrease any reliance on imported foodstuffs.
Training for staff should be ongoing, and can be a mix of formal and
informal techniques (see the practical tips below). Teamwork and task flex-
ibility to cope with variations in demand should be encouraged. Some
organizations adopt a policy of staff empowerment, or of pushing the
authority and responsibility for decision-making from managers to contact
staff. Empowerment requires training for managers and staff alike.

PRACTICAL TIPS FOR TRAINING

/ Existing courses by national tourist boards or training boards, including distance
learning.
V Topics covering food and hygiene, legislative requirements, first aid, languages,
marketing, customer care and brochure production.
VY Guest speakers at local meetings, such as police on improving security, fire officers,
insurance representatives, national tourist board officers, environmental health
officers, tourist information centre supervisors, etc.
¥ Hold meetings in accommodation units and rotate venues so that people gain
inspiration for product improvements. Drives up standards through friendly rivalry.
V If grading and classification-type schemes operate, hold a mock inspection as a
training vehicle.
Y Group trips to other destinations can help prevent an inward-product focus,
stimulate new ideas and be motivating for participants.
V Role play can help develop conversation, listening and complaint handling skills.

Complaint Management Systems: Complaints are usually seen as a

bad thing for any destination, but this is not necessarily true. Complaints:

¢ give the destination important information about product

performance and tourist satisfaction;
 KEEPING THE TOURIST © 177

¢ offer the destination an opportunity to take corrective action and

recover the situation.

A dissatisfied tourist will relay his bad experience to about 20 other peo-
ple, while a satisfied tourist tells around five people. Thus, negative word
of mouth spreads faster than positive word of mouth (the backbone of
referred business). Moreover, for every one complaint received, there are
certain to be other tourists with the same complaint who do not bring it
to the attention of the destination. Yet they still spread the word to
friends and acquaintances. If complaints are caught early enough and
resolved, a dissatisfied tourist can be converted into a satisfied one.
Complaints must not be treated on an ad hoc basis, but as part of a sys-
tem (see Figure 8.6, page 179). lf complaints are encouraged, then they can
be dealt with as they occur and before they become serious problems
fuelled by frustration. Establishing a rapport through the initial welcome
and engaging in informal conversation can be useful techniques for identi-
fying a complaint in its infancy. Staff should be trained and empowered to
handle complaints themselves, rather than referring all cases to manage-
ment. Practical tips are given as a list of ‘do's’ and ‘don'ts’ to help staff bet-
ter handle complaints (see the Practical Tips, page 178). Of course, once a
complaint has become a letter or formal complaint, then a different process
is needed. Hard standards should be set for response times to such letters.

The Departure Stage

Destinations sometimes forget to manage the last impression that the
tourist has on departure. Attention should be paid to the physical clues
and to the personal contact. For example, how attractive is the exit? The
coach or rail station? The petrol garage? How friendly are the staff?
As for the welcome, farewells should reflect the host culture. Is a small
gift appropriate? Drink or food for the journey? Some hosts give a post-
card of their establishment with their name and address printed on the
back. Some of the practical tips for welcoming tourists are equally relevant
for the farewell. The last impression of a destination must be favourable.

The Memories Stage

Stories are told, photographs passed round, videos played and souvenirs
admired. This is the stage where positive word-of-mouth recommendation
is implemented, helping to create referred business. Perceived as unbiased,
the advice of a tourist familiar with the destination is sought and a satis-
fied tourist can become a valued advocate for the destination.
178 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

PRACTICAL TIPS FOR STAFF HANDLING COMPLAINTS

Y DO dress professionally as this sends positive signals
Y DO remain calm and confident
X DON'T argue with the tourist
/ DO use positive body language
Y DO establish and maintain eye contact
X DON'T raise your voice or shout
Y DO observe and listen carefully — allow the tourist to speak
Y DO apologize that the situation has happened and thank the tourist for raising the
matter with you
% DON'T blame colleagues in front of the tourist
Y DO take responsibility for solving the problem
/ DO ask questions to find out more information
X DON’T be aggressive
¥ DO summarize information to check mutual understanding
Y DO analyse the information regarding cause and behaviour
X DON'T personalize the situation
Y DO present alternative solutions, any explanations and then agree on a solution
Y DO carry out the agreed solution or check that it is carried out
X DON'T offer excuses
¥ DO check that the tourist is satisfied with the final outcome
X DON'T reach conclusions before you have sufficient information

IN SOME INSTANCES:
Y DO walk and talk to the tourist at the same time maintaining eye contact — useful
for removing the complainer from a public area
Y DO refer the problem to management if necessary or the tourist insists
/ DO take notes on incidents as a precautionary measure immediately afterwards
Y DO coax the tourist to tell you about a problem if you think they are reluctant to
speak to you

WHAT NEXT?
This chapter has discussed issues surrounding customer satisfaction and
customer care. Along with previous chapters on marketing and planning,
success in customer care relies on relevant and timely information drawn
from research to reduce the risk in the decisions taken and to monitor
progress made. It is the crucial process of research that will be examined in
Chapter 9.
 KEEPING THE TOURIST ¢ 179

Solicit complaints

ie plea in literature — ‘tell us’

¢ verbally at welcome
i ¢ informal conversation
* suggestion boxes
i ¢ visitor books (not reliable) : \
A : © comment cards

Take action to correct or

‘ Handle individual complaint
improve the process

KR Analyse complaints for patterns Y

and causes

Figure 8.6: Complaint Management Systems

FURTHER READING on Keeping the Tourist

Zeithaml, V.A. and Bitner, M.J. (1996) Services Marketing. London: McGraw-Hill.
CHAPTER NINE

Measuring success
Monitoring, research and evaluation

INTRODUCTION
A critical element of any tourism development strategy is to measure what
has been achieved set against what it was designed to do in the first place.
Tourism destination development begins with an assessment of local
resources and visitor markets, but does not simply end with plan
implementation. To do so would leave the plan indefensible in terms of
meeting its goals and objectives. It is therefore essential that before devel-
opment takes place, or is further encouraged, a system to monitor and
evaluate the effectiveness of such actions is set in place. After all, if you
don’t know where you've started from, you can’t really say if you’ve been
successful or not.
Monitoring and evaluation are also important for knowing what is hap-
pening with tourism in a destination; an essential element in managing its
impacts. Monitoring helps to identify problems before they get out of
hand, to adapt to a changing marketplace, as well as measure the response
to specific initiatives. However, if this is to be effective, monitoring and
evaluation needs to take place on a regular and systematic basis, involving
economic, social and environmental indicators of both supply and demand:

¢ In terms of supply - monitoring typically involves the assessment

of occupancy levels, attendance figures and transportation flows
against predevelopment values. It also means assessing the
response of the destination's resident community to development
and the effects tourism has had on local quality of life:

¢ In terms of demand - monitoring usually means collecting data on

visitor satisfaction, market origins and travel motivations to help
 MEASURING SUCCESS © 181

better focus activities and guide future revision of the

development plan itself. It also helps to determine how effective
the strategy has been in terms of matching supply with demand.

With this in mind, this chapter looks at a number of methods commonly

applied to the measurement and review of tourism development and mar-
keting activity. The discussion which follows is meant to provide a general
introduction to these techniques, where they are more commonly applied,
and some indication of their relative strengths and limitations, both in
terms of reliability and ease of use. It is not meant as a definitive or com-
prehensive review and readers who require a more detailed explanation,
or seek a more in-depth discussion of their relative merits and application,
are referred to the texts listed at the end of this chapter.

TECHNIQUES FOR MONITORING PERFORMANCE

Tourism monitoring can be accomplished in several ways, using a variety of
techniques and methods. Broadly speaking these fall into two categories:
qualitative (understanding issues in depth) and quantitative (the statistical
analysis of numerical data). Qualitative techniques tend to collect detailed
information from small representative groups, where the aim of the
research is to develop an understanding of an issue or to look for meaning
in personal attitudes and prejudice. They are not meant to describe or
measure large group thinking, but can provide the basis for developing a
more quantitative study later on. By comparison, quantitative techniques
are based on the analysis of numbers: visitor numbers, ticket sales, satisfac-
tion levels, etc. Neither approach is necessarily better than the other, but
rather some techniques are more appropriate or useful depending on the
circumstance of application. Indeed, sometimes one technique feeds off the
other and vice versa.
However, for some aspects of tourism monitoring, data may already be
available, having been collected by other organizations such as a regional
or national tourist board, individual visitor attractions and facilities, or
other sections of the industry, such as transport, catering and accommoda-
tion providers. This type of secondary data is often very useful in develop-
ing a broader picture of tourist activity, which can help supplement
primary data sources, and act as an additional point for comparison. It is
generally worthwhile looking at secondary sources because of this, but
also because it can help to identify gaps in current levels of information, is
relatively cheap to use compared to new data collection, and similarly as
they already exist, save both time and effort. However, for many local
182 « THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

destinations, secondary sources are not always readily available. This sec-
tion now looks briefly at secondary sources before a more in-depth look at
the application of both qualitative and quantitative techniques in tourism
monitoring and research.

Secondary Data Sources

Information is the foundation of good decision-making. In many destina-
tion regions and countries, tourism boards and other government agen-
cies, or indeed the private sector, routinely collect statistical information
on tourist travel patterns, origins, socio-demographic variables and their
activities. These types of surveys provide valuable information on regional
trends and activity, both seasonally and over the longer term. They can be
very useful for identifying the general character of tourism activity in prox-
imity to a destination, and give some indication of the size and structure
of the existing tourism marketplace.
Secondary data sources which can be applied to tourism monitoring
come in all shapes and sizes, ranging from national exit surveys at interna-
tional air- and seaports, to, for example, the published attendance figures
from the neighbouring community's annual summer festival. Some of this
information may be very detailed and readily available for anyone to see,
while other sources may be commercially sensitive or confidential with only
aggregate or gross figures released. Other relevant sources include general
economic, retail spending, leisure activity and census surveys undertaken by
many national governments or their agencies. These surveys provide data
on domestic spending habits, travel patterns, leisure activities and socio-
economic characteristics of the population which can then be examined in
the context of the destination’s current visitor market.
However, while secondary data has its obvious benefits to the destina-
tion, information relating to regional or national tourism patterns, or to
leisure preference and activity can be very pernicious for individual desti-
nations if not read with caution. For example:

¢ travel patterns - at the national level, international tourism may

be quite significant to the country as a whole, but this does not
mean all individual destinations or even regions within that country
will necessarily attract any foreign visitors. Similarly, two
destination communities in close proximity may share political,
geographical or socio-cultural similarities, but this does not mean
they will attract exactly the same type of visitor, either domestic
or foreign.
 MEASURING SUCCESS ¢ 183

¢ leisure preference - survey respondents tend to exaggerate their

performance or preference for different types of activities. What
people say they do, or would like to do does not necessarily reflect
reality. For example, while a national survey of leisure interests
may show that some population groups would like to try bungee-
jumping, white-water rafting, or scuba-diving for their potential
excitement, whether or not these people will actually pursue the
activity is uncertain.

Thus, while secondary data may help paint a broader picture of tourism and
leisure activity, how this will be relevant to each destination must be care-
fully examined in each situation. Making decisions based solely on secondary
data sources can be dangerous, as it could lead to policy and development
plans that do not adequately reflect the local situation and, hence, should
be avoided. This does not mean that secondary sources should be avoided
altogether, but rather should be used in concert with qualitative and
quantitative studies with a direct relationship to the destination in question.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Qualitative analysis is very useful in developing a more detailed under-
standing of a particular issue, as opposed to simply measuring it. In
tourism planning and marketing these issues include the understanding of
tourist (or resident) attitudes, beliefs, feelings and images for a given des-
tination. It may also include generating new ideas for development, test-
ing reaction to creative promotional concepts or new products, or perhaps
exploring a particular problem prior to establishing survey research.
Qualitative methods are particularly useful for tourism analysis because
they can help us better to understand the tourist experience from a per-
sonal point of view and explore issues more in-depth.
There are a number of different techniques or methods used in qualit-
ative analysis. However, this chapter will limit its discussion to what may be
considered the more classic techniques of qualitative analysis: focus
groups, personal interviews, observation and projective techniques. The
following sections look at each of these methods in terms of their practical
application and execution.

Focus Groups
A focus group is a discussion session led by a moderator convened to
explore a particular topic in an unstructured or semi-structured manner.
For best results with group dynamics, no fewer than six and no more than
184 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

ten respondents should be used in any one session. It is, however, wise to
run two to four separate focus groups (with different respondents), rather
than to rely on the results from a solitary group.

Objectives: The objectives for focus group research should address what
you want to find out, but set in a broad context. Objectives are often
exploratory in nature.

Recruiting Respondents: The researcher needs to consider the

respondent make-up of the group. Is a homogeneous group that mirrors a
certain tourist segment required, or a mix of respondents with its inherent
conflicts? Is a probability or non-probability sampling technique prefer-
able? Often a convenience sample or quota sample is used, with a brief
questionnaire to screen potential respondents for relevant characteristics.
For a destination, it is easiest to capture respondents during the stay,
rather than before or after, but this creates problems by disrupting the
holiday mood. It may help to provide leisure-based incentives that will
enhance the rest of the trip, for example, reduced entry fees to attrac-
tions. Alternatively, certain tourists can be intercepted at the airport
(preferably by prior arrangement), although available time will be a limit-
ing factor and tensions may be running high. It is also important to
remember that vacation decisions are taken in a social context and rarely
by a single individual. Due consideration should be given to influencers,
deciders, information gatherers and purchasers, as well as the actual users,
in focus group formation.

Designing the Setting: The location should offer a room with an

informal atmosphere and the organizer should consider the physical com-
fort of respondents. Think about using the hospitality rooms at a local
hotel or tourist attraction. Soft drinks should be provided and easy chairs
for relaxation. As the tourism experience is one associated with leisure
rather than work (the exception being business tourism which spans the
two), the atmosphere should provide a continuation of the enjoyment. For
respondents, the discussion group should not remind them of work.
Recording devices, whether videotape or audiocassette, should be as out
of sight as possible and certainly not referred to during the session.

Running the Session: Each session should be between one and two
hours long. This gives the moderator time to establish rapport with the
group and to delve deeply into the designated issues. The skills of the facil-
 MEASURING SUCCESS ¢ 185

itator drive the success of the group. Aspects of what makes a good mod-
erator can be gleaned from the points below on running a session. Many of
the skills are used in everyday communication, but they are often forgotten
by poor moderators who talk too much or fail to remain neutral.

/ The moderator should introduce themselves to each individual as

they arrive.

/Y Each respondent should be invited to introduce themselves to

the others at the beginning of the session.

/ The moderator should give a short introduction to the session

and introduce the rules. These may include affirming that there
are no right or wrong opinions, just opinions; one person to talk
at any one time; the need to hear from everyone; no questions to
the moderator as their opinions are unimportant, and so on. The
moderator should answer any questions concerning how the
session will run.

/ The moderator should encourage everyone to speak in the first

five minutes as this reduces stress in individuals early on and
will encourage them to contribute later.

Y Keep the questions simple and ask only one at a time. Questions
are posed to generate discussion, so open questions requiring
development in the answer are preferable to those demanding a
‘yes’ or 'no’ response.

/ Silence is not a problem, so moderators should be wary of breaking

in with another question. Allow respondents time to reflect.

/ Treat all respondents with equal respect. Try referring back to

previous ideas or comments and using the respondent's name;
both show moderator responsiveness.

/ Ensure that a few respondents don't dominate the group,

squeezing out those more reluctant to speak. Body language can
draw out the shy and shut down the talkative; smiles, forward
body language and continuous eye contact bring a speaker on,
contd
186 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

whereas withdrawal can quieten those inclined to dominate. In

addition, by saying ‘that's an interesting point: I'd like to see
how everyone else feels about that’, the shy can be coaxed
forwards while the dominating can be constrained.

/ Observe the variations in energy levels in the group and the

body language used; this is as relevant to communication as the
words spoken.

Y Don't rely on the spoken word; words can be constraining and the
introduction of other techniques can enliven a discussion group.
Projective techniques might play a role (see Projective
Techniques, page 189) and stimulus material can also be useful.
This may involve group tasks such as cutting and pasting pictures
from magazines in a montage to reflect the image of the
destination, or discussion around competitors’ brochures or
other visible objects such as holiday snaps, or preprepared
image boards.

Y/Y When a respondent makes a controversial statement, the role of

the moderator is to legitimize that opinion before others try to
put it down, for example by saying ‘an interesting point; I've
heard others say that in sessions’.

Y¥ The moderator should signal that the end of the session is

approaching at least five minutes before it closes. This creates
the time for any final remarks to be made, any corrections, and
the group to round itself off rather than being cut mid-flow.

Y The moderator should always thank the respondents for giving

up their valuable time to participate in the group.

Analysis: Audiocassettes and videotapes are best transcribed (with

additional comment on body language where applicable) prior to analysis.
Responses should be related back to objectives. The researcher should look
for areas of general consensus, depth of feeling, any differences between
separate focus groups (or where the group itself was mixed) and responses
that challenge assumptions. It is a selective process, with superficial data
being discarded and a coding system may be required.
 MEASURING SUCCESS © 187

The analyst should be wary of taking responses at face value. The

meaning behind the words gives the most valuable information. For
instance:

¢ ‘Its quite nice I guess’ [Awfull I hate it!]

¢ ‘It would be OK for backpackers’ [Its cheap and shoddy ... fine
for them]

¢ ‘Some people might like that brochure front cover’ [But not me;
I wouldn't pick it up]

The responses should be interpreted and their possible relevance to any

decisions to be taken explained. Reporting the facts lifted from the focus
groups is not sufficient.

Personal Interviews
Much of the practical detail given under focus groups can be adapted for
personal interviews. Obviously, highly structured one-to-one interviews are
a method of survey research. Here, we are concerned with qualitative
interviews. Broadly speaking, there are two types:

¢ semi-structured personal interviews with a respondent where the

interviewer directs the line of questioning from a preprepared
interview schedule. Topics can be developed and the order
changed, because the research design is very flexible, yet the
interviewer has pre-decided the areas of relevance. Typical
duration is around 30 to 45 minutes.

¢ unstructured personal interviews with an informant where the

interviewer has no prepared schedule but is directed by the
informant. Typical duration is one to two hours, and a series of
interviews may be held with the same informant.

Tourism management often uses the semi-structured approach to inter-

viewing. Generally, individual interviews are preferable to focus groups
where individuals are subject to peer pressure or where the information is
either sensitive or complex. Organizers should consider the following
points:
188 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

appropriate sampling technique and number of respondents

required (remember, the aim is to understand, not to measure,
so small samples are justifiable). Snowballing may be useful
where a number of experts are needed; after each interview,
the expert is asked to suggest a further expert in the area to
be contacted by the interviewer.

data can be recorded by taking notes or by using an

audiocassette. The latter is better unless the information is
considered sensitive by the respondent or where a recorder's
presence may inhibit the development of the conversation. Tape
recording requires prior consent from the respondent.

additional sources of evidence, such as brochures, documents,

advertisements and so on, may provide support for findings or
act as a cross-reference point.

questions should start with those designed to relax the

respondent, and then work from the general to the specific ina
‘funnel’ effect. Probing can add examples or extra detail.

thought must be given to the training of field interviewers

where a team is used. Consistency in probing is important.

interviewers need to remain neutral and non-judgmental and to

empathize with the respondent. Accent, dress, facial
expressions, voice and so on can all influence the performance
of the interviewer.

data should be treated as confidential and an individual should

only be identified in a report by a code number.

Observation Techniques
Everybody makes casual observation, often relayed as anecdotes. Obser-
vation as a research technique raises it from the casual to the planned. In
tourism, with its advantages of having the consumer on-site, it is a surpris-
ingly neglected research tool. According to Tull and Hawkins (1993), the
data must be observable (for example, a certain type of behaviour, a physi-
cal action, verbal action, facial expression, temporal pattern, or related to
 MEASURING SUCCESS ¢ 189

spatial use), must happen frequently, repetitively and predictably, and must
only occupy a short time span. Observation can also be divided into:

¢ natural vs. contrived - tourism is suited to a natural setting,

although a laboratory may be used in certain circumstances.

¢ open vs. disguised - the observer may be disguised as a fellow

visitor, or concealed behind a one-way mirror, or may be openly
seen by the tourist. The first raises ethical issues of disguise,
while the second raises issues of observer influence in the
selected behaviour. Mystery shopping to check the quality of
competitors makes use of disguised observation.

¢ direct vs. indirect - with tourism happening at the destination, it

is possible to observe tourist activity in real time. However,
indirect methods may be appropriate, such as measuring the wear
and tear of carpets to identify popular exhibits, or dustbin audits
to check eating and drinking habits.

¢ human vs. mechanical - human observers can mingle well amongst

tourists, but some situations may require mechanical methods.
Video cameras, closed-circuit television, or time-lapse photography
can be useful.

As the observation is planned, a structured observation sheet may be

relevant for human observation. This sheet should record the date, time,
location, observer name and weather (as appropriate), before itemizing
those actions to be observed. A stopwatch may be needed to measure
lengths of time for actions, such as queuing. The basic data analysis will
establish the sequence and patterns of actions and frequency counts
before taking the analysis further.

Projective Techniques
These may form part of a focus group or personal interview. They may be
defined as covert or hidden/disguised techniques that are unstructured
and indirect and that allow the respondent to project their own beliefs,
attitudes or feelings on to a third person or object. They are useful for get-
ting information that the respondent may be unable to express or even be
unaware of. Some are suitable for use with younger visitors. Projective
techniques are based on ambiguous stimuli. Rooted in clinical psychology,
190 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

analysis can be complex, but used at a simple level, they can nonetheless *
offer insights into feelings, images or stereotypes for tourism managers.
Some of the projective techniques most applicable for destination
research include: (

¢ Word association - where the respondent is asked to say the first

word that comes to mind. The list of stimulus words should include
neutral words, random words and the test words (brand names,
competitors, names of places, etc.). The list should be read out by
the interviewer; spontaneity of answer is crucial. Basic analysis
should include the frequency of response words, hesitation and
non-response.

¢ Sentence or story completion - where the respondent is asked to

finish off a sentence or story about a third character. Responses
should be checked at face value and interpreted at the deeper level.

¢ Personification - where the respondent is asked to describe the

destination (or competitor etc.) as something else, for example, as
an animal or as a person. Some organizations have asked
respondents to write obituaries for their products or brands.

¢ Consumer drawings - where the respondent is asked to draw a

typical tourist visiting destination ‘x’, or visitor using attraction ‘y’.

¢ Cartoon tests - where the respondent is shown a cartoon and is

asked to fill in the speech bubbles of the characters. Some
cartoons contain thought bubbles as well, which allow the hidden
meaning behind the words to be expressed.

¢ Picture response - where respondents are shown a picture and are

asked to describe, for example, what happened before, next, the
feelings of the characters and so on.

¢ Third-person tests - where the respondent projects their

attitudes on to a vague third person under the guise of ‘most
tourists’ or 'most residents’. One version is to present two identical
lists of purchases to two different groups and ask them to describe
the purchaser. Only one item in the list is different and it is this
item to which any differences in opinion may be attributed. For
 MEASURING SUCCESS e 191

example, the odd one out amongst a list of purchased or used

services may be a two-day break at destination x.

¢ Play techniques - where respondents are asked to sort, rank or

group objects, cards or words, perhaps first spontaneously
according to their own feelings and then by direction. For example,
a list of destinations may be generated and then sorted by the
type of visitor.

Although projective techniques should not be overrelied upon in tourism

research when used by non-psychologists, they can be good at stimulating
fresh thought, uncovering a new angle, or simply enlivening a focus group
or interview.

QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES
Quantitative methods are different from those used in qualitative research
primarily due to their focus on statistical analysis. They also tend to be the
more commonly applied methods of tourism analysis because, in principle,
they are easier to understand and execute, but also because of the seem-
ingly insatiable appetite of both government and business to have reams
and reams of data to help support policy actions and activity. As a result,
much of what is frequently (although not accurately) considered as the
quantitative approach concerns the development and operation of survey
research, and in particular, questionnaire surveys.
While there are other quantitative techniques such as ‘research panels’,
‘opinion polls’ and ‘Delphi studies’ which can be applied to the monitoring
of tourism development, this section will focus its discussion on the issues
and application of questionnaire-based surveys.

Questionnaire Surveys
Questionnaire-based survey research is (in theory) very simple in the sense
that it basically involves asking a lot of people the same set of questions,
and then examining their response in terms of straightforward counts or
‘frequencies’ (descriptive or nominal analysis), or comparisons (correlation)
between different groups of respondents (ordinal analysis), or both.
However, despite this apparent simplicity, the questionnaire survey can be
a fairly complicated analytical tool, and if not carefully planned, the results
could easily lead a destination to take decisions based on findings which
are not justified. Far too often when presented with statistics, people
believe they are reading research results of a certain accuracy, just because
192 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

they are written down and expressed in numerical form. Sadly this is not
always the case, and the root of this error is found in the issue of bias, due
to mistakes made in the survey design and execution.
Survey bias (or error) becomes a part of survey research due to a num-
ber of different reasons, including questionnaire delivery (postal, site,
group, etc.) which in turn relates to sample size and selection, question
type and design, and overall levels of data confidence:

Questionnaire Delivery: Survey data is collected using what is termed

a survey schedule, more commonly referred to as a questionnaire.
Generally, these can be completed in one of two ways:

¢ self-completion - where the respondent is given a copy of the

questionnaire and fills it out on their own, without reference to
whomever is conducting the research. They may be handed out and
collected on-site, or handed out but returned via the post;

¢ interviewer completed - where the interviewer asks people

questions, based on the questionnaire, but fills in the response
themselves. The interviewers are not meant to interpret the
question but simply to read out questions and record the response.

Whether a questionnaire is self-completion or based on the interviewer

depends on the actual type of survey schedule in use. In tourism analysis,
the three most common types of questionnaire are street-, site- and
postal-based surveys:

¢ street surveys are, as the name suggests, questionnaires which

are distributed in public places, most often on the street in main
tourist areas, and/or shopping precincts which tourists tend to
patronize ina destination. The questionnaire format is
predominately (although not always) completed by the research
team by stopping visitors and asking them a number of quick
questions (quick being the operative word, as tourists are there to
see the destination, not stand around and answer questions). Five
minutes is considered the maximum time that should be planned
for recording tourist answers. This time frame clearly limits the
number of questions and hence the quantity of information which
can be collected using this format.
 MEASURING SUCCESS ¢ 193

¢ site surveys are similar to street surveys, but are generally

designed to collect information from users of particular facilities
or attractions. Either self- or interviewer-based, this form of
survey research is very common in the private sector, where
attraction managers, hoteliers, airlines and others use the
opportunity to distribute questionnaires to their respective
customers. Site surveys have the advantage over street surveys in
that they are seen by respondents to be more directly linked to
visitor activity and hence tend to be more willing to participate
than if just stopped in the street. This also means the
questionnaire can be a bit longer (up to 10 minutes to complete),
which lends itself to the collection of more detailed or wider
points of information.

¢ postal surveys are returned to the research team (and

occasionally distributed) via the postal service. The postal survey
is very common in tourism research, because it allows for a wide
distribution of questionnaires and is relatively cheap to operate.
However, it also suffers from the highest level of non-response
(or low completion rates) compared to the numbers sent out or
distributed. They are by their nature self-completion
questionnaires which do not have the same time restrictions so
evident in street and site surveys. However, if they appear too
long (i.e. more than two or three sides of paper), then the same
time principle applies with people reluctant to take the time to fill
ina lengthy questionnaire and put it in the post.

Each of these methods, whether self-completion or otherwise, have both

strengths and drawbacks. The self-completion methods tend to be cheaper
because they are not as labour intensive (in terms of actual data collection),
compared to interviewer-based completions. However, self-completion ques-
tionnaires are notorious for their low response rates and gaps in the level of
completion, whereas interviewer completions tend to mean a fuller and
more accurate response. In either case, and with each format of delivery,
these problems reflect another source of error: sample size and participant
selection.

Sample Size and Selection: Questionnaire surveys tend to involve

large numbers of people (those answering the questions) ranging from a
couple of hundred to a few thousand, clearly depending on the
194 «© THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

destination and its markets. However, tourism surveys are not meant to
question every last visitor, every user of the attraction, or every person
going into the tourist information centre. The costs of doing so would
prove prohibitive in most situations and in busy periods it would be virtu-
ally impossible and a logistical nightmare to ensure every visitor received,
completed and returned a questionnaire. For these and other reasons sur-
vey research employs a system of sampling which seeks to question a
smaller but representative sample of the destination’‘s total tourist popula-
tion. However, what is meant by representative and how many this will
involve become new points of possible bias or sampling error.
In terms of sample size, generally the larger the total number of
respondents (all things being equal) the greater the likelihood of achieving
a representative sample. However, this does not mean that in order for the
sample to be relatively error free that some minimum number of responses
(in relation to the total population) must be achieved. If this were true, vir-
tually all tourism surveys would be at risk, because it is very difficult to be
absolutely sure how many visitors any destination actually receives, no mat-
ter how meticulous the counting. There may be some very accurate
estimates, based on highly structured and methodical counting systems, but
generally total tourist populations are only best estimates and sometimes
not even best. The basic principle in sampling remains (all things being
equal) the larger the sample group, the less likelihood of sampling error.
The key to sample size concerns the issue of representation. If the data
is collected from a sample which proportionately reflects the wider tourist
population, then a sample of 200 is as equally valid as a sample of 2,000 or
20,000. Notwithstanding sample size, however, a truly representative
sample means all members of the population (in this case all tourists visit-
ing a destination throughout the year) have an equal chance of being
selected to participate in the research. Yet the likelihood of this occurring
depends very much on the type of questionnaire delivery:

¢ street surveys - representative sampling from a street survey is

difficult to achieve. A key limitation is that not all tourists ina
destination will see the same attractions or go to the same places,
and depending on the location of those conducting the research,
not everyone will have an equal chance of being selected to
participate. Similarly, this could also mean that some types or
groups of tourists may end up being over-represented by virtue of
their activity and location relative to interviewer locations;
 MEASURING SUCCESS ¢ 195

¢ site surveys - these tend to offer a better opportunity to collect

a representative sample given the likelihood of entry or exit points
which funnel tourists past potential interview sites. However, as
noted above, not all tourists will visit all sites, so this method will
not achieve a totally representative sample for the destination as
a whole. This being said, this method clearly is useful within the
site in question.

In either case, visitor patterns are not evenly spread throughout the day,
month or year. In most destinations, some variation in tourist types will be
evident in the data for different times of the day, and days of the week
throughout the year, which can be important to development planning
and marketing. Therefore in order to be more representative, survey sam-
pling needs to take place at different times of the day, week and year (and
even during different types of weather) if it is to offer all visitors (or types
of visitors) an equal chance of participation.
One way to help overcome this type of sampling error is to use what is
termed quota sampling. Interviewers are given quotas of different types
of visitors to approach and interview. Quotas may be based on such things
as age, sex, occupation, group size and composition, time of day, season or
actual dates (i.e. a holiday). Once interviewers have fulfilled their quota
for their different groups or market segments, they reject any further
respondents from those categories and concentrate on filling the rest of
their quota requirements. While this approach does tend to achieve a rep-
resentative cross-section of the tourist population, its key limitation is that
it requires previous knowledge of the make-up of that population in order
to derive the appropriate quota proportions.
Another way partially to overcome this point of error requires taking a
strategic or systematic approach to sampling. Interviewer instructions indi-
cate that, for example, every tenth person passing by should be inter-
viewed, or every subsequent interview should alternate between the
sexes. Of course, another problem is that tourists are rarely on their own
and the issue then becomes deciding which member of the group should
answer the questions. This can partially be overcome by alternating
between the sexes with each group or asking the oldest in the group, or
the group leader. In this situation, interviewers are given strict instructions
for selecting potential respondents:

‘As each interview is complete, choose the next person who passes
the position. Do not select respondents by any other means. If a
196 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

person declines the invitation to participate, select the next person

to pass by.’

or where the visitor is stationary (e.g. a beach) the instructions could read:

Follow this (x) route and select and stop at every nth group or
person to interview. If they decline to participate, move along to
the next group.’

The key point is that all tourists should have an equal chance of being
selected (within reason) and interviewers should not consciously pick who
they choose to stop and interview, other than by the instructions.

¢ postal surveys - when questionnaires are collected individually (i.e.

as a brochure in the TIC, in hotel rooms, etc.), or handed out to
visitors for self-completion, the response rates tend to be low. In
these situations as little as 20% return rates are not uncommon,
which is not necessarily a problem if the sample is still
representative, however, this is not always the case. Some people
will not complete the questionnaire for any number of reasons
including a lack of interest, uncertainty as to whom the survey is
aimed at, time, language problems, or they may be put-off by the
structure and design of the questionnaire. This is called non-
response bias and is unavoidable and relevant to all types of
surveys, albeit more prevalent to postal and other forms of self-
completion questionnaires.

There are, however, a number of ways which can help to reduce levels of
non-response bias, including incentives (prize draw entry, product coupons,
discount vouchers), postage-paid reply envelopes, how the questions are
asked (question type), the format for response, question ordering, and the
overall content and layout of the actual questionnaire.

Question Types: Survey research essentially asks questions in one of

two ways, either open or closed. Both formats have arguments for and
against their use depending on the type of survey research in question:

# open-ended questions - these require respondents to provide an

answer with their own, unprompted ideas. A typical (albeit often
unanswered) open question found on most tourism surveys asks ‘any
 MEASURING SUCCESS © 197

other comments?’ Depending on the form of questioning, either the

interviewer asks the question and waits for a response, or the
survey schedule contains a blank space or lines. The advantage of
this type of question is that it allows the participant to provide
their own response without undue influence, rather than being
forced to choose from some pre-ordained list. However, as a
disadvantage, open questions are difficult to analyse, especially
when response levels are high (on interviewer-based surveys); they
are sometimes difficult to record accurately (in face-to-face
interviews); they can annoy the respondent who will then throw the
survey in the bin; and as is often the case, particularly on self-
completion questionnaires, open questions are invariably left blank,
or contain answers often irrelevant to the actual question (at least
from the point of view of the research team);

closed questions - in contrast, pose a question but then offer the

respondent a range of answers or options to choose from. The
respondent is directed towards a particular type of answer
(typically by ticking a box, or circling a number/letter) which the
research team believes will address the issue being examined.
Closed questions range from the basic ‘yes or no' response, to
various forms of scales and selection criteria from predetermined
lists. The advantages of a closed question are that they are very
easy statistically to analyse, they tend to achieve high completion
rates and provide a definite structure to the response. The key
disadvantage is that they limit the range of response to the pre-
specified format.

The type of question used is obviously a matter of judgement, depending

on the purpose of the research and the format in which the survey sched-
ule will be presented to the tourist. However, in quantitative surveys (as
opposed to qualitative research), the more common and practical question
format is the closed response, with answers based on opposites, checklists,
rankings, paired comparisons and ‘Likert’ scales:

¢ opposites are basically ‘yes or no’, ‘black or white’, ‘in or out’ type
questions, indicating the presence or absence of different
conditions. They are most often used to determine if a specific
condition, such as membership of a club, is true of the respondent
(e.g. ‘are you currently a member of a golf club?’);
198 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ checklists present a series of options/answers from which to

choose. They usually ask the respondent: ‘Which of the following
best represents your views on....', or ‘Which of the following is the
most important to you ...’ Sometimes checklists also offer a blank
or ‘other’ category, left ‘open’ for individuals to add their own
response, if none of those suggested appears to reflect their
views or opinion. Sometimes an open question is connected with
checklists asking respondents to explain their choice;

¢ rankings, like checklists, provide a number of categories to choose

from, but require the respondent to place all the options in some
order of preference or importance. When asking people to rank-
order a series of options, statistical research has shown that the
list should not normally exceed seven options, because most people
cannot easily differentiate between more than seven different
options at one point in time.
Ranking questions are superior to simple checklists, and
opposites as they collect information which is considered to be of
a higher order. That is while the answers provide ranked
preference, they can also be examined like a checklist (by
selecting just the top-ranked answer) from each respondent. In
contrast, it is not legitimate to suggest rankings from the lower
order response as provided by the checklist answer.

¢ paired comparisons are similar to ranking questions, but require the

respondent to indicate a preference between a pair of options ina
list. Each item is paired once with each other item (e.g. A with B, B
with C, and C with A). The sum of preference for each item is then
tabulated to give an overall 'ranked' preference for each item (e.g.
B preferred twice, A preferred once and C not preferred). In using
paired-comparisons, the issue of bias is generally avoided because
each item is always paired with each other item. The main
disadvantage of this approach is that the more individual items to
consider, the greater the number of pairs (e.g. 5 items means 10
pairs, 6 items means 15 pairs, and 7 items means 21 pairs) which has
clear implications for space on the questionnaire if nothing else;

¢ Likert'-type scales (named after their psychologist inventor)

require respondents to indicate some level of preference or
agreement with a statement, normally based on a standard polar
 MEASURING SUCCESS ¢ 199

scale (i.e. from strongly agree’to ‘strongly disagree’, or ‘very

important’ to ‘very unimportant’). These types of questions are
frequently used in tourism marketing to assess tourist satisfaction
and the importance of different things to different market
segments (see Chapter 7).
Some statistical research suggests there should be an even
number of options (e.g. Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, Strongly
Disagree) which forces the respondent into a position for or
against. Others, however, argue the scale should be uneven,
offering a neutral, no opinion, or neither agree nor disagree option
from which to choose. Who is right is the subject of debate, but
what is certain is that there should be as many ‘plus’ points as there
are ‘minus’ points. Question scales which state Very Good, Good,
Satisfactory or Poor are automatically biased by offering three
‘plus’ options, but only one ‘minus’ category, and should be avoided.

All of these question formats are valid and useful in monitoring, particularly
in measuring attitudes towards different aspects of tourism in a destination.
Attitudes affect destination choice and these techniques can be used to assess
tourist reactions, likes and dislikes, satisfaction levels, and expectations.
Equally they can be used to monitor resident reaction and support for differ-
ent forms of tourism activity in the destination community and its impact on
‘local’ quality of life. Despite these and other benefits, however, these tech-
niques can also generate further response bias depending on the wording
and order of questions as they appear on the survey schedule.

Question Wording and Order: Points of bias are often introduced

into survey research simply through the wording of questions, their
response categories and the order they appear on the survey schedule.
Avoiding these errors can go a long way to reducing problems with
analysis and raising the validity of the survey research in question. Errors in
response tend to arise when questions and answers are multipurpose, use
jargon, are ambiguous, are overly complicated, or lead the response in a
certain direction:

¢ multipurpose questions cause problems with survey research

because the analysis can never be sure what aspect of the
question is related to the answer. Sometimes words may appear
together in a question which are commonly used together in
everyday speech and terminology, such as ‘rest and relaxation’. In
200 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

this case, it is generally assumed these are describing

essentially the same thing. However, if someone were asked to
rate the ‘quality of service and hospitality in a facility, it would be
unclear as to whether they were commenting on the ‘quality of
service’ or the ‘hospitality’. While clearly these two points are
linked, and one is part of the other, this type of multipurpose
question should be avoided. In this case, it would be best to state
these as two separate points of quality of service’ and then
‘hospitality’. However, this leads to the second point of error,
the use of jargon;

¢ jargon refers to specialized language commonly used with

reference to a particular subject. In tourism, ‘hospitality’ is one
such word. Generally, people working in tourism will be familiar with
its meaning as offering kindness in welcoming guests or strangers.
However, what this means to the person answering the
questionnaire could be something a little different. The use of
jargon can cloud the analysis, because some words may take ona
different meaning, depending on how closely the respondent is
allied to the subject. Thus if someone was asked to rate ‘local
hospitality’, they may be thinking of how easy it was to find their
way around the destination, how they were greeted in attractions,
shops or the TIC, the quality of accommodation and restaurant
facilities, or what they thought about the friendliness of the whole
destination. In this case a dissatisfied response would not really
provide any meaningful data if the object of the survey was to
assess which aspects of local tourism could do with improvements.
This of course leads on to the third point of error, ambiguity in
question wording;

¢ ambiguity can arise in survey research, both in the wording of the

question, and in the categories for response. In terms of the
latter, ambiguity happens when closed questions use response
lists with categories which overlap. It is a common mistake
in survey research to create such lists, particularly when
asking questions on income, age, length of stay, estimated
expenditure and other forms of numeric data. A response of '3'
(in the ‘wrong’ column) could technically fit in one of two response
categories;
 MEASURING SUCCESS # 201

When possible, it may be better to leave numeric-based questions

as an open-ended response, so actual mean (average) values can be
computed. Where this becomes a problem is in face-to-face
interviews involving questions of a more personal nature, such as
age, income and sometimes estimated expenditure.
The other side of ambiguity occurs in the wording of the
question. In addition to the use of jargon, questions which use
words and phrases that can have more than one interpretation such
as ‘do you come here a lot?’, or ‘how often do you come here?’ have
a number of interpretations depending on what people think is
meant by ‘a lot’ or ‘how often’ (i.e. once a week, month or year, etc.).
Another cause of ambiguity happens with questions containing
double negatives. For example, a question asking people to state
their level of agreement or support for a statement such as: ‘it is
not true that tourism does not create employment’, would be better
stated as ‘tourism creates employment’. The original question is
unclear, ambiguous and only complicates the response;

complication appears often in relation to ambiguous questions and

multipurpose questions as noted above. It is also an issue with the
structure and order of the questionnaire, especially in the use of
filter questions (the answer to one question determines whether
or not the respondent should answer the next in sequence, e.g. ‘If
yes to Question 6, go to Question 10, otherwise go to Question 7’).
Layout is particularly important in this case as a complicated
structure can cause confusion and hence errors in the response.
Question ordering is also relevant when using more complicated
question structures (such as attitude ranking) which can also cause
problems and put people off from continuing. In this sense, survey
schedules should begin with simple and relevant questions (the
202 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

survey is about tourism, so ask something about tourism), which

may then be followed by more complicated question structures
which in turn are followed by questions of a more personal nature;

a leading questions represent another cause of bias in survey

research. Leading questions tend to encourage people to answer in
a certain way, which either lends support to a particular issue, or
where a disagreement with the statement would suggest something
illogical. For example, a ‘yes or no’ response to the following could
imply two very different things, not just support or rejection for
the question:

‘Do you believe the Local Council should continue to promote the
development of a successful tourism industry?’

Similarly, open-ended questions which ask people to identify key

issues or problems can also be considered leading questions,
depending on how they are analysed. If such a question were to
reveal that only a minority of respondents identified a problem, one
approach would be to say that only a few people said ... 'x' ... was an
issue, but as this wasn't a majority, we can ignore it. However, this
does not mean there were no issues of concern, or that 'x' was only
a minor issue, but rather not every respondent was prepared or
able to identify the issue, or did not think of it at that point in
time. The fact that a minority did identify an issue, without being
prompted to look in any particular direction, could suggest there is
a real point of concern.

¢ sensitive or personal questions such as age, income, marital

status, address (better to ask for a post code instead), personal
spending are best left to the end of the questionnaire. Some
people are easily put off by these types of questions, and if they
appear at the beginning they may refuse to continue. However,
when at the end, people are less likely to balk at these as they
have already completed the rest of the form, and the questions
then feel less intrusive.

Writing Better Questions: One way to develop a tourism question-

naire is to look at what other people have done in a similar situation.
However, while their survey schedule may have some relevant points to
 MEASURING SUCCESS ¢ 203

consider, this does not mean they should be copied verbatim. The oper-
ative word here is ‘similar’, because no two destinations will be in exactly
the same position or face the same set of opportunities and constraints.
There may be many similarities, but there will always be key differences
which need to be taken into account. After all, if all destinations were the
same, why travel?
Far too often in survey research, the first thing people do is begin to
write down questions that other people have asked, or they've read on
another questionnaire, or they think will be interesting to ask. This is the
wrong place to start. The first thing to consider is why the survey is neces-
sary. Those preparing the project need to establish what exactly they need
to know, and why this type of information is necessary. Then they can
begin to consider how they will get it, and in what form or at what level
of detail the information will be necessary (i.e. will age groups be okay, or
is there a need for more specific age-related data).
Whatever the case, the inclusion of questions must relate to the orig-
inal issue, with considerable thought given to how the information will be
used. All too often tourism surveys include questions which don't readily
help answer the original research question, because they haven't been
thought through far enough.

To begin to write better questions:

1. first, establish the nature of the issue;

. then identify the information needs to address that issue;

. then think of different questions which may provide that
information;
. then think of possible answers people may give:
. then think of which format is best to ask the question;
. then test these questions on other people;
. then compare the response to point 2 and repeat as necessary;
and then
. think about how the data will be analysed, as the final test of
bias and error in survey research falls to confidence in the
interpretation and analysis of the results, and how these are
then presented.
204 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Data Confidence and Interpretation: One final major point of error!

in survey research happens when the’ data is analysed, with conclusions:
drawn which are sometimes not justified by the response received. Clearly
this relates to sample size and how well that sample is representative of the
total tourist population (for the destination in question). However, this also
relates to the issue of data confidence which is a function of sample size
and the level of response recorded for specific questions.
In some tourism research, statistical analysis begins (and often ends)
with a basic count or ‘frequency’ of the response to any given question:

e.g. Option A = 10%; Option B = 20%; Option C = 30%; Option D = 40%

One conclusion from looking at this data (in isolation) would be to suggest
that Option D (40%) is the most important category, and if this were
related to different tourism development opportunities, this might be the
option to pursue. However, whether this is the correct interpretation
depends on how representative the survey sample is of the total resident
or tourist population. The issue is, how confident are we that the data is
representative and the results are accurate? The answer lies in statistical
probability and the confidence interval:

¢ statistical probability is the way in which the precision of

research findings are discussed in quantitative analysis. If the
sample is truly representative of the tourist or resident population
(i.e. drawn at random, each with an equal chance of being included
in the research), then the probability of the 40% response or
preference for Option D being correct is fairly high. In contrast,
if the sample is not representative, then the true answer could
potentially lie anywhere between 0% and 100%, and it would be
incorrect to assume this is actually the most popular option.
In quantitative research, statisticians have shown that when a
sample is truly representative of the whole ‘population’, there is a
certain probability the true answer actually lies somewhere within a
specified range of the given answer. In tourism research, ‘certain
probability’ tends to refer to what is called the 95% confidence
level. This means that 95% of the time, it would be safe to say the
answer for Option D is, ‘more or less' 40%, whereas 5% of the time
this would be an incorrect assumption. The ‘more or less’ aspect is
then referred to as the confidence interval. The ‘more or less’ exists
because the response is from a sample and not the whole population.
 MEASURING SUCCESS e 205

¢ confidence intervals represent the ‘specified range’ of values

which define the level of precision for the answer. That is, the
confidence interval is the number which must be added to, or
subtracted from the given answer to give the true range of
response. Confidence intervals are dependent on the total sample
size (i.e. total number of responses) and the actual response to
each question item (i.e. Option C = 30% for vs. Option D = 40% etc.).
(See Figure 9.1).

95% Confidence Intervals

Response sample of 100 sample of 200 sample of 500

Option A = 10%
Option B = 20% +/— 8.0 +/-5.8 +/— 3.6
Option C = 30% +/— 9.5 +/- 6.6 +/- 4.1
Option D = 40%

Figure 9.1: Confidence Intervals and Sample Size - I

95% Confidence Intervals

Response sample of 100 sample of 200 sample of 500

Option A= 10% 4.0-16.0 6.0-14.0 7.4-12.6

Option B= 20% 12.0-28.0 14.2-25.8 16.4-13.6
Option C= 30% 20.5-39.5 23.4-36.6 25.9-34.1
Option D= 40% 29.9-50.1 33.1-46.9 35.6-44,4

Figure 9.2: Confidence Intervals and Sample Size - IT

The examples given in Figure 9.1 show that if the survey sample size was 100,
then the Option D response (of 40%) has a 95% confidence interval of (+/-)
10.1. This means that 95% of the time the answer probably lies anywhere
between 29.9% and 50.1%. If the sample size were increased to 500 respond-
ents and if the answer was still 40%, then 95% of the time statistical proba-
bility suggests the answer actually lies anywhere between 35.6% and 44.4%
(see Figure 9.2). As this brief example suggests, the smaller the sample size,
the larger the confidence interval, and when the sample size falls below 100
the range of the confidence interval becomes so large the statistic effectively
206 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

becomes meaningless. (Statistical tables and formulas exist which can be used
to calculate confidence intervals for all levels of response and sample size, but
the smaller the sample size, the larger the confidence interval becomes.)
How confidence intervals and probability are relevant to survey bias is
explained using the ‘Development Options’ data listed above: (e.g. Option
A =10%; Option B = 20%, etc.). If the point of the research is to decide
which tourism development option is the most favoured or most appropri-
ate for the destination, at first glance it would seem that Option D with
40% has won. If, however, on closer inspection, the sample size is revealed
to be only 200 respondents then (as the data in Figure 9.2 shows), despite
the 10% difference between Option D and Option C, the confidence inter-
vals actually overlap:

Option C: (30% +/- 6.6) = 23.4% to 36.6%

Option D: (40% +/- 6.9) = 33.1% to 46.9%

This means there is no ‘significant difference’ between these two options,

and it would be incorrect to say that Option D was the most favoured
development opportunity compared to Option C. However, if this same
result was based on a sample size of 500, then the confidence intervals
would be smaller and the overlap in categories would not exist:

Option C: (30% +/- 4.1) = 25.9% to 34.1%

Option D: (40% +/- 4.4) = 35.6% to 44.4%

This means there is a significant difference between these two options and
it is fairly certain that Option D is favoured over Option C. The implications
of confidence intervals and statistical probability are that simple frequen-
cies from survey research can mask the true meaning of the data, and if
the role of probability and confidence are not considered in data interpre-
tation, then tourism development decisions may be taken which are not
justified by the actual research findings.

SUMMARY
This chapter has described a number of recommended techniques which
can be used by destinations to help monitor and evaluate the effects of a
tourism development strategy. Monitoring is a vital component in under-
standing whether a tourism policy, plan and programme has been effect-
ive in achieving its development objectives. If carried out, monitoring and
evaluation should help detect both contributing and distracting factors
 MEASURING SUCCESS © 207

which have a bearing on the success of the strategy. If something is shown

not to be working as planned, a different approach may be warranted and
adjustments made.
Monitoring should not be a one-off action but consistent and ongoing if
it is to be effective. It should take place throughout all phases of the tourism
development process and be supplemented on a regular basis. However, this
takes time, knowledge and skills which may not all be readily available in
every destination. While destination communities are ultimately responsible
for managing their own industry, local tourism committees sometimes find
themselves more in the role of facilitator or catalyst in the development
process, with outside help needed to provide extra technical assistance,
advice and research expertise. With this in mind, Chapter 10 discusses as
series of do’s and don’ts to consider when seeking to hire the specialist
services of a professional tourism consultant.

FURTHER READING on Measuring Success

Norcliffe, G.B. (1982) Inferential Statistics for Geographers: an introduction.
London: Hutchinson & Co.
Oppenheim, A.N. (1966) Questionnaire and Attitude Measurement. London:
Heinemann.
Ritchie, J.R.B. and Goeldner, C.R. (1987) Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Research: a
handbook for managers and researchers. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Tull, D.S. and Hawkins, D.1. (1993) Marketing Research, Measurement and Method
(6th edition). London: Prentice-Hall.
Veal, A.J. (1997) Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: a practical guide (2nd
edition). London: Pitman Publishing.
World Tourism Organization (1996) What Good Tourism Managers Need to Know.
Madrid: WTO.
CrbeAnkadeaReeiy EN

Getting extra help

Making the most of professional consultants

INTRODUCTION
This book has been written to assist towns, cities and other small regions
to get to grips with the basic process of preparing a tourism development
strategy. However, due to any number of reasons, it may be necessary for
a community to seek outside help in pursuing this aim. Getting extra help
with tourism development can take many forms, most often depending on
local circumstance. For the majority of communities looking at tourism
seriously for the first time, or seeking to improve their current position, a
number of sources are often readily available. This may come in the form
of government grants, other types of financial aid, technical assistance, or
practical expertise in planning, development and marketing.
Financial help is the most variable of all forms of assistance. Changing
opportunities, priorities and policy means that getting financial aid from
government and other ‘public’ or private sources is never constant, and
hence not covered in detail in this chapter. Nonetheless, given the diverse
nature of tourism and its relationship with many different aspects of a des-
tination’s social and natural environment, it is worth checking what kind
of help may be available from various sources at any one point in time.
Chapter 3 discussed a number of local groups which may be able to help.
Beyond this, several other regional or national organizations and agencies
may offer some form of assistance or guidance not only in terms of
finance, but also support in kind through expertise in such areas as plan-
ning, marketing, management, regulation and control, points of law, pub-
lic relations and market research (see Figure 10.1).
However, even when extra help is forthcoming, it may still be necessary
to seek further specialist advice from a professional tourism consultant. A
destination may already have a very good idea of what it wants to do, but
 GETTING EXTRA HELP ¢ 209

equally it may benefit from a consultant's view of what is realistic or feas-

ible. While ‘in-house’ staff may be fully competent in their tourism role,
there may be occasions when particular skills are missing, where a second
opinion is desirable, or where time constraints may mean the extra pair of
hands will make the difference between development going ahead or not
at all. Unlike the purchase of tangible goods, however, which can general-
ly be touched or felt before a decision is made, hiring the specialist services
of a consultant tends to require a much different approach. With this in
mind, this chapter first looks briefly at tourism consulting in general and
then sets out a number of key points to consider in the recruitment, selec-
tion and appointment of a consulting service.

National, Regional and State Agencies*

Linked with Tourism Development and Management
Tourism Commission/Board Sport, Leisure and Recreation
Tourism Industry Association Tertiary and Higher Education
National Heritage/Cultural Heritage Native/Aboriginal Affairs
National Parks and Protected Areas Fish and Wildlife Services
Agriculture and Land Management Environmental Protection Agencies
Business Development/Commerce Mines and Mineral Resources
Internal/National Affairs Museums/Arts Council
Land-use Planning Employment/Labour
Transportation Forestry

Figure 10.1: National, Regional and State Agencies with Tourism Links
*No attempt is made to indicate specific titles of different agencies or departments due to the wide variety of groups
involved — as such, this list is only indicative and not exhaustive.

TOURISM CONSULTING
In most countries, tourism development planning is no longer the preserve
of a public sector profession, or simply limited to the relatively small number
of multinational planning and management firms. Tourism consulting is a
growing business, and since the 1980s it has expanded rapidly in response to
industry demands. New specialist services continue to develop in response to
market conditions and government policy. Consulting firms now range in
both size and quality, from traditional large multinational management
agencies, to the more recent individuals specializing in specific aspects of
tourism, such as transport, rural development, marketing or interpretation.
Recent emphasis on quality, value for money and sustainability have gener-
ated much interest in new products, technical design and development
advice, master planning, market research, segmentation, interpretation and
promotions, to name a few, all generating more work for consultants.
210 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

The tourism industry is changing and all change brings new oppor-.
tunities. A consultant may be needed to solve a specific or unexpected!
problem, or be part of a more active initiative. While consultants may be:
useful for most aspects of development work, they should be hired’
because of their specific experience and expertise, and their ability to:
contribute something new to the development discussion. At its best,
using consultants can be highly beneficial, giving access to new skills,
alternative approaches and innovative ideas. At its worst it can be time-
consuming, ineffective and costly — not only in terms of the direct expen-
diture, but also in lost opportunity. Clearly, a destination will be looking
for added value from this activity, and the right consultant, in the right
place, and at the right time, can bring that added value to the develop-
ment process.
Getting the best out of a consultant must be the main aim for those
who employ them. Selecting the right consultant for the job is a means to
this end. However, choosing from the growing number of private sector
and university-based consultants, the range of services on offer and the
very wide range of qualifications, can make this a daunting task. Making
the most of a consulting service depends to a large extent on having an
efficient selection procedure and proper contractual arrangements.
Consultants can only bring new skills, new approaches and new ideas to
task — if the brief is right. Given the risks involved in employing the wrong
consultants, or of the project not achieving its objectives, a number of
steps can be taken to help maximize this opportunity. This chapter now
sets out a number of key points to think about when seeking to buy-in
technical expertise, from setting the brief to report presentation, high-
lighting a number of the Do’s and Don'ts in the selection and briefing of
professional tourism consultants.

Pre-briefing Stage
At the very beginning of the consulting process, the destination (client)
must be very sure of what it wants to achieve when seeking to employ a
consultant. Even at this preplanning stage there are a number of key
issues to consider which will influence the successful outcome of a consult-
ing project. Unfortunately, some clients do not have a clear idea of what it
is they want the consultant to do, beyond perhaps preparing a tourism
development strategy. Invariably, the brief that is prepared and sent out to
tender which is vague, does not contain adequate information or fails to
identify specific or realistic outputs, is a waste of both time and money.
Therefore, before preparing the consultant's briefing document:
 GETTING EXTRA HELP @ 211

DO:
Y Do identify the potential costs and benefits of the project.
Examine exactly why it is necessary to buy-in the consulting
service. While there may be a number of valid reasons, such as lack
of time or expertise of in-house staff, occasionally the rush or
urge to hire a consultant overlooks the potential of those already
employed. Sometimes consultants are hired more for ‘political’
reasons than anything else.

Y Do clarify exactly what the project seeks to achieve.

What are its goals and objectives? It is all too easy to be vague
about the project's aims, which may lead to a report which neither
responds to the initial problem, nor relates to the long-term
development objectives of the destination. If necessary, follow
the procedures described in Chapter 6 for setting objectives, but
in the context of preparing the project brief.

/ Do establish one person in-house who will act as the project

manager. It is very important for clients to identify someone who
will be the key point of contact with the consultants throughout
the consulting process. This person should be in a position of
seniority which gives them the background knowledge and access
to information which may be requested by consultants. It is also
important for other in-house staff to be aware of the project and
the level of involvement which may be expected of them.

/ Do identify the budget available, including project management

costs of in-house personnel. The cost of a consultant is not just
the direct contract fees, but also includes the cost of management
time from in-house personnel who will need to answer questions,
interview consultants, provide data, analyse, summarize and report
the results. Ignoring the role of in-house staff in this process can
prove very detrimental and costly.

Once these issues have been addressed, the destination should be in a better
position to begin to put the tender document (consultant's brief) together.

Setting the Brief

When the briefing document is ready to be prepared, there are a number
of different elements which must be included. A good brief sent to the
212 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

right consultant will generally lead to a satisfactory conclusion. Its most’

obvious feature is clarity. Clients must Know what they want from the con-»
sultant, and that the brief sets out an issue or problem which is reasonable :
to solve within the time frame and funds available for the work:

BO:
/ Do state the key objectives of the project. From the
preparation stage the destination should have a clear idea of what
the project is meant to address. Ideally a project should be limited
to 3 or 4 key objectives, providing a central focus for the work. A
study with several objectives will not produce a very coherent
outcome, and the quality of work may suffer if consultants are
expected to do too many things within a limited budget.

Y Do treat the brief as provisional. It is important to retain some

degree of flexibility in what is expected. Invariably, the tendering
process will involve discussion with potential consultants who may
suggest alternatives, which the client may have overlooked or
discounted in error. Maintaining some degree of flexibility allows
‘the client to take on board these new ideas, which tend to make
for a better project.

/Y Do state the expected outputs from the project. The project

brief should clearly state what it is the consultant is expected to
produce. This does not mean the specific content, but rather the
type of information to be included. If the project is meant to
produce a final report, what this should contain must be clearly
specified, such as description or analysis of the issues, policy
recommendations, statistical data, recommendations on
development options, or perhaps a detailed development strategy.

Y Do indicate the approximate budget for the project. Consultants

work for money and aim to earn a profit. They cannot sensibly plan
the work without knowing what the level of remuneration is going to
be. Setting a price range in advance also means they will be able to
calculate the level of service they can provide, while putting the
destination in a better position to compare submitted tenders in
terms of quality and value for money. It is also important to set out
the ground rules clearly from the start and decide whether the
contract will be ona fixed fee plus expenses or on a lump-sum basis.
 GETTING EXTRA HELP © 213

Y Do suggest a time frame for the project. This should indicate

when the project will commence, and include a time when the final
report should be delivered (from commissioning), when interim
reports will be required, if appropriate, and the number and timing
of briefing sessions between the consultant and client steering
group. This information is relevant to consultants so they can
judge the timing of their work, know when key deadlines will
appear in relation to their other workload, and determine whether
or not they feel they can actually do the work. It is also very
useful to include some indication of when interviews are likely to
take place and when the project will be commissioned.

Y Do state conditions of copyright. It is important to establish

early on who will own the project documents, and what this means
in terms of professional copyright, patents or intellectual property
rights. Some consultants will want to retain copyright of the
material they have produced, equally some clients will want to claim
total ownership, after all they paid for the work. This point is
particularly important where the consultants have been employed
to produce ideas for specific facilities or attractions which the
client would not want to see replicated, without significant
variations, in another competing tourist destination.

Y Do specify what the tender should include. In addition to stating

project outcomes, maximum length for the proposal, how it should
be organized and the delivery deadline, the briefing papers should
also indicate what other information is required of the consultants
when submitting tenders. This is likely to include details on:

¢ how the work will be carried out (methodology);

the specific sources of information to be used (where
appropriate); an indication of current terms and conditions of
business (in confidence);
¢ detailed staff résumés of experience for those who will be
undertaking the work, and an indication of their project role;
¢ the number of days to be spent on each aspect of the work, who
will do this work, and the day rates being charged or applied;
¢ anoverall timetable for the work including a Gantt chart (time
line/flow chart) of the work schedule;
¢ plus any additional expenses which make up the project costs.
214 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

All of this information should be included in the tender submission,

however, the smaller the project and its budget, the less detail should
be required, otherwise it can make the whole tendering process
commercially non-viable from the point of view of the consultant.

Y Do call a consultant for informal advice. If in any doubt about

these points, most consultants will be happy to discuss them
informally over the phone, especially if it means they will be sent
an invitation to tender later on. Most consultants will welcome the
opportunity to discuss a client's needs, difficulties and time
constraints if it leads to a well-thought-out brief. After all, an
organized client with a clear idea of what they require makes the
consultant's life much simpler and straightforward.

DON'T:
X Don't overload the project brief with multiple objectives. If
there are too many points to be addressed, the overall quality of
the work is likely to suffer. All projects have limits to what can be
achieved within a specific time frame and budget. If there are
several objectives to be considered, it may be more appropriate to
prioritize these and where possible, leave some out, possibly to be
taken up by some future consulting project. It is not always best
practice to try to cover all issues at once, as this may lead toa
sub-optimum solution.

Xx Don't expect miracles with little money. Project funding

represents a key issue for consultants when responding to a brief.
The scale of the problem to be resolved needs to correspond with
the funds available. If the project brief seeks to answer more
questions than the funds suggest, the client runs the very serious
risk of paying for something which may be relatively worthless.

* Don't be too rigid with what is expected. While it is important to

identify the context of what is needed, don't dictate what the |
report should conclude. This will undoubtedly lead to a report
which fails to live up to its objectives. Being too rigid can
undermine the ability of consultants to bring new or innovative
ideas to the task. By all means discuss in-house ideas and expect
these to be reviewed, but allow some flexibility as to their
inclusion in the final analysis or list of options.
 GETTING EXTRA HELP « 215

X However, don't leave the brief too open. This will likely draw a
vague response, with no real solution offered. While it is important
to allow consultants a certain degree of ‘professional licence’, if
there is no real guidance or direction on current thinking by the
client, the project outcome will most likely not move the issue
forward, address real concerns of the destination, and will
probably represent a significant waste of time and money.

Sending the Brief out to Tender

When the briefing papers are all prepared, the next stage is to draw up a
list of consultants who will be sent the brief and be invited to respond.
However, deciding on who to ask, or where to go to get this information
can sometimes prove unwieldy:

bo:
Y Do put together a list of potential consultants. Use source lists
where they are available. Ask the national or regional tourist board
for advice, and in some cases, maybe even ask them to tender for
the work. Ask colleagues in other departments, other destinations,
or other organizations for advice. It is also useful to discuss with
these contacts, their experience in using different consultants to
help give some idea as to their suitability and quality of work
before deciding on their inclusion in the invitation to tender.

Y Do keep the tender list to 4 or 5. This is a number taken

seriously by most consultants. While some clients prefer to send
out invitations to 10 or 12 consultants, this is really in no one's best
interest. If all 12 submit proposals, that means 12 sets of
documents to consider and review. This is not only very time-
consuming, but also very difficult to give an adequate, equitable
and fair comparison of the proposals. In addition, if consultants
feel that their chances of success are small (which they clearly
are with large tender lists) then they may actually decide not to
submit a proposal. Keep the number of invitations in proportion to
the scale of the proposed project.

/ Do allow adequate time to respond. Consultants tend to be very

busy people, and it is not in anyone's interest to send out a project
brief and expect a detailed proposal by return. On average, clients
should allow 3-4 weeks for the consultants to organize their team,
216 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

develop their methodology, discuss points with the client and

prepare their response. It is also best to avoid sending out
briefing documents with ‘end of year’, 'new year’ or ‘tax year’
submission dates. While these times tend to correspond with
budget dates and the ‘last-minute spending spree’, they also tend
to reflect bottlenecks in consulting work and may lead to a less
than adequate submission.

Y Do designate a point of contact. Ideally the client should have

someone in-house, preferably the designated project manager, who
will be able to answer questions, amend the brief and show
consultants around if necessary. Project briefs and tender
submissions are a means of communication, but no matter how well
prepared, there will inevitably be some points that need further
clarification or where different ideas emerge on how to best
approach an issue. Good consultants will have a number of relevant
ideas, and will want to discuss these with the client to ensure the
proposal best fits the client's needs.

Y Do keep a record of consultants used for different projects.

It is very useful to keep a record of those asked to submit
proposals and some indication of how well these all met the project
specifications in the brief. If this list is kept up to date, it will
help with future consulting projects and help establish a
preference list of those more likely to respond favourably to
future project opportunities.

DON'T:
X% Don’t use the shotgun approach. Ideally the tender list should be
kept relatively small, with consultants selected on the basis of
their expertise and direct relevance to the project under
consideration. Long lists tend to reflect uncertainty in the client as
to whom is better suited to undertake the work. It means more
work for the client to liaise with potential consultants, to meet
with them, to provide background information and to assess their
proposals. If the project is multidisciplinary, it is best to target a
lead consultant and let him put together the necessary expertise
required for different aspects of the work.

X Don't just use the same consultants as before. While consultants

 GETTING EXTRA HELP ¢ 217

used on a previous project may have delivered a very good report,

and addressed all the issues, they may not always be suitable for
the new project. The consultant may have developed a good
working relationship with the destination and can be relied upon to
produce quality work, but this may not always provide the optimum
solution to the problems at hand. If the same consultant is used
again and again, there will be nothing with which to compare their
work. A fresh mind or an alternative approach may be worth
considering and going out to tender is likely to produce this.

X Don't demand an immediate detailed response. While it is

appropriate and good professional practice for consultants to
acknowledge receipt of the brief and their likelihood of tendering
for the work, do not ask for a detailed response straight away. If
the project proposal is to be well constructed, the consultant will
need some time to think it through. Busy, and generally good
consultants will not be waiting around for the next brief to drop
through their letter-box. Given adequate time, the vast majority
of consultants will meet the tender deadline (although not
necessarily the final report deadline).

Selecting the Best Proposal

Once proposals have been received from those four or five invited to ten-
der for the project, it is now time to evaluate them against the brief and
prepare a shortlist for interview. Shortlisting tenders should initially be
done on the basis of how well they fulfil the brief set by the client. Other
points to consider include the consultant's technical capability to carry out
the work, aspects of quality assurance, estimated project costs, financial
security of the firm, and where appropriate, professional indemnity:

bo:
Y Do match the proposed work against the brief. Ona scale of
1 to 10, assess the various components of each tender, including
the proposed methods of work or analysis, consulting personnel and
experience, and the suggested programme of work, in terms of
how well these will deliver what is required. In addition:

¢ technical ability can play a significant role in matching consultant

expertise with project issues - previous project experience, academic
qualifications and professional membership are all points to consider;
218 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

¢ quality assurance procedures are also important - while

certification such as ISO9000 is not.absolute, some indication of
quality systems should be indicated by the consultants;
¢ financial security of the firm and its ability to complete the work
is another feature to consider, especially if the project is intended
to take a long time to complete; and
¢ depending on the type of work being carried out, the ability of the
consultants to offer professional indemnity insurance may be
another necessary component of the tender analysis.

Once all points have been considered, add up the points awarded to
each tender. This will give an initial rough indication of which
proposals best fulfil the project specification.

Y Do choose three consultants as a shortlist to interview. On the

basis of the tender documents (and previous analysis), make a
shortlist of those consultants who seem best able to deliver what is
required. Rarely should a shortlist be more than four, as this would
suggest the initial assessment of tenders was not critical enough.
In contrast, a shortlist of two does not really allow for mistakes to
be made in selecting the shortlist. Occasionally a written proposal
may seem viable, but the interview may show this assessment as
unwarranted. A shortlist of three gives some flexibility with the
final decision, without being too time-consuming.

¥ Do identify points for further clarification. Invariably there may

be a few points which are not absolutely clear in the tender, or
which may be of particular interest and would benefit from an oral
explanation to supplement the written text. These points can be
discussed with the consultants when/if invited to interview, but be
sure to inform those invited of the format which the interview
process will take and the issues which need further discussion.

Y Do meet those shortlisted face to face. Interviewing a shortlist

of consultants serves a useful function for both the consultants
and the client. The consultants are offered the chance to clarify
any issues or gaps in the tender document, address client concerns
and emphasize key points and strengths of their particular
proposal. For the client, the interview offers the opportunity to
hear firsthand what the consultant is proposing, and to investigate
 GETTING EXTRA HELP « 219

any aspect which seems unclear. If the project is complex, if there

are certain elements which need better explanation, or if there
are options to be considered, then it is vital that these details are
sorted out at this stage. Many contracts are won or lost on the
strength of the tender interview.

Do be clear about who is going to do the work. Often consultant

tenders will include senior personnel as lead consultants or project
managers, however, in reality they may have very little to do with
the actual project. This is common practice in consulting firms, and
is used to make full use of a firm's resources. During the interview,
be clear about who is going to be involved and at what level of
participation, whether they attend the interview or not so as to
avoid any misunderstandings later on. It is also important the
person nominated as the consultant's project manager participates
in the interview process, and agrees to inform the client of any
new or additional staff brought in to undertake any of the work.

Do keep the interviews friendly. The interview element in project

selection is not only meant to clear up issues and to seek further
clarification, but also to see how well the client and consultant will
possibly work together. While it is important to maintain a
professional relationship, projects tend to run much smoother when
both the client and consultant have enough trust and
professionalism to relax, work issues through together and perhaps
discuss other things beyond the technical aspects of the project. A
sense of humour is always useful, either as the client or consultant.
If either the interviewers or interviewees appear antagonistic,
defensive, patronizing or uninterested in the whole process, this
will not likely lead to a very rewarding working relationship.

Do ensure the interview panel is well prepared. Keep the

interview panel to three to four well-informed members of the in-
house project steering group or team. This should include the in-
house project manager and two to three other people who have
helped prepare the brief, have read the tenders in detail and can
be relied upon to participate by asking intelligent questions. IIl-
informed interviewers waste time and tend to make superficial
decisions which can prove both costly and destructive to the
development programme.
220 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Y Do keep the interviews to a schedule. Allow approximately 75

minutes for each interview cycle, as this gives plenty of scope for
presentation, discussion, assessment and changeover. While it is
unprofessional for the consultants to be late for the interview, it
is equally unprofessional for clients to keep them waiting because a
previous session seriously overran. The 75-minute cycle should help
to avoid these problems, and with three interviewees, this should
mean the whole process can be conducted in one afternoon.

Y Do choose the interview location carefully. Most consultants will

use some form of audio-visual equipment during their presentation.
To make the most of this medium, the interview room should be big
enough to allow the interview panel to see the projection screen
unhindered, and where possible allow for a black-out of any
unnecessary light source. Ask the consultants what equipment they
may need to make their presentation before they arrive, so there
aren't any last-minute scrambles to find an overhead projector or
video playback facility.

/ Do ask for two or three examples of similar work. As part of the

interview process, it is legitimate for the client to ask consultants
to give two or three examples of other work they have completed in
a similar context in the recent past. Asking consultants to identify
the issues, their response and outcome of the work is a useful
means of comparative analysis. A good consultant with a record of
delivering work on time, to budget and to specification will be
pleased to refer potential clients (accepting confidentiality) to a
previously satisfied customer. Recommendations are as important
to the consultant as they are to the client and referrals are a key
method of getting new business.

DON'T:
* Don't decide purely on price. Although financial pressures are a
major concern, the best consultant for the job is not necessarily
the one with the lowest tender price. The briefing document is a
guide, and it is very likely that some consultants will submit a
proposal which exceeds the target price. If the details of the bid
warrant the extra costs, and this work meets the project
specifications, the tender should not be rejected out of hand. If,
however, the tender price exceeds the guide price by a
 GETTING EXTRA HELP # 221

considerable margin, then there should be cause for concern,

especially if this has not been adequately explained in the proposal.
Equally, cheaper projects may well reflect a poorly developed
proposal, or ‘minimalist’ approach to the project, which in turn may
lead to an unsatisfactory conclusion.

X Don't interrogate the consultants. The interview process is not

meant to put consultants on the spot or trick them, but to offer
further dialogue and explanation of the proposal. If the tender has
made it to the shortlist, the clients should have a good idea of
what it contains and what is proposed. Interrogation-style
interviews tend to suggest a lack of awareness and preparedness
on the part of the client, not major gaps or short-comings in the
consultant's tender document. Equally, it is less than fair to ask
consultants if they can modify the work, change their methods,
add new things or cut their price in the middle of the interview.
These may be valid points, but they cannot be fairly assessed in
the context of an interview on either side of the discussion.

X Don't be swayed simply by glossy or slick presentations. It is

very easy to get caught up in the technical aspects of project
presentations. Glossy brochures, slick presentations and high-tech
equipment give the impression of a well-produced proposal, but this
does not necessarily mean the actual content of what is being
offered is any better than the low-tech approach.

COMMISSIONING THE PROJECT

Once the interview process is complete, and the client has decided who
will be awarded the project, it is time to prepare a contract and commis-
sion the work. Contracts do not need to be overlong, detailed or technical
documents, because this will only delay the project start dates further with
the editing and rewriting of contract documents. Generally, a simple letter
of appointment, referring to the tender documents, will be sufficient:

DO:
/ Do set up a ‘formal’ contract with the consultant. A simple
standard contract should be drawn up which states what is to be
done, when, by whom and when the results will be delivered and
methods of payment. While this seems a lot, it can actually be done
by a relatively simple letter which clearly identifies these points
222 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

and includes a copy of the consultant's proposal, along with any

amendments agreed in writing between the two parties. The
consultant should, upon receipt, confirm their acceptance of the
project commission in writing.

Y Do set a project start date. There will most likely be some delay
between commissioning the project and work commencing. Most
consultants will slot the work in as soon as possible once the
appointment has been confirmed. However, if the original briefing
papers requested information on likely start dates, plus a
timetable for the tendering process, this delay should not be more
than a couple of weeks. Set a timetable for the work, as discussed
in the tender, but be prepared for the unexpected - work always
changes in the consulting process. Retain a degree of flexibility.

Y Do inform unsuccessful bidders. There are always losers in the

tendering process, and these people should be informed as soon as
possible of the client's decision. From the selection process it
should be relatively obvious why one proposal was chosen over
another. While most consultants would clearly rather win the
contract, they will also appreciate being told the reasons why they
were unsuccessful, including technical problems or personnel
issues, project costs, or the presentation itself. This does not
have to be in too much detail and most consultants will probably
contest some of the reasons given. Invariably they will also like to
know who has won the contract.

DON'T:
X Don't award the contract at the interview. While the interview
panel may have a good idea of whom they would appoint
immediately following the interview, it is best to record the
reasoning and formally make the decision in the next day or two.
This allows the panel a little time to collect their thoughts and not
jump to any hasty conclusions which may prove unsatisfactory.
After all it's not likely the consultants are going to start work on
the project the following day. Don't keep interviewees waiting
around for a decision on the day, but clearly state when the
decision will be made and when they should expect to be informed
of this.
 GETTING EXTRA HELP © 223

Report Submission and Review

The last stage of the consulting process concerns the submission of the
draft and final report, as well as a review of the consulting process from
the client's perspective:

BDO:
Y Do expect a draft edition of the consultant's report. Before the
final report is submitted, the consultants should prepare and
submit a draft version of their ideas. This should contain a review
of the problems and details of the proposed solutions. It should
not be just a repetition of the briefing papers, nor simply restate
in-house ideas with a little ‘consultant's spin’ to dress them up. The
point of the draft report is to allow the clients to review the
ideas, seek further clarification themselves, and suggest
amendments which may make the final document more user-
friendly, highlight key points or rework some ideas.

Y Do hold a debriefing session with the consultant. It is generally

useful to arrange a debriefing session with the consultant and the in-
house team at the end of the contract. This can be used to assess
the merits of the project, the conclusions and recommendations,
discuss further opportunities, examine any stumbling-blocks and seek
solutions to avoid future problems. Maintaining a good professional
working relationship with clients is important to consultants, and most
will seek to retain some level of contact with clients to ascertain
when their services may be called upon again in the future.

Y Do hold an in-house debriefing session. At the end of the

project, it is also very useful for the in-house project team to be
debriefed by the project manager. This should include a review of
what worked well in the relationship with the consultant, was it
money well spent, does the report really answer the questions,
what might they do differently next time, what problems emerged,
and how this could be overcome. It is also important to inform in-
house staff what will happen next, and what if any aspects of the
report's recommendations will likely be put into action.

DON'T:
X Don't attempt to rewrite the draft report. Submitting the draft
report to the client is meant to provide them with the opportunity
224 ¢ THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

to comment on the proposals. It should not be used as an

opportunity to change ideas, or seek to answer a new problem.
However, it is valid to ask consultants to indicate other issues
which have come to light, where further work may be required and
how this might be addressed (of course they will probably do this
anyway as a precursor to future contracts with the client).

FINAL POINT
Making the most of professional consultants often boils down to the
experience and knowledge of individuals who readily apply the points dis-
cussed in this chapter. Some consulting projects seek specific solutions to
poorly defined problems and this is often the root cause of many a poor
project outcome. Good consultants value repeat work. They are well
aware that this will only happen, however, where the projects they under-
take are seen by their clients as meeting their needs, of high quality and
completed on time. If destinations respond positively to the do’s and
don’ts discussed here then they should be much better placed to achieve a
successful project outcome, within budget and on time.

Good luck!
 ° 225

REFERENCES
Blank, U. (1989) The Community Tourism Industry Imperative: the necessity,
the opportunities, its potential. State College, PA: Venture Publishing.
Economist Intelligence Unit (1992) The Tourism Industry and the
Environment. Special Report No. 2453, London: Business International Limited.
Edgell, D.L. (1990) International Tourism Policy. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Getz, D. (1991) Festivals, Special Events and Tourism. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
Glasson, J., Godfrey, K. and Goodey, B. (1995) Towards Visitor Impact
Management. Aldershot: UK, Avebury.
Gunn, C. (1988) Tourism Planning (2nd edition). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Gunn, C. (1994) Tourism Planning: basics, concepts, cases (3rd edition). Bristol,
PA: Taylor & Francis.
Hughes, H.L. (1994), ‘Tourism multiplier studies: a more judicious approach’, Tourism
Management. Vol. 15, No. 6, pp 403-406.
Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Saunders, J. and Wang, V. (1999) Principles of
Marketing 2nd European Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Lane, B. (1989) Will rural tourism succeed? Conference on rural tourism
development, Bristol University, December 1989.
McDonald, M. (1995) Marketing plans. How to prepare them: how to use
them (3rd edition). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Maister, D.A. (1985) ‘The psychology of waiting lines’, in Czepiel, J.A. et al. (eds)
The service encounter. Lexington: Lexington Books, 113-123.
Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. (1982) Tourism: economic, physical and social
impacts. London: Longmann Group UK Limited.
Middleton, V.T.C. (1988) Marketing in travel and tourism. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Middleton, V.T.C. (1994a) Marketing in travel and tourism (2nd edition).
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Middleton, V.T.C. (1994b) ‘The tourist product’, in Witt, S.F. and Moutinho, L. (eds)
Tourism Marketing and Management Handbook (2nd edition). Hemel
Hempstead: Prentice Hall International.
Mill, R.C. and Morrison, A.M. (1985) The Tourism System: an introductory text.
London: Prentice-Hall International. ,
Nelson, J. G., Butler, R. and Wall, G. (eds) (1993) Tourism and Sustainable
Development: monitoring, planning, managing. Department of
Geography Publications Series No. 37, University of Waterloo, Canada. :
Norcliffe, J.G. (1982) Inferential Statistics for Geographers: an introduction.
London: Hutchinson & Co.
Oppenheim, A.N. (1966) Questionnaire and Attitude Measurement. London:
Heinemann.
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1985) ‘A conceptual model of
service quality and the implication for future research’. Journal of Marketing
(autumn), 141-150. ber
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L. (1988) ‘SERVQUAL: a multiple-item
scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality’. Journal of
Retailing, 64 (spring), 12-40. ; :
Poon, A. (1993) Tourism, technology and competitive strategies. Oxon: CAB
International. dare
Ritchie, J.R.B. and Goeldner, C.R. (1987) Travel, Tourism and Hospitality
Research: a handbook for managers and researchers. New York:
John Wiley & Sons. ‘ : :
Ryan, C. (1991) Recreational Tourism: a social science perspective. London:
Routledge.
226 © THE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK

Smith, S. (1989) Tourism Analysis. New York: Longmann Scientific & Technical.
Theobold, W. (ed) (1994) Global Tourism: the next decade. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Tull, D.S. and Hawkins, D.I. (1993) Marketing research. Measurement and
method (6th edition). London: Prentice-Hall.
Veal, A.J. (1997) Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: a practical
guide, (2nd edition). London: Pitman Publishing.
World Tourism Organization (1991) Tourism to the year 2000. Qualitative
aspects affecting global growth. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
World Tourism Organization (1996) What good tourism managers need to
know. Madrid: WTO.
World Tourism Organization (1997a) Shining in the media spotlight. Madrid:
WTO.
World Tourism Organization (1997b) Tourism 2020 vision executive summary.
Madrid: WTO.
World Tourism Organization (1998) Travel and Tourism Fairs. Madrid: WTO.
Zeithaml, V.A. and Bitner, M.J. (1996) Services marketing. London: McGraw-Hill.

NRT 7 Mn RANE

%
MH

-“FORD COLLEGE
F
0ad
i
rley
mAs]
#
4
VA14 5PQ 4
if
hepa hp kU tllSala A nar
re
syA
oll
 °¢ 227

INDEX
advertising see communications
AIDA see communications
annual marketing plan see marketing plan
Ansoff matrix 137
assets 107
authenticity 161-2, 168, 170, 173
change 3-4
economic 18-23; see also impacts
environmental 28-32, 41, 42; see also impacts
factors affecting 32-43
investment 35-6
length of stay 41-3
nature of destination 37-8
nature of facilities 36-7
ownership 34-5
point of origin 40-1
purpose of visit 43
socio-economic structure 33-8
tourist type 38-40
managing 4
socio-cultural 22-8, 41-2; see also impacts
communications
advertising 146, 149-51, 164
burst strategy 150
creative planning 150-1
drip strategy 150
media planning 149-50
AIDA 147
campaigns 146, 164, 168
direct marketing 101, 145, 155
formal/informal 146
mix 125, 146-7; see also marketing mix
monitoring see also research
control 156
destination records 156
evaluation 156; see also situation analysis
indicators 157
monitoring 156
productivity ratios 157
objectives 147-9
personal selling 153-4
print 145-6, 154-5, 168, 174
public relations 151-2
sales promotions 152-3
added value 152
discounting 152
strategies 149-55
target audience 146-7, 150
word-of-mouth 97, 102, 148, 155, 159, 176-7
community
co-operation 5-6
leadership 5
organization 5-6, 49; see a/so tourism association
228 ¢ INDEX

competitors 129, 159, 161-2, 165

analysis 89-91, 98-100, 129, 131, 154, 156, 165
differentiation 139, 148, 159-62; see also distinctive competencies
pricing 140
complaint management 163, 172, 176-7
consultants 14, 125, 128-30, 208-24
briefs 210-15
budgets 211, 212, 214, 220
commissioning 221-2
goals and objectives 211, 212, 214-15
project management 211, 216, 219, 222, 223
report submission 223-4
selection 217, 221, 215-16, 217, 218, 219-20, 221, 222
tendering 213, 215-17
time-frame 213, 215-16, 217, 222
co-operation 102, 130, 141-2, 144-5, 146, 157, 160, 162;
see also suppliers, tourist boards, travel trade
costs and benefits 5; see also change
maximizing/minimizing 43-8
economic measures 43-4
environmental measures 46-7
socio-cultural measures 45
customer care 7, 12-13, 159-79; see also total quality experience
demand 8-9, 14, 38-43; see also supply
market analysis 8-9
trends 89-90
demarketing 100, 104
destination
community vi, 2-4, 5
life-cycle see product
planning 2,5
destination planning vi-vii, 2, 5-6, 9, 14-15; see also development plan
development goals see strategic planning process
development objectives see strategic planning process
development plan 106-24; see also strategic planning process
direct marketing see communications
distinctive competencies 131, 139
distribution (place) see marketing mix
distributors 129
economic impacts see impacts; see also change
environmental impacts see impacts; see also change
financial assistance 208-9
four P’s see marketing mix
Gantt chart 140, 142, 145, 151, 156, 213
goals 9-10; see also strategic planning process
hospitality 7, 200; see a/so customer care; total quality experience
impacts 4-5, 13, 16-18, 32-3
built environment 28-30
diversification & regeneration 21-3
employment 19-20
income 20-1, 175
leakages 34
management 4
 INDEX ¢ 229

multiplier effect 17
natural environment 30-2
water quality 31-2
wildlife 32
quality of life 23-6, 54
sense of place 26-8
KFS (key factors for success) 131
length of stay 92-3, 148, 154, 159; see also change
marketing audit see situation analysis
marketing mix 11
communications (promotion) 11, 146-155
distribution (place) 11, 129-30, 143-5, 155, 169-70
price 11, 130, 140-3, 168
product 11, 138-40
innovation 162
life-cycle 138
lines 138
people 140-1, 162-3
physical detail 172-3
portfolio 138
satisfaction 139, 159-60, 166; see also customer care
marketing objectives 101-2, 130, 132-5, 137, 139, 143, 145, 147-9
marketing plan 10-11, 125-58
budget 156
contingency 133, 156
document 125, 130-2
mix 130, 135-7; see also marketing mix
process 125-58
strategic 125-7, 132, 134, 135-7
tactical/annual 125-7, 132, 134, 137
see also marketing objectives; marketing strategies
marketing research see research
marketing strategies 10-11, 135-7, 143-5, 149-51, 152, 162
market segmentation see segmentation
monitoring and evaluation 13-14, 101-2, 127, 130, 133, 139, 141-2, 144,
155-7, 159, 164-5, 167; see also questionnaire surveys; research
objectives 9-10; see a/so communications; marketing objectives; strategic
planning process
opinion leaders 96, 101-2, 147
personal selling see communications
PEST analysis 128
policy 54-7, 106, 112
portfolio analysis see marketing mix
positioning 129, 133, 135-7, 141, 147-8, 152, 154
price see marketing mix
primary research see questionnaire surveys; research
print see communications
product see marketing mix
promotion see communications
public relations see communications
qualitative research see research
quality 1,5, 8, 13; see also total quality experience
quantitative research see questionnaire surveys; research
230 © INDEX

questionnaire surveys see also research

closed questions 197, 200
checklists 198
Likert scales 198-9
opposites 197-8
paired comparisons 198
ranking 198
interviewer completed surveys 192
open-ended questions 196-7
postal surveys 193, 196
sampling 193-6
self-completion surveys 192
site surveys 193, 195
sources of bias/error 192, 194, 195, 196, 199
ambiguity 200-1
complication 201
filter questions 201
jargon 200
leading questions 202
multipurpose questions 199-200
personal questions 202
street surveys 192, 194
survey schedule 192
writing questions 202-3
repositioning see positioning
research
primary data 127, 157, 181
qualitative techniques 181, 183-91
focus groups 183-7
observation 188-9
personal interviews 187-8
projective techniques 189-91
quantitative techniques 181, 191-207; see also questionnaire surveys
confidence interval 205-6
data confidence 204-6
error 204; see also questionnaire surveys
statistical probability 204
secondary data 127, 157, 181-3
reservations/ booking systems 169-70; see also total quality experience
residents 54, 141, 146-7
resource audit 7-8, 65, 71-82, 107; see a/so resource inventory; resource
evaluation
resource evaluation 78-81, 88
appeal 80-1
quality 79
uniqueness 79-80
resource inventory 72-8
activities 75, 84
calendar of events 77, 88
cultural resources 74, 83
events 74-5, 84
natural resources 73, 83
services 76, 85
accommodation 76, 85
catering 76-7, 86
 INDEX ¢ 231

reception 77, 87
resource types 65-71
activities 66, 69-70
cultural 66, 67-8
events 66, 68-9
natural 66-7
principal 65
services 66, 70-1, 176
supporting 65
sales promotions see communications
satisfaction see total quality experience
secondary research see research
segmentation
benefits sought 95-6, 99
buyer roles 95
geodemographic tools 97-8, 155
personal variables 93, 96-8
portfolio 100-4, 135
process 91-9
segments 8-9, 11, 89-105, 128, 135, 162-3
trip variables 93-6
sense of place 6-7, 79-80
situation analysis 127-31; see also resource audits
internal 130-1
macro level 127-8
micro level 128-30
socio-cultural impacts see impacts; see also change
souvenirs 174-5
statistical probability see research; see a/so questionnaire surveys
strategic gap analysis 137
strategic marketing plan see marketing plan
strategic planning process 107-24
development constraints 107-12
development opportunities 107-12
key visitor markets see target markets
monitoring 108
priority ranking 110-12, 119-21
reality check 119
setting goals and objectives 112-21
actions steps 10, 113, 121-24
development goals 9-10, 112-15
development objectives 9-10, 113, 115-21
suppliers 129, 133, 175
supply 7-9, 14, 33-8; see also demand
surveys see questionnaire surveys; see also research
sustainability 1, 3, 5, 18, 32, 47-8, 57, 62
SWOT analysis 131-2
tactical marketing plan see marketing plan
target markets 107, 135; see also segmentation
total quality experience 159-79
blueprint 166
greeting 171
handicrafts 174-5
impressions 170-1
information provision 173
232 © INDEX

(total quality experience contd)

leisure shopping 175
personal skills 176
letter writing 169
reservations/booking 170
telephone 169
welcoming 171
physical clues 140, 168, 172
quality 161, 163, 165
quality gaps 163-4
queuing/waiting 171-2
repeat visitors 94, 159
satisfaction 159-60, 166
standards
hard 164, 177
soft 165, 175
tourist focus 160, 162, 164
tourism association 49-52
co-ordination and leadership 49, 51-4
hospitality sub-committee 59-60; see a/so total quality experience
local government role 50
marketing sub-committee 58-9; see also communications; marketing mix;
segmentation; marketing plan
model structure (Fig 3.1) 52
monitoring function 61; see also research
private sector role 50
research sub-committee 60-1; see a/so consultants; research
resident participation 54
tourism multipliers see impacts
tourism policy 54-7, 106, 112
tourism resources see resource types
tourist boards 98, 104, 129, 143
tourist types 129; see also segmentation
business 42, 91-2, 95
day visitors 42, 91-2
domestic 91, 103
independent 91, 93, 95
international 91, 93
leisure 91-2
mass tourists 39
package 91, 93, 68
short-break visitors 42
VER (visiting friends and relatives) 42, 91-2, 141
training 140, 175-6
travel trade 93, 129, 143-5, 153
USP (unique selling point) see distinctive competencies
VFR (visiting friends and relatives) see tourist types
visitor surveys see questionnaire surveys
word-of-mouth recommendations see communications
 MAIO i i % /
OUI

AAA
#937109

EIA
AIS
quO2svui
S1)e)
peo.
A281Gh7

OBA ASS.
Vv
MAM

Ae
gt
Mmmm

35 HERR
TEOUE out

MMmMOpPoTftl
8 SWAA
W
Sassi
TA us)

AE AR
zl
Z
ase

tie
=);

ay
ls
IIE
S
BE

if ee
Orr
IVE
he

lala

ser

i
Jzizi=
ACKE
WeAAeepee

Tt
SASS

See

sare

262
y
ra~
 The Tour}
Development eraeoan
KERRY *GODFREY AND JACKIE CLARKE

The Tourism Development Handbook is a ‘hands-on’ text for those

interested in the planning and marketing of local and regional
tourism destinations. The book offers more than traditional theory-
orientated tourism texts, by discussing practical steps that will help
to plan and market tourism more effectively in destination areas.
Written in clear English, with a minimum of jargon, the ,activities
described within the book are relevant to most destinations — either
those that are just beginning to develop tourism, or those that are
seeking to enhance their local tourism product.
The authors begin by offering a concise account of the changing
nature of tourism and its impacts, and then proceed to explain
aspects of planning and_marketing that are designed to get:the best
out of tourism without destroying the destination. Key elements of
italmsofole) alate:
10(e{- pmo)gel-1alr-4-) ((olam-laleme(=\"/-1(0) ¢)anl-lalme)®) (111) clos-aspects
of supply and demand; marketing; customer care; and fitevalivevatare]
and evaluation. ie
Individual planners, marketers and decision-makers in both the
fel] 0)fome=Talo Wmola\YZ-1(- M-y-Ye1Co)e-MAN7| M(Tale Mm(aY=¥M Lote) QEc=vix=iallaleliY] “Straight-
forward, addressing key issues in tourism destination development.
Concise and readable, it is also a valuable text for students | tourism
fo)F-Talaliave i=laremantelac-atlalep s

Those responsible for planning, developing and managing tourism

destinations, and who read and follow the advice set out so simply
in these pages, should be well on the way to a successful and
sustainable future. —
Stephen Mills, MA, FCA, FTS
Former Deputy Director, English Tourist Board

ISBN 0-8264-5337- 6

9 80826°45337