Written

Language I
Handbook
 INDEX
★​ WORDS AND WORD CLASSES

★​ TYPES OF SENTENCES

★​ THE VERB PHRASE

★​ THE NOUN PHRASE

★​ PRONOUNS & NOUN DETERMINERS

★​ SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

★​ ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS

★​ CLAUSE ELEMENTS

★​ PHRASES

★​ REFERENCES
Words
&
Words
classes
Introduction

Grammar is the system that organizes words and phrases to create meaningful
sentences. Before analyzing grammar, we need to understand grammatical units—the
building blocks of language.

Hierarchy of Grammatical Units:

1.​ Morpheme – The smallest unit of meaning (e.g., re- in rewrite).

2.​ Word – Made up of one or more morphemes (e.g., teacher).
3.​ Phrase – A group of words working together (e.g., the tall building).
4.​ Clause – A group of phrases containing a subject and a verb (e.g., Liam finished his
assignment).
5.​ Sentence – One or more clauses expressing a complete thought (e.g., Liam finished
his assignment, and he submitted it on time).

Key Areas of Grammar:

●​ Morphology – Studies morphemes and word structure.

●​ Syntax – Focuses on sentence structure (how words and phrases form clauses and
sentences).
●​ Discourse – Examines how sentences combine in speech or writing.

How We Describe Grammatical Units:

1.​ Structure – How they are formed (e.g., phrases have a head word and modifiers,
such as the delicious cake where cake is the head).
2.​ Syntactic Role – Their function in a sentence (e.g., Olivia is the subject in Olivia
baked a cake).
3.​ Meaning – What they express (e.g., adverbs describe time, place, or manner, like
quietly in She spoke quietly).
4.​ Use in Discourse – How they appear in conversation or writing (e.g., pronouns like
he and they refer back to earlier words, as in Did Mia call? Yes, she left a message).

Three major families of words

Words can be grouped into three main categories based on their function and
grammatical behavior: lexical words, function words, and inserts.

1. Lexical Words (Content Words)

These words carry the main meaning in speech or writing. They belong to open classes,
meaning new words can be added over time.

●​ Types: Nouns (apple), lexical verbs (jump), adjectives (beautiful), and adverbs
(quickly).
●​ Structure: They can have multiple parts, e.g., unhappiness = un- + happy + -ness.
 ●​ Key Role: They are often the main words in phrases, such as the solution to the
problem (where solution is the head of the noun phrase).
●​ Speech & Writing:
○​ Stressed more in speech.
○​ Often remain in compressed newspaper headlines (e.g., Economy crisis
deepens).

2. Function Words (Grammar Words)

These words show relationships between lexical words and help create grammatical
structure. They belong to closed classes, meaning new words are rarely added.

●​ Types:
○​ Prepositions (on, in, under).
○​ Coordinators (and, but, or).
○​ Auxiliary verbs (is, has, can).
○​ Pronouns (he, she, they).
●​ Function: They help us understand how words connect (e.g., She is going to the
store—"is" and to structure the sentence).

3. Inserts (Spoken Expressions)

Used mainly in spoken language, inserts do not fit into regular sentence structure but
add emotion or interaction cues.

●​ Examples:
○​ Express emotions: Oh! Wow! Ugh!
○​ Show agreement or response: Yeah, no, okay.
○​ Conversational markers: Well, anyway, cheers!
●​ Speech & Writing:
○​ Often set off by pauses or punctuation (e.g., Well, I guess you're right).
○​ May have unique pronunciation (hm, uh-huh)
 Types of Sentences: Simple, Compound, and Complex

1. Simple Sentences

Definition

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. It has a subject and a verb and
expresses a complete thought.

Structure

●​ Subject + Verb (+ Object/Complement)

Key Features

●​ Contains only one independent clause.

●​ No dependent (subordinate) clauses.
●​ Can include compound subjects or compound verbs, but still remains a simple
sentence.

Examples

●​ She runs every morning. (One subject, one verb)

●​ Tom and Jerry play in the garden. (Compound subject, but still one clause)
●​ They study and work hard. (Compound verb, still one clause)
●​ The sun rises in the east. (One complete thought)

2. Compound Sentences

Definition

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a

coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a conjunctive adverb.

Structure

●​ Independent Clause + Coordinating Conjunction + Independent Clause

●​ Independent Clause + Semicolon (;) + Independent Clause
●​ Independent Clause + Semicolon + Conjunctive Adverb + Comma + Independent
Clause

Coordinating Conjunctions (Acronym to remember them: FANBOYS)

●​ For
●​ And
●​ Nor
●​ But
●​ Or
●​ Yet
●​ So
Key Features

●​ Each clause can stand alone as a complete sentence.

●​ Sentences are joined to create a smooth connection between ideas.

Examples

●​ I wanted to play soccer, but it started to rain. (Two independent clauses, joined by
"but")
●​ She enjoys reading; he prefers watching movies. (Two independent clauses,
joined by a semicolon)
●​ He was late; therefore, he missed the meeting. (Semicolon + Conjunctive adverb
+ Comma)

➔​ Avoid comma splices (incorrectly joining two independent clauses with a comma
alone).

Example of a Comma Splice (Incorrect)

I love pizza, I eat it every weekend.

In this sentence, both "I love pizza" and "I eat it every weekend" are independent clauses
(complete thoughts), but they are incorrectly joined by only a comma.

Ways to Fix a Comma Splice

1. Use a Coordinating Conjunction (FANBOYS)

✔ I love pizza, and I eat it every weekend.

2. Use a Semicolon (;)

✔ I love pizza; I eat it every weekend.

3. Use a Period (Separate into Two Sentences)

✔ I love pizza. I eat it every weekend.

4. Use a Conjunctive Adverb with a Semicolon and Comma

✔ I love pizza; therefore, I eat it every weekend.

3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent
(subordinate) clauses. A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence
(examples: Because it was raining. Although she was tired. Since she had a meeting).

Structure

●​ Independent Clause + Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent Clause

●​ Dependent Clause + Comma + Independent Clause

Subordinating Conjunctions

Common subordinating conjunctions that introduce dependent clauses:

●​ Time: after, before, once, since, until, when, while

●​ Cause/Reason: because, since, as
●​ Condition: if, unless, provided that
●​ Contrast: although, though, even though, whereas
●​ Purpose: so that, in order that

Key Features

●​ Includes at least one dependent clause.

●​ The dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence.
●​ If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma. If the independent clause
comes first, no comma is needed.

Examples

●​ Because she was tired, she went to bed early. (Dependent clause first, comma used)
●​ She went to bed early because she was tired. (Independent clause first, no
comma)
●​ Although it was raining, they continued playing. (Dependent clause first,
comma used)
●​ They continued playing although it was raining. (Independent clause first, no
comma)

Summary

Type Definition Example

Simple One independent clause She reads books.

Compound Two or more independent I was tired, so I went to sleep.

clauses

Complex One independent clause + One Because she was late, she missed
or more dependent clauses the bus.
The verb
phrase
THE VERB PHRASE
Overview
1. Classification of verbs in English
2. BE-DO-HAVE as primary auxiliary verbs and lexical verbs
3. Modal auxiliary verbs
4. Formation of tag questions
5. Finite and non-finite forms of the verbs in English
6. Verbal categories
7. Lexical aspect of verbs: Stative vs. Dynamic Verbs
8. Verb tenses
9. Passive voice
10.Conditionals
11. Reported Speech
 1.​ Classification of verbs in English

Verbs can be grouped into three major classes according to their ability to function as main verbs
or auxiliary verbs:
Lexical verbs (e.g. run, eat, think) function only as main verbs.
Primary verbs (be, have, and do) can function as both auxiliary and main verbs.
Modal verbs (can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must) function only as auxiliary
verbs.
Lexical verbs (sometimes called 'full verbs') are used only as main verbs.
Children and dogs ran from side to side.
He barely ate or slept that night.
The class of lexical verbs is an open class, which means that the English language is always
adding new lexical verbs.

There are only three primary verbs: be, have, and do, the most common verbs in English. These
verbs form a separate class because they can be used either as a main verb or as an auxiliary verb.
For example, compare the following uses of each primary verb:
primary verbs-main verb function:
He does my washing.
His dad was an art professor.
Every atom has a dense nucleus.

primary verbs-auxiliary verb function (with main verb underlined):

He doesn't look at the numbers
He was wearing a dark ski mask
A particular combination of results has occurred.

Finally, modal verbs are used only as auxiliary verbs. In the following examples the main verb is
again underlined:
People thought he might have been joking
He would probably like it softer.

There is a group of verbs that are considered “semi modals” because they share some of the
features of modal auxiliaries and lexical verbs. We can mention, for example, “be going to”, “have
to”, “be about to”, among others.
 2.​ BE-DO- HAVE as primary auxiliary verbs and lexical verbs

a)​ BE
Main verb be
As a main verb, be -the linking- is the most important linking (or copular) verb in English.
It links the subject noun phrase with a subject predicative or an obligatory adverbial :
Radio waves are useful.
She was in Olie's room a lot.
Auxiliary verb be
As an auxiliary verb, be has two distinct grammatical functions:
●​ progressive aspect (be + ing-participle):
The last light was fading by the time he entered the town.
●​ Passive voice (be + ed-participle):
This system of intergovernmental transfers is called fiscal federalism.
These two auxiliary uses of be can occur together in the same clause (the progressive passive)
A mutual investment fund for Eastern Europe is being launched today with the backing of
Continental Grain.
b)​ HAVE
Main verb have
Similar to get, the main verb have can be used with many different meanings. For example:

●​ Showing physical possession:

One in three of these families has two cars.
●​ Telling family connections:
Her story was this: she had a husband and child.
●​ Describing eating or drinking:
The kids had 'superhero sundaes' which turned out to be merely ice cream.
●​ Showing where something exists (similar to an existential there construction):
But it really would be nice to have a young person about the house again.
●​ Linking a person to an abstract quality:
I hope she has fun.
Her visitor had a strong pungent odor of a winter's day.
●​ Linking an inanimate subject to an abstract quality:
Stylistics can have other goals than this.
In these extensions soil science will always have a major role.
●​ Showing that someone causes something to be done:
Maybe you should have it dyed black as well.
●​ In addition, the verb have occurs as part of the semi-modal have to (meaning must):
I'll have to blank it out.
●​ Finally, have occurs in a number of idiomatic multi-word phrases, such as have a look:
I'll have a look.

Auxiliary verb have

As an auxiliary verb, have is the marker of perfect aspect. Past tense had marks past perfect, and
present has/have marks present perfect:
Twenty years before, Charlie had passed a whole day from rising to retiring without a drink.
No one has ever seen anything like that before.
 c)​ DO
Main verb do

The verb do can act as a main verb, meaning "to perform an activity." It can take:

●​ A direct object: Franklin Field did a wonderful thing.

●​ An indirect + direct object: Will you do me a favor?

However, do is often used in fixed expressions like:

●​ Do the job (complete a task)

●​ Do the dishes (wash them)
●​ Do time (go to prison)
●​ Do some work (work)
●​ Do your hair (style your hair)

For example:

●​ It does the job.

●​ I do the dishes every day.

In these cases, do doesn’t describe a specific action but refers to performing the activity related to
the noun.

DO as a Transitive Pro-verb

The verb do can replace another verb in a sentence, acting as a pro-verb. This is common in
conversation, especially with words like it, this, that, or so:

●​ I didn’t do it. (do it = commit an action)

●​ She was upset, but I don’t know why he did that. (did that = made her upset)
●​ The dog knocked over the table. The cat had done this before too. (done this = knocked
over the table)
●​ He faced many challenges and did so with determination. (did so = faced challenges)

DO as an Intransitive Pro-verb

In British English, do can replace a verb after an auxiliary verb:

●​ A: He should apologize.​
B: He should have done, but he won’t. (done = apologized)

However, people often prefer to leave out do entirely (He should have).

Auxiliary verb do

Do-support in interrogatives and negatives

Do functions as an auxiliary verb when lexical main verbs are made negative or used in
interrogatives. For example:
negative: He doesn't smoke or drink.
yes/no interrogative: Do you like scallops?
wh-interrogative: So what did you bring for us this time?
This use of do is known as do-support, because do is added merely to support the construction of
the negative or interrogative. The do does not contribute any independent meaning. In these
constructions, present or past tense is marked on the verb do, not on the main verb.

Emphatic do

The auxiliary verb do is used for emphasis in positive statements, often to contrast with
expectations. In speech, do is usually stressed.

Examples:

●​ I did bring my keys, but I lost them on the way.

●​ I really did call you, but you didn’t answer.
●​ Despite the challenges, she did complete the project on time.
●​ He does know how to swim, even though he avoids the water.

Rules and Usage:

●​ Emphatic "do" cannot be used with another auxiliary. (Incorrect: She does might come.)
●​ Often appears with contrast words like but, however, nevertheless, or though:
○​ Technology does advance quickly, despite what some believe.

Special Use in Commands & Invitations:

In imperatives, do adds urgency or politeness:

●​ Oh, do stop complaining!

●​ Do visit us when you’re in town!
●​ Do focus on your work, Leo.
●​ I do urge you to reconsider.

"DO" with "BE" in Imperatives:

Normally, be doesn’t take do, but it can in commands:

●​ Do be patient!
●​ Do be quiet, please.

Auxiliary do as a pro-verb

Like main verb do, auxiliary do can act as a pro-verb, standing in for the whole verb phrase +
complement. It is used in both positive and negative clauses:
A: He doesn't even know you.
B: He does! does = does know me
I think his mom wants him to come back but his dad doesn't.
In these examples, do can be considered a stranded operator. That is, do, as the empty auxiliary, is
left 'stranded' without the main verb which normally follows an auxiliary. The rest of the clause, as
with other auxiliaries, is missing through ellipsis.
3. MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS.

There are nine central modal verbs in English: can, could, may, might, must, should, will, would,
and shall.
Modals have several distinctive characteristics:
●​ They act as an auxiliary verb in verb phrases (e.g. I can go).
●​ They do not take inflections to show agreement or tense (e.g. I can go, He/she/ it can go). That
is, the form does not vary (e.g. not *He cans go).
●​ They precede the negative particle in not negation (e.g. I cannot go).
●​ They precede the subject in yes-no questions (e.g. Can you go?).
●​ They take a bare infinitive verb as the main verb in the verb phrase (e.g. He can go, not *He can
to go or *He can goes or *He can went).
●​ They express stance meanings, related to possibility, necessity, obligation, etc.

SEMI-MODALS

Semi-modals are multi- word constructions that function like modal verbs: (had) better, have to,
(have) got to, ought to, be supposed to, be going to, used to.

Semi-modals express meanings that can usually be paraphrased with a central modal verb. For
example:
I have to read it again. -paraphrase: I must read it again-
Mosquitoes aren't supposed to be inside here. -paraphrase: Mosquitoes should not be
inside here-

In addition, some semi-modals are fixed expressions, which cannot be inflected for tense or
person. However, some of the semi-modals, like have to and be going to, can be marked for tense
and person:
past tense:
He had to call the police.
third-person agreement:
Maybe she has to grow up a bit more.
These semi-modals can sometimes co-occur with a central modal verb or another semi-modal,
underlined in the examples:
co-occurrence with a modal:
I might have to tell him.
co-occurrence with another semi-modal:
I think the teachers are gonna have to be there.

There are also some lexical verbs and adjectives that have meanings similar to modal auxiliaries,
in that they express stance meanings, but they are neither idiomatic nor fixed expressions. Rather,
these verbs and adjectives express their core lexical meanings of desire, obligation, possibility, etc.
Examples are: need to, dare to, want to, be able to, be obliged to, be likely to, be willing to, etc.

Can

●​ Functions: Ability, permission, possibility, informal requests

●​ Examples:
○​ Ability: She can play the piano very well.
○​ Permission: Can I leave early today?
 ○​ Possibility: It can get really cold in winter.
○​ Informal Request: Can you help me with my homework?

Could

●​ Functions: Past ability, polite requests, possibility, suggestions

●​ Examples:
○​ Past Ability: When I was younger, I could run 10 miles without stopping.
○​ Polite Request: Could you pass me the salt?
○​ Possibility: It could rain later, so take an umbrella.
○​ Suggestion: You could try calling her again.

May

●​ Functions: Formal permission, possibility, polite requests

●​ Examples:
○​ Formal Permission: You may leave now.
○​ Possibility: It may snow tomorrow.
○​ Polite Request: May I use your phone?

Might

●​ Functions: Possibility (weaker than “may”), suggestions

●​ Examples:
○​ Possibility: He might be late because of the traffic.
○​ Suggestion: You might want to check your email.

Shall

●​ Functions: Future intention (formal), offers, suggestions

●​ Examples:
○​ Future Intention: I shall return by noon.
○​ Offer: Shall I carry your bag for you?
○​ Suggestion: Shall we go for a walk?

*Should

●​ Functions: Advice, expectation, obligation, deduction.

●​ Examples:
○​ Advice: You should eat more vegetables.
○​ Expectation: The train should arrive soon.
○​ Obligation (Weaker than "must"): You should apologize to her.
○​ Deduction:: They should be home by now.

Must

●​ Functions: Strong obligation, prohibition (negative form), certainty/deduction

●​ Examples:
○​ Obligation: You must wear a seatbelt in the car.
○​ Prohibition: You must not touch that; it’s dangerous!
○​ Certainty/deduction: She must be at work because her car is outside.
Will

●​ Functions: Future predictions, willingness, promises, strong certainty

●​ Examples:
○​ Future Prediction: It will rain tomorrow.
○​ Willingness: I will help you move next week.
○​ Promise: I will always love you.
○​ Strong Certainty: She will definitely pass the exam.

Would

●​ Functions: Polite requests, hypothetical situations, past habits

●​ Examples:
○​ Polite Request: Would you mind closing the window?
○​ Hypothetical Situation: I would travel the world if I had more money.
○​ Past Habit: When I was young, my grandfather would tell me stories.

*Ought to

●​ Functions: Advice, moral obligation, expectation

●​ Examples:
○​ Advice: You ought to see a doctor.
○​ Moral Obligation: We ought to help those in need.
○​ Expectation: She ought to be home by now.

Need to

●​ Functions: Necessity, obligation

●​ Examples:
○​ Necessity: You need to finish your homework before dinner.
○​ Obligation: She needs to be more careful with her spending.

Have to

●​ Functions: External obligation, necessity

●​ Examples:
○​ Obligation: I have to wake up early for work.
○​ Necessity: He has to wear a uniform at school.

Difference Between "Must" and "Have to":

●​ "Must" = Internal or strong obligation (personal choice or rule)

●​ "Have to" = External obligation (a rule imposed by someone else)
○​ E.g., I must exercise more (personal obligation) vs. I have to pay my taxes (legal
obligation).

Be able to

●​ Functions: Ability (alternative to "can" in different tenses)

●​ Examples:
○​ Present Ability: She is able to speak five languages.
○​ Past Ability: I was able to finish the project on time.
 ○​ Future Ability: They will be able to attend the meeting next week.

Be supposed to

●​ Functions: Expectation, obligation, assumption

●​ Examples:
○​ Expectation: You are supposed to be here at 8 AM.
○​ Obligation: He is supposed to submit the report by Friday.
○​ Assumption: It’s supposed to rain later.

Used to

●​ Functions: Past habits, past states

●​ Examples:
○​ Past Habit: I used to play soccer every weekend.
○​ Past State: She used to live in New York

*"Ought to" and "should" are very similar, but there are slight differences in formality, strength,
and usage.

Examples in Different Contexts

Advice (Both can be used)

●​ You should eat more vegetables. (Neutral)

●​ You ought to eat more vegetables. (A bit stronger)

Moral Obligation (Stronger with "ought to")

●​ You ought to respect your elders. (Moral duty)

●​ You should respect your elders. (Good advice, but not as strong)

Expectation / Probability (More common with "should")

●​ He should be home by now. (Likely, expected)

●​ He ought to be home by now. (Sounds slightly more formal)

Negation Differences

●​ You shouldn’t lie. (Common)

●​ You ought not to lie. (Very formal and rarely used)

Quick Trick to Remember

●​ Use "should" for everyday advice or expectations.

●​ Use "ought to" when referring to a moral duty or something that is strongly expected.
4. Formation of tag questions

Question tags are short questions added to the end of a statement to confirm or check
information.

Structure of Question Tags

🔹 Basic Rule: Opposite Auxiliary Verb

A question tag usually consists of:

1.​ An auxiliary or modal verb (matching the main verb in the statement)
2.​ A subject pronoun
3.​ Positive statement → Negative tag / Negative statement → Positive tag

Examples:

●​ He is a doctor, isn’t he? (Positive → Negative)

●​ She isn’t ready, is she? (Negative → Positive)
●​ You can swim, can’t you? (Positive → Negative)

If the Sentence Has an Auxiliary Verb → Use It in the Tag

If the statement includes an auxiliary verb (be, have, do, modals like can, will, must, etc.),
repeat it in the tag.

Examples:

●​ She is your friend, isn’t she?

●​ They have finished, haven’t they?
●​ You will help me, won’t you?
●​ He must be tired, mustn’t he?

If There’s No Auxiliary Verb → Use "do" in the Tag

If the main verb is in simple present or simple past without an auxiliary, use do/does (present)
or did (past).

Examples:

●​ She likes ice cream, doesn’t she?

●​ They went to the park, didn’t they?
●​ You know him, don’t you?

Special Cases with "I" → Use "aren’t I?" Instead of "amn’t I?"

The verb "to be" in the first-person singular present ("I am") takes an irregular tag: "aren’t I?"
instead of "amn’t I?" (which is not standard English).

Examples:

●​ I am late, aren’t I?
●​ I am your best friend, aren’t I?
 With Imperatives (Commands & Requests) → Use "will you?", "won’t you?", or "can you?"

If the sentence is an imperative (giving an order or making a request), use:

●​ "will you?" (Neutral)

●​ "won’t you?" (Encouraging/persuading)
●​ "can/could you?" (Polite)

Examples:

●​ Pass me the salt, will you? (Neutral)

●​ Be quiet, won’t you? (Encouraging)
●​ Help me with this, can you? (Polite)

With "Let's" Sentences → Use "shall we?"

When the sentence starts with "Let's", the correct tag is "shall we?"

Examples:

●​ Let’s go to the beach, shall we?

●​ Let’s take a break, shall we?

With "Nothing, Nobody, No One, None" → Use a Positive Tag

If the sentence contains a negative idea (even without "not"), the tag should be positive.

Examples:

●​ Nothing is wrong, is it?

●​ Nobody called, did they?
●​ None of them knew the answer, did they?

With "Few, Little, Hardly, Rarely, Seldom, Scarcely, Barely" → Use a Positive Tag

These words already have a negative meaning, so the tag should be positive.

Examples:

●​ Few people understand quantum physics, do they?

●​ She hardly eats fast food, does she?
●​ They rarely go out, do they?

With "Used to" → Use "didn't" in the Tag

Since "used to" acts like a past simple verb, use "did" in the tag.

Examples:

●​ He used to smoke, didn’t he?

●​ She used to live here, didn’t she?

With "There is/are/was/were" → Repeat "there" in the Tag

If the statement starts with "there", use "there" in the tag.

Examples:

●​ There is a problem, isn’t there?

●​ There were many people at the event, weren’t there?

With "I Think / I Suppose / I Believe" → Tag the Main Clause

When the sentence starts with "I think," "I believe," or "I suppose," the question tag applies to
the clause after it.

Examples:

●​ I think she’s right, isn’t she?

●​ I suppose they will come, won’t they?

BUT: If "I think" is negative, the tag matches "I think" itself:

●​ I don’t think she is right, is she?

●​ I don’t suppose they will come, will they?
5. Finite and non-finite forms of the verbs in English

English verbs can be divided into two main types:

1.​ Finite verbs – Show tense, number, and person.

2.​ Non-finite verbs – Do NOT show tense, number, or person.

🔹 Finite verbs are main verbs that act as the core of a sentence. They change based on tense,
subject, and number.

Base Form (Bare Infinitive in Finite Use)

The base form of a verb (also called the bare infinitive) is the simplest form of the verb, without
"to." It acts as a finite verb in:

Imperatives (Commands)​
Present Simple (With "I," "You," "We," "They")​
After Modal Verbs

Examples:

●​ Come here now! (Imperative)

●​ They play soccer every weekend. (Present simple, subject = "they")
●​ You write very well. (Present simple, subject = "you")
●​ She can sing beautifully. (After modal verb "can")

Present Forms

These are finite verbs that show present tense and agree with the subject.

First-person and second-person subjects use the base form.​

Third-person singular (he, she, it) takes an -s or -es ending.

Examples:

●​ I walk to school. (1st person singular)

●​ You study English. (2nd person)
●​ She likes chocolate. (3rd person singular → "-s" added)
●​ He watches TV every night. (Verb ending in "ch" → "-es" added)

Exceptions:

●​ Be changes irregularly → I am, You/We/They are, He/She/It is

Past Forms

These are finite verbs that show past tense.

Regular verbs → Add "-ed" in the past.​

Irregular verbs → Change in various ways.

Examples:
 ●​ She walked to school. (Regular verb)
●​ They played soccer. (Regular verb)
●​ He went to the park. (Irregular verb → "go" changes to "went")
●​ We saw a movie. (Irregular verb → "see" changes to "saw")

Past of "be":

●​ I/He/She/It was
●​ You/We/They were

Types of Non-Finite Verbs

Infinitives ("to" + base form of verb)

Can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.​

Examples:

●​ I want to sleep. (Noun)

●​ She has a book to read. (Adjective)
●​ He left to catch the bus. (Adverb)

Gerunds (Verb + -ing, Used as a Noun)

Acts as a noun (subject or object of a sentence).​

Examples:

●​ Swimming is my favorite sport. (Subject)

●​ She enjoys reading novels. (Object)
●​ He is good at writing poetry. (Object of a preposition)

Difference Between Gerund & Present Participle:

●​ Gerund: I like reading. (Used as a noun)

●​ Participle: She is reading a book. (Used as a verb)

Participles (Used as Adjectives or to Form Verb Tenses)

a) Present Participle (-ing form)

Used in continuous tenses or as an adjective or adverb.​

Examples:

●​ She is singing beautifully. (Part of a verb tense – present continuous)

●​ The running water is cold. (Adjective)
●​ While going away, I heard someone screaming. (head of an adverbial clause of time)

b) Past Participle (-ed, -en, -t, etc.)

Used in perfect tenses or as an adjective.​

Examples:

●​ They have finished their work. (Present perfect)

●​ The broken window needs fixing. (Adjective)
Irregular Past Participles:

●​ Eat → eaten (I have eaten lunch.)

●​ Write → written (She has written a letter.)
●​ Go → gone (He has gone home.)

🔹 Non-finite verbs do NOT act as the main verb; they are often used as verbals (infinitives,
gerunds, or participles).
6. Verbal categories

A finite verb has four verbal categories: tense, mood, voice and aspect.

Tense.
Tense is the grammatical category that expresses time using verb forms. In English, there are two
main tenses: present tense and past tense. English does not have a special verb form for the
future tense. Thus, future meaning can be shown using different forms like the present
progressive, present simple, present perfect, and the word "will." This means the same tense can
refer to different times.
Present Tense: He reads a book every evening.
Past Tense: They traveled to Brazil last summer.

Mood.
Mood in grammar refers to the way verbs express the speaker's attitude towards the action or
state described. Here are the three main moods in English:

1. Indicative Mood

●​ Definition: Expresses facts and reality.

●​ Examples:
○​ I love cooking.
○​ He had many cars.

2. Imperative Mood

●​ Definition: Expresses commands, orders, or requests.

●​ Examples:
○​ Don’t speak!
○​ Come here!
○​ Be careful!
○​ Do listen to me!
○​ Hold on a second, please.

3. Subjunctive Mood

●​ Definition: Expresses wishes, dreams, or hypothetical situations. It's less commonly used in
English compared to some other languages, like Spanish. Often found in formal contexts or
fixed expressions.
●​ Examples:
○​ God bless you.
○​ If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.

Voice
It can be active or passive voice.
The active is the most common, unmarked voice. Passive verb phrases are less common and used
for special discourse functions. They reduce the importance of the agent of an action and fulfill
other discourse functions. Most passive constructions are formed with the auxiliary be and an ed-
participle: The results of one experiment are given in Table 1.1.27.
However, passive verb phrases can also be formed with the auxiliary verb get, called the
get-passive: It's about these people who got left behind in Vietnam

Aspect
Aspect answers the question 'Is the event/state described by the verb completed, or is it
continuing?'. There are two aspects in English: perfect and progressive (sometimes known as
'continuous'). Verbs that do not have aspect marked on them are said to have simple aspect.

Example:

Sentence: They had been waiting for an Sentence: It is essential that the reports be
hour. submitted by Friday.

●​ Tense: Past Perfect Progressive ●​ Tense: Present Subjunctive

●​ Mood: Indicative ●​ Mood: Subjunctive
●​ Voice: Active ●​ Voice: Passive
●​ Aspect: Perfect Progressive ●​ Aspect: Simple

Sentence: Let the work be finished on time. Sentence: She wrote three essays this week.

●​ Tense: Present Passive ●​ Tense: Past Simple

●​ Mood: Imperative ●​ Mood: Indicative
●​ Voice: Passive ●​ Voice: Active
●​ Aspect: Simple ●​ Aspect: Simple
7. Lexical aspect of verbs: Stative vs. Dynamic Verbs

Stative Verbs (State Verbs)

🔹 Describe a state, condition, or feeling (not an action).​

🔹 Do not usually have a continuous (-ing) form because they do not show an action in progress
Stative verbs can be subdivided into five classes:

STATES OF BEING and HAVING: be, appear, seem, contain, depend, have (possess), belong, own,
resemble, apply.

INTELLECTUAL STATES: believe, disagree, know, realize, think, understand, remember, forget, see
(understand), expect (think).

STATES OF EMOTION (feelings) or ATTITUDE: love, hate, like, want, wish, prefer.

STATES OF BODILY SENSATION: Ache, hurt, itch, tickle.

STATES OF PERCEPTION (senses): feel, hear, see, smell, taste.

Dynamic Verbs (Action Verbs)

🔹 Describe an action, movement, or change.​

🔹 Can have a continuous (-ing) form because they show ongoing actions.
Some Verbs Can Be Both Stative & Dynamic

Some verbs change meaning depending on whether they describe a state or an action:

Verb Stative Meaning (No -ing) Dynamic Meaning (-ing possible)

Be He is rude. (Character trait) He is being rude. (Temporary

behavior)

Have She has a car. (Possession) She is having lunch. (Eating, activity)

Think I think it’s a good idea. (Opinion) I am thinking about moving.

(Considering)

See I see the problem. (Understand) I am seeing the doctor. (Visiting)

Taste This cake tastes great. She is tasting the soup. (Action of
(Permanent quality) tasting)

8. Verb tenses
 THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

Uses:

1. To refer to something happening at the moment of speaking.

E.g.: I can’t come to the phone. I’m feeding the dog.

2. To refer to something happening around the moment of speaking. It generally refers to

temporary situations or habits that take place over an extended period of time.
E.g.: I’m learning French. I’m practicing my pronunciation every day.

3. To refer to changing situation, states developing into other states. We use verbs that indicate
increase/decrease in the activity, usually with comparative adjectives and adverbs. (little and
little, more and more, etc.)
E.g.: The city is becoming more crowded every year. It's getting louder outside.

4. To show annoyance on the part of the speaker, especially when referring to habits that
upset him/her. In this case, the use of frequency adverbs is compulsory.
E.g.: He’s always complaining about his workload.

5. To refer to a series of momentary, short, continuous acts.

E.g.: The chef is chopping vegetables. I’m eating.

Future Time Reference

6. To refer to a previous arrangement. The use of adverbials is compulsory.
E.g.: Taylor Swift is performing on November 9th. at 7pm.

7. Future refusal.
E.g.: I’m not saying that!

THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Uses:

1. We use the present simple tense to talk about things that happen regularly or things that
are always true. This includes general truths, natural laws, facts about the world, and other
things that don’t change.
E.g.: The moon orbits the Earth.
If you freeze water, it becomes ice.
The Amazon River flows through the rainforest.

NOTE: The present simple tense is also used in proverbs, since they express truths that are
always valid and true.
E.g.: Actions speak louder than words.

2. To talk about actions that happen regularly or as habits.

E.g.: Lily always arrives early. / Tom rarely forgets his keys.

3. To talk about actions or situations that are permanent or don't change over time.
E.g.: Anna studies at the university. / Dogs enjoy playing in the park.

4. We use the present simple tense with performative verbs like "declare," "forgive,"
"curse," "bless," "promise," "swear," "agree," "apologize," and "deny." These verbs are used to
do something with the words we say. When we use them, the subject must be "I" or "we".

E.g.: I promise to help you. We apologize for the mistake. I swear I will be there on time

5. Instantaneous present
a. To report a series of actions that have little duration (For example, a game reported on the
radio or on TV)
E.g.: Messi sprints down the field with the ball. Mbappe races towards him...

b. We use it in demonstrations, like when a teacher, a cooking expert, or a magician shows

how something is done. It’s also used in stage directions to describe actions that happen in
real time.
E.g.: I crack an egg into the bowl and whisk it with the sugar...
The lights dim and a woman enters from stage left, carrying a suitcase.

6. With stative verbs.

E.g.: I’m a teacher. (I’m being a teacher today)
She is at the office right now.
I have two dogs

7. In exclamatory sentences with “here” and “there”:

E.g.: Here comes the sun! / There goes Sarah, smiling as if she won the lottery!

8. Past time reference:

a)​ The historic or dramatic present is used to make a story or statement feel more lively
and immediate. It’s often used in narratives (stories) or newspaper headlines to make
events feel like they’re happening right now.
E.g.: I was peacefully reading a book in the park when, out of nowhere, a bird swoops
down and snatches it from my hands!
 President Declares Emergency Measures for Flooding.
Earthquake Strikes the West Coast of Japan.

b)​ It is used instead of the Present Perfect (with verbs of communication: hear, bring,
send, tell, write, etc.)
E.g.:
I see you’re moving to a new city. (Instead of “I’ve seen”)
What makes you so happy today? (Instead of “has made”)
Father asks me to bring you this letter. (Instead of “has asked me”)

9. Future Time Reference.

a.​ To talk about actions that are part of a fixed schedule or timetable. This is a very clear
and definite statement about something that is planned or certain to happen.
E.g.: Do call me when you arrive! The meeting starts in 15 minutes!

b. Future of the Calendar: E.g.: Christmas falls on a Friday this year.

c. In Subordinate Adverbial Clauses of time or condition. After conjunctions such as when, as

soon as, before, after, as, while, if, etc., the simple present tense has future time reference.
We cannot use “will” or forms with “going to” after such conjunctions.
Eg. She will call you as soon as she finishes her meeting.
They’ll start the project when they receive the approval.

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

In general we can say that the present perfect tense relates the past and the present. We can
speak of Finished and Unfinished Uses of the Present Perfect.

Unfinished Use: This describes an action that started in the past and is still happening. It is
ongoing and not completed. We usually use "since" or "for" with this.

For example:

●​ She’s lived in Paris since 2010.

●​ They’ve been friends for twenty years

The key difference is when we use the simple past tense:

●​ She lived in Paris for ten years (which means the action is complete in the past).

"For" is used to talk about a period of time, while "since" refers to a specific starting point in the
past.

FINISHED USE:
a) This refers to actions that happened in the past, but we focus on their present results. The
action or event took place before, but the current consequences are what's important now. We
don’t mention exactly when the action happened; instead, we care about what’s happening as a
result of it.

For example:

●​ I’ve forgotten my keys, so I can’t get into the house.

●​ He can swim well because he’s trained for many years.
●​ We’ve moved to a new house. Now we don't need to rent anymore!
●​ Who has eaten all the cookies? There are none left, and I was going to have one!

Other adverbs or time expressions often used with the Finished Use of the Present Perfect
include: just, already, yet, never, ever, before, once, twice, several times.

b) The Present Perfect Tense is used when we care about the action itself, not when exactly it
happened.

For example:

●​ Have you ever visited Italy?

●​ I’ve read that book four times.

The present perfect is also used to talk about experiences that have happened once or more
times up until now.

For example:

●​ I’ve only been to Paris once.

●​ This is the first time I’ve heard that song.
●​ Sarah has lived in Italy.
●​ He has lived in Brazil, and now he’s living in Canada.
 ●​ They have traveled to Japan many times.
●​ I’ve already eaten lunch.

If the speaker wants to know the exact time something happened, they will use the simple past
tense.

For example:

A: Have you ever visited New York?​

B: Yes, I have.​
A: When did you go?​
B: In 2015/last year.

So, if we care about the specific time something happened, we use the simple past.

c) The present perfect can be used to talk about actions that were completed very recently.

For example:

●​ He has just had breakfast.

●​ They have just left.
●​ This game has recently become available on mobile devices.

We use "yet" in questions and negative sentences, while "already" is used in affirmative
sentences and questions.

For example:

●​ A: Have the kids gone to the fun-fair?

●​ B: No, they haven’t left yet.
●​ B: Yes, they’ve already left.

d) The present perfect tense can also be used to talk about actions that were completed during
a period of time that is still happening right now.

These periods are not finished yet, so they are partly in the past, partly in the present, and partly
in the future. We use time expressions like today, this morning, this week, this year, or this
term.

For example:

●​ I’ve visited three countries this year.

●​ She’s written two emails this morning.
●​ They’ve met a lot of people in the past few months.

These actions were completed during a time period that’s still ongoing.

e) The present perfect can also be used to talk about actions in the future. This happens mainly
in time clauses or conditional sentences.

For example:

●​ Don’t leave the table until everybody has finished!

●​ We’ll start at five if it has stopped raining.
In these cases, the present perfect focuses on the completion of the action, meaning the action
will be finished at some point in the future.
 THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

a. The present perfect progressive is used similarly to the present perfect. However, the main
difference is that it emphasizes the incompleteness of the action and/or how long the action
has been happening.

●​ Unfinished use: The action or activity started in the past, continues in the present, and
might continue into the future.​
Example: I’ve been working all day. (I started working in the past and I’m still working
now.)
●​ Finished use: The action happened in the past and is completed, but we focus on the fact
that it was an ongoing activity.​
Example: She’s been reading for two hours. (She finished reading, but the focus is on how
long she was reading.)

b. The present perfect progressive is used more often with verbs that describe a passive state
(things that happen to someone or something) rather than an active state. Examples of these
passive verbs include rest, sleep, and lie (down).

For example:

●​ Your books have lain on your bed for days!

●​ Your books have been lying on your bed for days!

The second sentence is preferred because it emphasizes the ongoing nature of the action.

c. The present perfect progressive can also be used with stative verbs (verbs that describe a
state or condition) to show that the action is incomplete or ongoing.

For example:

●​ I’ve been wanting to give up smoking for months.​

This shows that the desire to stop smoking started in the past and is still happening, but
the action isn’t finished yet.
 THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

The Simple Past Tense is used to describe past actions or states (such as facts, abilities, habits, or
permanent situations) that have no connection to the present. It is often accompanied by a time
expression indicating when the action took place. These time expressions can refer to:

a. A specific point in time

●​ My grandfather moved to Spain in 1950. (fact)

●​ The Second World War ended in 1945.
●​ Laura called me last night.
●​ I finished my homework two hours ago.

b. A period of time

●​ The Johnsons lived in Brazil for ten years.

●​ He worked as a journalist while he was in New York.
●​ Many castles were built during the Renaissance.

c. An implied or inferred time, understood from context

●​ I bought this painting in Rome. (It’s known that I visited Rome last summer.)
●​ Did you enjoy the concert? (The one you told me you were going to attend.)
●​ Cleopatra ruled Egypt for many years. (Everyone knows she was an ancient historical
figure.)

DIFFERENT USES OF THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE:

To state facts in the past

●​ I saw her last Monday.

●​ Einstein developed the theory of relativity.

To describe states in the past

●​ My dog was very energetic when he was a puppy.

To express ability in the past

●​ I swam across the lake when I was eight. (i.e., I was able to swim across the lake at that
age.)

To indicate past habits

●​ Grandma always baked cookies on Sundays.

●​ My uncle used to take us fishing every summer.

To refer to permanent situations in the past

●​ When she lived in Italy, she worked as a tour guide.

●​ He enjoyed painting landscapes.

To express hypothetical situations with present or future reference (unreal past)

●​ I wish I had more free time. (I don’t have it.)

 ●​ If it weren’t so cold, we would go outside. (But it is cold.)
●​ It’s time you studied harder.

To talk about the future from a past perspective

●​ She said she would call me after the meeting ended.

THE PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE

Uses:

1. To describe actions in progress at a specific moment in the past.

The past continuous is used to highlight the temporary nature of events or actions that were
happening at a particular time.

Examples:

●​ After driving all night, we were finally approaching the city at dawn.​
(Emphasizes the action as ongoing at that moment.)
●​ At 3 PM yesterday, she was still preparing for the meeting.

Comparison with the past simple:

●​ We finally approached the city at dawn. (Focuses on the event as a completed action.)
●​ She prepared for the meeting. (Indicates the whole action, from start to finish.)

2. To show an action that was happening when another event took place.​
One action was already in progress when something else occurred.

●​ My grandparents were building their house when the earthquake hit.

●​ The wind was blowing when we arrived at the beach.

3. To describe two actions happening at the same time in the past.

●​ While Emma was reading a book, her brother was playing video games.
●​ The chef was preparing dinner while the guests were chatting.

4. To set the scene or create an atmosphere at the beginning of a story.

●​ The city lights were flickering as the night grew darker.

5. To describe actions that were repeated for a certain period in the past.

●​ He was knocking on the window for ten minutes before someone noticed.

6. To talk about frequent, unplanned, or annoying actions in the past, often with adverbs like
"always" or "constantly."

●​ She was always forgetting her umbrella on rainy days.

●​ My neighbors were constantly arguing over small things.

7. To indicate repeated actions that happened for a limited time in the past but were not
permanent.

●​ That month, he was traveling to the office by train instead of driving.

●​ During the summer, they were staying at their beach house.

8. To talk about a plan or arrangement that had already been made in the past.

●​ She left early because she was meeting a friend for dinner.
THE PAST PERFECT TENSE

Uses:

a) Earlier Past

The Past Perfect is used to show which event happened first in a sequence. It moves the Present
Perfect or Simple Past further into the past. This is common in reported speech:

●​ Direct speech: "I’ve been waiting here for an hour!"

●​ Reported speech: He said he had been waiting there for an hour.

b) Resultative Past in the Past

This tense is also used when one past action has a visible result in another past situation.

●​ When I met her, she looked exhausted. She had worked all day. (Result: she looked
exhausted because of working all day.)

* Clarifying Sequence of Events

Sometimes, two sentences in the Simple Past imply consecutive events:

●​ I knocked on the door. It opened. (Implies that after I knocked, the door opened.)

However, the first action is not always before the second one. The Past Perfect helps avoid
ambiguity:

●​ I searched for my keys; they disappeared. (Unclear: did they disappear before or after I
searched?)
●​ My keys had disappeared when I searched for them. (Clarifies that they were already
gone before I started searching.)

d) Past Perfect with Time Adverbs

Words like "before" and "after" can make the Past Perfect optional:

●​ Before I arrived, she (had) left.

●​ I left after they (had) finished their meal.
THE PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Uses:

1) Ongoing Action at a Specific Time in the Past

The Past Perfect Continuous is used when an activity was still happening at a certain moment in
the past. This tense emphasizes the duration of the action.

●​ By the time we arrived at the concert, the band had already been playing for half an
hour.

2) Resultative Past in the Past

It also indicates a past action that led to a visible result in another past situation.

●​ When I met her, she looked exhausted. She had been studying all night. (Result: she
looked exhausted because she studied all night.)
EXPRESSING FUTURE TIME

Even though English doesn't have a specific verb form for the future, it still has ways to express
future actions or events. We can use words like will, can, or may (these are called modal verbs),
or phrases like be going to, be about to, be due to, and others. Plus, sometimes we use the
Simple Present or Present Progressive tenses to talk about the future, depending on the
situation.

1) Simple Future (Will/Shall + Infinitive)

The Simple Future is one of the most common ways to talk about the future. The modal will is
generally used, while shall is sometimes used in British English (mainly in formal contexts and
with the first-person singular and plural: I/we). In contractions, ’ll replaces will.

Main Uses of the Simple Future:

●​ Certainty about the future → One day, artificial intelligence will transform education.
●​ Predictions based on personal belief or expectation → I think Sarah will love the new
restaurant.
●​ Spontaneous decisions → A: We don’t have any milk. B: I’ll go and buy some now.
●​ Promises, threats, warnings, requests, hopes → If you touch that, you will get burned!

Use of "Shall" in Questions

In everyday English, shall is often used in questions with I or we to ask for advice, offer help, or
make suggestions:

●​ Shall I open the window? (offer)

●​ Shall we go to the park? (suggestion)

2) Future Progressive (Will + Be + -ing)

The Future Progressive describes an action that will be ongoing at a specific point or during a
period in the future.

Main Uses:

●​ An action that will be in progress at a future time → This time next week, I will be hiking
in the mountains.
●​ A planned or arranged future event (similar to the Present Progressive) → Will you be
attending the conference tomorrow? (Are you attending the conference tomorrow? is
also possible.)
●​ A future action lasting for a period of time → She will be working on her project all
weekend.

3) Future Perfect (Will + Have + Past Participle)

The Future Perfect is used to refer to actions that will be completed before a specific point in the
future. The focus is on the completion of the action.

Examples:
 ●​ A completed action before a future moment → By midnight, they will have finished the
report.
●​ A state or activity lasting until a future point → By 2030, she will have lived in New York
for 10 years.

4) Future Perfect Progressive (Will + Have Been + -ing)

This tense is similar to the Future Perfect but emphasizes the duration of an action leading up to
a specific point in the future. The aspect is imperfective, meaning the action is seen as ongoing.

Examples:

●​ By December, they will have been training for the marathon for six months.
●​ Next summer, I will have been working at this company for five years.

5) Be Going To + Infinitive

This structure is commonly used to express the future in two key ways:

●​ Future plans or intentions → I’m going to visit my grandparents next weekend.

●​ Future events resulting from a present situation (logical prediction) → Look at those
dark clouds! It’s going to rain soon.

6) Modal Idioms for Future Events

English also uses expressions with be to indicate different types of future events:

●​ Be about to → Something is going to happen very soon → The train is about to depart.
●​ Be due to → A scheduled or planned event → The president is due to give a speech at 6
PM.
●​ Be bound to → Something is inevitable → With all that preparation, she is bound to
succeed.
9. The passive

Understanding Passive Voice

A passive sentence happens when the object of a verb becomes the subject. This means the
focus is on what is receiving the action, rather than who is doing it.

For example, consider this joke:

●​ Passive: Why was the road crossed by the chicken?

●​ Active: Why did the chicken cross the road?

In the passive version, "the road" is the subject, even though it is not performing the action. The
active version is clearer because it places the doer (the chicken) in the subject position.

How to Identify Passive Voice

Passive voice follows this formula:​

form of "to be" + past participle

For example:

●​ The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon's fiery breath.

●​ When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.

Forms of the Passive

Only transitive verbs (verbs that take an object) can be used in passive voice. For example:

●​ Active: Mary wrote a letter.

●​ Passive: A letter was written by Mary.

Some verb tenses are rarely used in passive voice because they sound awkward, especially
future progressive and perfect progressive forms.

The past participle of the main verb stays the same, while the "to be" verb changes based on
tense.
Why Use Passive Voice?

1.​ To emphasize the recipient of the action

○​ The Olympic Games were founded on a love of sport, unity, and competition.
2.​ To structure sentences smoothly
○​ That report is being studied by all company officers involved in the project.
3.​ To omit the doer of the action (when it's unknown, unimportant, or obvious)
○​ A large sum of money has been donated to charity.

Omitting the Agent (Doer of the Action)

Sometimes, passive sentences do not mention the doer because:

●​ It's obvious: Jewelry worth $500,000 was stolen from the Sheraton Hotel.
●​ It's not important: A new law has been passed.
●​ The writer wants to be impersonal or objective (common in journalism and science).

Avoiding Blame:

●​ An error was made in our sales forecast. (Doesn’t specify who made the error.)

When to Keep the Doer (Agent) in Passive Voice

 ●​ When the doer is important:
○​ Macbeth was written by Shakespeare.
●​ When the doer is not a person:
○​ The house was blown down by a hurricane.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects

Some sentences have two objects:

1.​ A direct object → the thing being acted upon

2.​ An indirect object → the person or thing receiving the action

For example, in the active voice:​

They gave the president a long report.

●​ Direct object = a long report (What was given?)

●​ Indirect object = the president (Who received it?)

When converting this sentence into passive voice, you have two options:

Option 1: Focus on the Direct Object

A long report has been given to the president.

●​ This version emphasizes the report (what was given).

●​ The recipient (the president) appears later in the sentence.

Option 2: Focus on the Indirect Object

The president has been given a long report.

●​ This version emphasizes the president (who received it).

●​ The report is still mentioned, but it’s not the main focus.

When to Use Each Version?

If you want to highlight what was given → use the direct object first.​
If you want to highlight who received it → use the indirect object first.

Another Example:

Active: She sent John a letter.

●​ Direct object: a letter (What was sent?)

●​ Indirect object: John (Who received it?)

Passive Options:

1.​ A letter was sent to John. → Emphasizes the letter.

2.​ John was sent a letter. → Emphasizes John

"Get" in Passive Voice

In informal English, "get" can replace "be" in passive voice:

●​ She got fired last week. (Instead of: She was fired last week.)

Personal vs. Impersonal Passive Constructions

When a sentence’s object is a clause (a group of words with a subject and verb), you can form
the passive voice in two ways:

1. Impersonal Passive

●​ Uses "it" as a placeholder for the clause.

●​ The original subject remains inside the clause.
●​ Often used in formal writing or news reports to sound objective.

Example:​
🔹 Active: The police believe that the thief left the country.​
🔹 Passive: It is believed that the thief left the country.

(Here, "it" is a placeholder, and "that the thief left the country" remains the object of the
sentence.)

2. Personal Passive

●​ The subject of the clause moves to the main subject position.

●​ The verb in the main sentence changes to a passive structure.
●​ Often used when the focus is on the person or thing being discussed.

Example:​
🔹 Active: The police believe that the thief left the country.​
🔹 Passive: The thief is believed to have left the country.

(Here, "the thief" becomes the subject of the new sentence, and the verb structure changes to
"is believed to have left.")

Comparison

Type Example

Impersonal Passive It is reported that she won the

lottery.

Personal Passive She is reported to have won

the lottery.
 Key Differences

🔹 Use "it" in impersonal passive when focusing on the general belief or report.​
🔹 Use personal passive when focusing on the subject of the clause.
○​

Special Cases

Some verbs require different passive structures:

●​ Let: I was allowed to take a look at her notes.

●​ Make: They were made to clean the bedroom.
●​ See/Hear: He was seen to leave the room.
●​ Steal: Her purse was stolen.
10. CONDITIONALS

Conditionals are sentences that describe cause and effect relationships. They usually consist of
two parts:

1.​ The "if" clause (condition) → states a possible situation.

2.​ The main clause (result) → describes what happens if the condition is met.

Zero Conditional (General Truths & Facts)

Used for universal truths, scientific facts, and general rules.

🔹 Structure:​
If + present simple, present simple

🔹 Examples:​
If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.​
If you touch fire, you get burned.​
If the sun sets, it gets dark.

You can replace "if" with "when" without changing the meaning.

First Conditional (Real Possibilities in the Future)

Used for likely future events based on a real condition.

🔹 Structure:​
If + present simple, will + base verb

🔹 Examples:​
If it rains, we will stay inside.​
If you study, you will pass the test.​
If she calls, I will answer.

Instead of "will," you can use modals like might, can, should:​
If you exercise, you might feel better.

Second Conditional (Hypothetical or Unreal Situations in the Present/Future)

Used for imaginary, unlikely, or impossible situations.

🔹 Structure:​
If + past simple, would + base verb

🔹 Examples:​
If I won the lottery, I would travel the world.​
If she were taller, she would be a model. (Note: "were" is used for all subjects in formal English.)​
If you studied harder, you would pass.

Instead of "would," you can use might, could:​

If I had more time, I could learn French.
Third Conditional (Past Hypotheticals – What Could Have Been)

Used for regret, missed opportunities, or alternative past outcomes.

🔹 Structure:
If + past perfect, would have + past participle

🔹 Examples:​
If I had studied, I would have passed the test.​
If she had left earlier, she wouldn't have missed the bus.​
If they had invited me, I would have gone.

"Would" can be replaced with might, could:​

If I had trained more, I could have won.

Summary Table: Conditionals at a Glance

Type Use Structure Example

Zero Facts & general truths If + present simple, If you touch fire, you
present simple get burned.

First Real future possibilities If + present simple, will + If it rains, we will stay
base verb inside.

Second Hypothetical/unreal If + past simple, would + If I won the lottery, I

present or future base verb would travel.

Third Hypothetical past If + past perfect, would If I had studied, I would

(regrets, missed chances) have + past participle have passed.
11. Reported Speech

Reported speech (also called indirect speech) is when we tell someone what another person
said without using their exact words. Instead of quoting them directly, we change the sentence
structure and verb tense.

🔹 Direct speech: She said, "I am happy."​

🔹 Reported speech: She said she was happy.
2. When Do We Use Reported Speech?​
We use reported speech in the following situations:​
When telling someone what another person said.​
When summarizing conversations.​
When writing news reports or stories.​
When formal speech is needed (e.g., official reports).

Example:​
🔹 Direct: "I love chocolate," said John.​
🔹 Reported: John said that he loved chocolate.

3. How Do We Change Verb Tenses?​

When changing direct speech to reported speech, we usually shift the verb tense back in time
(called backshifting) because the statement was made in the past.

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Present Simple: "I like music." Past Simple: He said he liked music.

Present Continuous: "She is reading." Past Continuous: He said she was

reading.

Present Perfect: "I have seen that Past Perfect: He said he had seen that
movie." movie.

Past Simple: "They went home." Past Perfect: He said they had gone
home.

Will: "I will call you." Would: He said he would call me.

Can: "I can swim." Could: He said he could swim.

May: "She may come." Might: He said she might come.

🔹 Example:​
Direct: "I am tired."​
Reported: She said she was tired.
4. Changes in Pronouns and Time Expressions​
When reporting speech, pronouns and time expressions often change:

🔹 Pronouns:
●​ "I" → he/she
●​ "We" → they
●​ "My" → his/her

🔹 Time Expressions:
Direct Speech Reported Speech

today → that day

tomorrow → the next day / the

following day

yesterday → the day before

now → then

next week → the following week

last night → the night before

Example:​
🔹 Direct: "I will do it tomorrow."​
🔹 Reported: He said he would do it the next day.

5. When NOT to Change the Verb Tense​

There are cases when we do not change the tense:​
If the original statement is about general truths:​
🔹 "The sun rises in the east." → He said that the sun rises in the east. (No change)

If the reporting verb is in the present/future:​

🔹 She says, "I am happy." → She says she is happy. (No change)

If the direct speech already uses past perfect:​

🔹 "I had finished my work." → He said he had finished his work. (No change)

6. Reporting Questions​
When reporting a question, we:

●​ Change the word order to a statement.

●​ Remove do/does/did in yes/no questions.
●​ Use if or whether for yes/no questions.

🔹 Direct: "Where do you live?"​

🔹 Reported: He asked where I lived.
🔹 Direct: "Did she call you?"​
🔹 Reported: He asked if she had called me.
7. Reporting Commands & Requests​
For commands and requests, we use tell (for commands) or ask (for requests), followed by an
infinitive (to + verb).

🔹 Direct: "Close the door!"​

🔹 Reported: She told me to close the door.
🔹 Direct: "Please help me."​
🔹 Reported: He asked me to help him.
🔹 Direct: "Don't touch that!"​
🔹 Reported: She told me not to touch that.
 The
Noun
Phrase
OVERVIEW

1. Word formation

2. Classification of nouns

2.1. Countable and uncountable nouns

2.2. Collective nouns

3. Number

4. The genitive

5. Gender
1. Word formation

Nouns can be created from other words through derivation and compounding:

●​ Derivation: Adding a prefix or suffix to a base word (e.g., "happiness" from

"happy" + "-ness").
○​ Zero derivation: Changing the word's part of speech without adding a
suffix (e.g., "to email" from "email").
●​ Compounding: Combining two words to form a new one (e.g., "toothpaste").

In English, many nouns have characteristic endings that can help identify them as
nouns. Here are some common noun suffixes along with examples:

Suffix Example Suffix Example

-er teacher, trainer, runner -th truth

-age drainage, wastage, postage, -al approval, withdrawal

mileage

-ar beggar -ity practicality, identity

-tion addition, caption, education -dom kingdom, wisdom

-or editor, actor, vendor -ship ownership, studentship

-ment arrangement, amazement, -hood childhood, girlhood

containment

-ant assistant, deodorant, disinfectant -tude altitude, multitude

-ance importance -ing building, fencing

-ist typist, artist, realist, pessimist -y entry, discovery

-ness laziness, fitness, toughness -ism socialism, idealism

-sion extension -ee trainee, referee

ZERO DERIVATION

Sometimes nouns and verbs have the same spelling but are pronounced
differently. For example, "record":

●​ As a noun: "The record (REcord) of his achievements is impressive."

●​ As a verb: "Can you record (reCORD) this meeting?"

The accent changes depending on whether the word is used as a noun or a verb.
This difference in stress alters the pronunciation.

Here are examples of words where the noun and verb forms have the same
spelling but are pronounced differently based on stress:

●​ abstract: ABstract ●​ desert: DESert (noun), ●​ object: OBject (noun),

(noun), abSTRACT (verb) deSERT (verb) obJECT (verb)
●​ accent: ACCent (noun), ●​ dictate: DICtate (noun), ●​ perfume: PERfume (noun),
acCENT (verb) dicTATE (verb) perFUME (verb)
●​ addict: ADdict (noun), ●​ digest: DIgest (noun), ●​ permit: PERmit (noun),
adDICT (verb) diGEST (verb) perMIT (verb)
●​ ally: ALly (noun), alLY ●​ discount: DIScount ●​ present: PREsent (noun),
(verb) (noun), disCOUNT (verb) preSENT (verb)
●​ attribute: ATtribute ●​ discourse: DIScourse ●​ produce: PROduce (noun),
(noun), atTRIBute (verb) (noun), disCOURSE (verb) proDUCE (verb)
●​ combine: COMbine (noun), ●​ entrance: ENtrance ●​ progress: PROgress
comBINE (verb) (noun), enTRANCE (verb) (noun), proGRESS (verb)
●​ compress: COMpress ●​ envelope: ENvelope ●​ project: PROject (noun),
(noun), comPRESS (verb) (noun), enVELope (verb) proJECT (verb)
●​ concert: CONcert (noun), ●​ escort: EScort (noun), ●​ prospect: PROspect
conCERT (verb) esCORT (verb) (noun), proSPECT (verb)
●​ conduct: CONduct (noun), ●​ essay: ESsay (noun), ●​ protest: PROtest (noun),
conDUCT (verb) esSAY (verb) proTEST (verb)
●​ conflict: CONflict (noun), ●​ exploit: EXploit (noun), ●​ rebel: REbel (noun), reBEL
conFLICT (verb) exPLOIT (verb) (verb)
●​ conscript: CONscript ●​ export: EXport (noun), ●​ record: REcord (noun),
(noun), conSCRIPT (verb) exPORT (verb) reCORD (verb)
●​ contest: CONtest (noun), ●​ extract: EXtract (noun), ●​ retail: REtail (noun),
conTEST (verb) exTRACT (verb) reTAIL (verb)
●​ contract: CONtract ●​ import: IMport (noun), ●​ subject: SUBject (noun),
(noun), conTRACT (verb) imPORT (verb) subJECT (verb)
●​ converse: CONverse ●​ impress: IMpress (noun), ●​ survey: SURvey (noun),
(noun), conVERSE (verb) imPRESS (verb) surVEY (verb)
●​ convert: CONvert (noun), ●​ incense: INcense (noun), ●​ suspect: SUSpect (noun),
conVERT (verb) inCENSE (verb) susPECT (verb)
●​ convict: CONvict (noun), ●​ increase: INcrease ●​ torment: TORment (noun),
conVICT (verb) (noun), inCREASE (verb) torMENT (verb)
●​ decrease: DEcrease ●​ insult: INsult (noun), ●​ transfer: TRANSfer (noun),
(noun), deCREASE (verb) inSULT (verb) transFER (verb)
●​ transport: TRANSport
(noun), transPORT (verb)
There are other pairs of words where the verb has a voiced final sound, and the noun has a
voiceless final sound:

(to) close /z/ – the close /s/

(to) excuse /z/ – the excuse /s/
(to) refuse /z/ – the refuse /s/

In other cases, the noun and the verb are spelt in a similar way, but the verb has a voiced final
sound (/z/, /ð/, or /v/), while the noun has a voiceless final sound (/s/, /θ/, or /f/)

(to) believe /v/ – a belief /f/

(to) sieve /v/ – a sieve /f/
(to) bathe /ð/ – a bath /θ/
(to) clothe /ð/ – some cloth /θ/

Compound nouns are made up of two or more words that create a single noun. They can be
written in three ways:

1.​ Separate words → apple pie, swimming pool

2.​ Hyphenated words → father-in-law, check-in
3.​ One word → toothpaste, notebook

Plural Rules for Compound Nouns

1.​ If the last word is uncountable (like mass nouns), there’s no plural form.
○​ sunlight, traffic, homework (✔ No plural)
2.​ In most cases, the first word stays singular, and the plural is added to the second word.
○​ car park → car parks
○​ bookcase → bookcases
3.​ When “man” or “woman” is the first word, both parts become plural.
○​ man-servant → men-servants
○​ woman doctor → women doctors
○​ (Exception: Some words keep "man" singular, like manholes, woman-haters)
4.​ For compound nouns with a count noun + preposition, only the first word takes the
plural.
○​ brother-in-law → brothers-in-law
○​ passer-by → passers-by
○​ runner-up → runners-up
5.​ If a compound is made of a verb/adjective + preposition, the plural comes at the end.
○​ grown-up → grown-ups
○​ close-up → close-ups
○​ sit-in → sit-ins
6.​ Words ending in "-ful" usually add "s" at the end, but sometimes it can go in the
middle.
○​ Common: spoonful → spoonfuls
○​ Less common: spoonsful
○​ Both are correct!
 Example

Concrete apple, chair, book

Count
Common Abstract idea, dream, goal
Nouns
Concrete water, sugar, gold,
Non-Count
Abstract happiness, love, bravery

Proper London, Benedict, Coke-Cola

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable Nouns (also called count nouns) are things we can count. They include people,
animals, plants, objects, units of measurement, and some abstract ideas.​
Examples: book, apple, dog, teacher, meter, family, dream, plan.

Uncountable Nouns (also called mass or non-count nouns) cannot be used with "a/an" or
numbers like "two" or "five." They usually refer to substances, materials, liquids, gases, languages,
and abstract ideas.​
Examples: water, sand, Spanish, kindness, freedom, furniture, happiness.

Mass Nouns in English

Some nouns that are countable in other languages are always uncountable (mass nouns) in
English. They cannot be used with "a/an" or numbers.

Examples:

●​ accommodation ●​ damage* ●​ information

●​ advice ●​ equipment ●​ laughter
●​ behavior ●​ fun ●​ leisure
●​ cash ●​ furniture ●​ lightning
●​ china (porcelain) ●​ harm ●​ luck
●​ conduct ●​ influenza ●​ luggage
●​ money* ●​ music ●​ permission
●​ mud ●​ news ●​ poetry

* Some mass nouns have plural forms with special meanings:

●​ He was sued for damages. (meaning "compensation for harm")

●​ The charity reported all the moneys received. (referring to different types of funds)
●​ The event took place in all weathers. (various weather conditions)

Partitives

Since mass nouns cannot be counted or used with "a," "an," or numbers, we use partitive
expressions to refer to individual units. Certain partitives are commonly used with specific
uncountable nouns.
a bit of chalk / fun a portion of our income a clap of thunder
a ball of string a slice of a mass of evidence / metal
a dash of soy sauce / soda toast/bread/cake/cheese/meat a roll of cloth
a drop of liquid/water/oil/blood a sliver of glass / light / cheese a sheet of paper or metal
etc. a stick of chalk or dynamite a spell of bad weather
a heap of earth a stroke of luck a spot of rain
a loaf of bread an article of clothing/furniture a strip of land
a lock of hair a bar of chocolate/soap a touch of irony / genius /
a lump of coal / sugar a blade of grass vinegar
a piece of a block of ice a trace of blood / anxiety
advice/paper/string/furniture a chunk of meat an item of news

●​ We experienced a stretch of hot weather in July.

●​ Should I buy a few slices of ham for the sandwiches?
●​ She always adds a hint of sarcasm to her remarks.
●​ There’s a chance we’ll get a drizzle of rain this evening.

Note: When referring to multiple units, we pluralize the partitive:

●​ shreds of fabric
●​ drops of ink

Nouns with Dual Class Membership

Some nouns can be mass nouns when referring to a substance, material, or phenomenon, but
count nouns when referring to a distinct unit or occurrence.

Examples:

●​ The walls are made of brick. (mass)

●​ She picked up a brick and threw it. (count)

Other nouns change meaning when used as count or mass nouns:

●​ Mass (Material/Activity) → Count (Specific Object/Meaning)

○​ cloth → a cloth (fabric vs. a cleaning rag)
○​ glass → a glass (material vs. a drinking vessel)
○​ iron → an iron (metal vs. a clothes iron)
○​ paper → a paper (material vs. a newspaper or report)
○​ wood → a wood (material vs. a forest)
○​ business → a business (commerce vs. a shop)
○​ traffic → an illegal traffic (vehicles vs. illicit trade)
○​ trade → a trade (commerce vs. a profession)

Plural Use of Mass Nouns in Informal English

In casual speech, some mass nouns are treated as count nouns when referring to portions.

●​ I’ll have two coffees and a tea, please.

Abstract Nouns with "A/An"

Certain abstract nouns, like education, importance, and knowledge, can take "a/an" + adjective
when referring to a type or quality.

●​ Medieval schools provided students with a strict education.

Uncountable Nouns Ending in –S
Some nouns look plural because they end in -s, but they are actually singular and uncountable,
so they take a singular verb.

a) "News"

●​ What you’re telling me is not good news. (uncountable)

b) Names of Illnesses: shingles, measles, mumps

●​ Measles is a serious disease.

●​ This type of mumps is very common.
●​ Shingles can take months to recover from.

c) Names of Sciences & School Subjects: civics, classics, economics, ergonomics, ethics,
linguistics, maths/mathematics, mechanics, physics, politics, pragmatics

●​ Linguistics is a challenging subject.

●​ Physics is essential for engineering.

Note: When these words refer to specific data or practical aspects, they take a plural verb:

●​ These statistics show an increase in crime.

●​ But: Statistics is a branch of mathematics.

Other examples: mathematics, politics, physics, statistics, acoustics, economics, morals.

d) Physical Activities: athletics, aerobics, gymnastics

●​ Aerobics is very popular among seniors.

●​ Gymnastics requires a lot of practice.

e) Games: bowls, billiards, darts, dominoes, draughts, skittles

●​ Billiards is a common pub game.

●​ Darts is harder than it looks.
Collective Nouns
(These nouns refer to a group of individuals as a single unit.)

Collective nouns like committee, family, gang, class, team, staff, government, jury, crew can
take either a singular or plural verb, depending on whether the group is seen as a single entity
or as individual members.

Examples:

●​ The committee gave its unanimous approval to the plans. (acting as one unit)
●​ The committee enjoyed biscuits with their tea. (referring to individual members)
NUMBER

Irregular Plural Forms

1. Nouns Ending in -o

Some nouns ending in -o form their plurals by adding -es:

●​ echo → echoes ●​ tomato → tomatoes

●​ hero → heroes ●​ veto → vetoes
●​ potato → potatoes

2. Nouns Ending in -f or -fe

Some nouns drop -f/-fe and take -ves in the plural:

●​ loaf → loaves
●​ wolf → wolves
●​ thief → thieves
●​ shelf → shelves

3. Gerunds (Verbal Nouns)

Gerunds are uncountable and usually don’t take a plural:

●​ Swimming, dancing, and reading are my favorite hobbies.

However, some have become countable over time and can be pluralized:

●​ After two listenings, we will read an article.

●​ Those old buildings are 400 years old.
●​ But: The building of the castle took ages. (used as a verbal noun)

4. Old Plural Forms That Have Survived

●​ man → men (gentlemen, policemen, etc.)

●​ woman → women
●​ child → children
●​ tooth → teeth
●​ goose → geese
●​ foot → feet
●​ mouse → mice
●​ louse → lice
●​ ox → oxen
●​ brother → brethren (only in religious contexts; otherwise brothers)
Latin and Greek Plurals
Some nouns retain their foreign plural forms, but some have adapted to regular English plural
rules as well.

1. Nouns Ending in -a

●​ Foreign plural: -ae

●​ English plural: -as
○​ amoeba → amoebae/amoebas
○​ antenna → antennae/antennas
○​ formula → formulae/formulas
○​ larva → larvae
○​ vertebra → vertebrae

2. Nouns Ending in -us with Plural -a (technical use only)

●​ Singular: -us
●​ Plural: -ora
○​ corpus → corpora

3. Nouns Ending in -us with Plural -i

●​ Singular: -us
●​ Foreign plural: -i
●​ English plural: -uses
○​ alumnus → alumni
○​ cactus → cacti/cactuses
○​ focus → foci
○​ fungus → fungi/funguses
○​ nucleus → nuclei
○​ octopus → octopi/octopuses
○​ radius → radii
○​ stimulus → stimuli
○​ syllabus → syllabi/syllabuses

4. Nouns Ending in -um with Plural -a

●​ Singular: -um
●​ Foreign plural: -a
●​ English plural: -ums
○​ bacterium → bacteria
○​ curriculum → curricula/curriculums
○​ datum → data
○​ medium → media
○​ memorandum → memoranda/memorandums
○​ symposium → symposia/symposiums

5. Nouns Ending in -ex, -ix with Plural -ices

●​ Singular: -ex/-ix
●​ Foreign plural: -ices
●​ English plural: -ixes/-exes
○​ appendix → appendices/appendixes
○​ cervix → cervices/cervixes
○​ index → indices/indexes
○​ matrix → matrices/matrixes
6. Nouns Ending in -is with Plural -es

●​ Singular: -is
●​ Plural: -es
○​ analysis → analyses
○​ basis → bases
○​ crisis → crises
○​ diagnosis → diagnoses
○​ emphasis → emphases
○​ hypothesis → hypotheses
○​ oasis → oases
○​ parenthesis → parentheses
○​ synopsis → synopses
○​ thesis → theses

7. Nouns Ending in -on with Plural -a

●​ Singular: -on
●​ Plural: -a
○​ criterion → criteria
○​ phenomenon → phenomena.

Nouns with the Same Form for Singular and Plural

Some nouns have the same form for both the singular and plural.

1. Living Creatures

●​ Examples:
○​ deer
○​ grouse
○​ mackerel
○​ plaice
○​ salmon
○​ sheep
○​ cod
○​ offspring
○​ trout
●​ Example sentences:
○​ There is a sheep.
○​ There are two sheep.

2. Fish

●​ Countable noun "fish" can have two plural forms: fish or fishes. The plural "fish" is used
when referring to multiple fish of the same species.

Ronny caught three huge fish. (Three fish of the same kind)

The plural "fishes" is used when referring to different species of fish.

The stonefish is the most dangerous of all fishes. (Different types of fish)

3. Craft and Aircraft

●​ craft (meaning boat) and aircraft have the same form in both singular and plural.
○​ She owns two craft.
○​ They have a fleet of aircraft.
4. Nationalities Ending in /s/ or /z/

●​ Nationality nouns ending in the voiceless sound /s/ or the voiced sound /z/ are the same in
singular and plural.
○​ There are 1000 Vietnamese.
○​ There are many Swiss at the event.

5. Nouns for Numbers and Measurements

●​ Examples:
○​ hundred
○​ thousand
○​ million
○​ dozen
○​ head (of cattle)
●​ Example sentences:
○​ There were more than two hundred students.
○​ They sold twenty head of cattle.
●​ With indefinite numbers, we use the regular plural:
○​ There were dozens of people at the party.

6. The Words "means", "series", and "species"

●​ Examples:
○​ The Panda Bear is a species in danger.
○​ Many bird species are threatened by hunters.

7. Words Ending in -s

Some words end in -s but have the same form in singular and plural:

●​ Examples:
○​ barracks
○​ bellows
○​ gallows
○​ gasworks
○​ golf-links
○​ innings
○​ kennels

Always Plural Nouns

Some nouns are always plural and always take a plural verb. The determiners used with them are
also always plural.

Examples:

●​ Nouns: cattle, people, police, vermin, gentry, folk

○​ The police are searching for two criminals.
○​ Many people have been invited.
○​ Those cattle are not ready for sale.

"Folk":

●​ Can also be used in plural:

○​ There are some folk who prefer not to be here.
○​ Thanks to the folks at NBC.
Nouns that are Always Plural but Cannot Be Preceded by Numerals

These are considered uncountable nouns because they can’t take numbers directly.

●​ Examples:

○​ belongings ○​ looks ○​ remains

○​ arms (weapons) (appearance) ○​ savings
○​ ashes ○​ manners ○​ shortcomings
○​ clothes (behavior) ○​ stairs
○​ damages ○​ odds ○​ surroundings
(compensation) ○​ outskirts ○​ thanks
○​ earnings ○​ premises ○​ the Middle Ages
○​ goods ○​ proceedings ○​ whereabouts

Note:

The singular form may appear but with a change in meaning:

●​ Can I have a look at your bedroom? (singular, different meaning from looks)
●​ My arm aches (singular for part of the body, different meaning from arms as weapons).

Instruments, Garments, and Tools with Two Similar Parts

These nouns are always plural:

●​ Examples:

○​ binoculars ○​ overalls ○​ shorts

○​ briefs ○​ pants ○​ spectacles
○​ glasses ○​ pincers ○​ tongs
○​ headphones ○​ pliers ○​ trousers
○​ jeans ○​ pyjamas ○​ tweezers
○​ knickers ○​ scissors ○​ underpants

●​ Example sentences:
○​ These trousers are too tight for me.
○​ This pair of trousers is too tight for me.
The Genitive in English
There are two ways to show the genitive in English:

1.​ The Apostrophe s (‘s) or Inflected Genitive (before the noun)

○​ Emma’s book
○​ The dog’s tail
2.​ The "Of" Construction or Periphrastic Genitive (after the noun)
○​ The roof of the house
○​ The price of the ticket

1. The Form of the Genitive

●​ Singular noun + ‘s → the cat’s food
●​ Irregular plural noun + ‘s → children’s toys
●​ Regular plural noun + ‘ → the teachers’ lounge
●​ Compound nouns → my mother-in-law’s car
●​ Proper nouns ending in -s → Charles’s book
●​ Famous names ending in -s (optional ‘s) → Socrates’ philosophy

2. Genitive Plurals
Genitive Ordinary Genitive Plural
Singular Plural

The girl’s dress Girls The girls’

dresses

My brother’s car Brothers My brothers’

cars

A child’s toy Children Children’s toys

Example:

●​ "The student’s notebook" (one student)

●​ "The students’ notebooks" (multiple students)

3. Group Genitive and Coordinated Genitive

●​ Group Genitive (shared possession):
○​ Mark and Sarah’s house → (They share one house)
●​ Coordinated Genitive (separate possessions):
○​ Mark’s and Sarah’s cars → (Each has their own car)

4. Common Uses of the Genitive

1.​ Possession:
○​ Lucy’s phone
○​ The cat’s whiskers
2.​ Description:
○​ A men’s clothing store (a store for men)
3.​ Origin:
○​ Italy’s cuisine is famous.
4.​ Relationships:
○​ Daniel is Mia’s brother.
5. Genitive in Time and Measurement Expressions
●​ A day’s work
●​ Three years’ experience
●​ A five-minute break

Alternative construction:

●​ "A five-minute break" = "A break of five minutes"

6. The Genitive in Fixed Expressions

●​ For God’s sake
●​ At arm’s length
●​ A stone’s throw away

7. The Genitive with Geographic Names

●​ Canada’s economy
●​ Japan’s culture

8. The Genitive as a Determiner (Specifying Genitive)

The genitive can replace possessive determiners:

●​ "My sister’s house" = "Her house"

●​ "Jack’s car" = "His car"

9. The Genitive as a Modifier (Classifying Genitive)

Sometimes the genitive describes a type of thing:

●​ A women’s magazine (a magazine for women)

●​ A children’s hospital (a hospital for children)

10. The Independent Genitive

When the noun is omitted but understood from context:

●​ This isn’t my jacket. It’s Anna’s. (= Anna’s jacket)

●​ We’re meeting at Peter’s. (= Peter’s house)

11. The Double Genitive

Combines the ‘of’ construction with a genitive noun or possessive pronoun:

●​ A friend of John’s
●​ A neighbor of mine

Examples:

●​ "A book of Sarah’s" = One of Sarah’s books.

●​ "That car of yours is always breaking down."

12. The "Of" Construction

Used with inanimate objects:
 ●​ The pages of the book
●​ The color of the sky

It is also used for figurative comparisons:

●​ She has the patience of a saint.

●​ He has the voice of an angel.

Summary:

●​ Use ‘s for people, animals, and time expressions.

●​ Use of for things and abstract concepts.
●​ In plural forms ending in -s, add only an apostrophe (‘).
●​ Some names ending in -s take only an apostrophe, while others add ‘s.
GENDER IN ENGLISH
Like many languages, English distinguishes between living (animate) and non-living (inanimate)
things. However, most English nouns do not have grammatical gender, meaning they are neither
masculine nor feminine (except for some nouns with specific suffixes like "-ess"). Only pronouns
and possessive determiners indicate gender (e.g., he, she, it, his, hers).

1. Categories of Nouns by Gender

1.1 Personal Animate Nouns

Personal animate nouns refer to people and can be either masculine, feminine, or neutral.

●​ Masculine: boy, master, widower, actor, man (who – he)

●​ Feminine: girl, actress, woman (who – she)
●​ Dual (Gender-neutral): doctor, secretary, boss, singer, pianist, journalist

1.2 Non-Personal Animate Nouns

Non-personal animate nouns refer to animals. While animals are often referred to with "it," special
animals (such as pets) may be referred to as "he" or "she."

●​ Male: drake, bull, stallion, tiger, lion

●​ Female: duck, cow, hen, tigress, lioness, mare
●​ General (Common Name): cat, rabbit, bird, zebra, elephant

1.3 Inanimate Nouns (Neutral Gender)

Inanimate objects and concepts do not have grammatical gender and are referred to with "it."

●​ Examples: window, apartment, country, pencil (which – it)

2. Personal Animate Nouns in Detail

Some personal animate nouns have distinct masculine and feminine forms, though many
feminine forms are now outdated or replaced by gender-neutral terms.

Masculine Feminine

actor actress

host hostess

policeman policewoman

steward stewardess

waiter waitress

Modern Gender-Neutral Alternatives:

●​ Preferred terms: police officer, firefighter, chairperson, flight attendant

●​ Examples:
○​ She was elected chairperson of the committee.
○​ He was the best spokesperson we’ve had in a long time.
When referring to babies or small children, "it" is sometimes used:

●​ Every child misses its mother.

●​ That baby upstairs? It’s always crying.
●​ Are you going to have it at home or in the hospital?

3. Non-Personal Animate Nouns (Animals)

Some animals have specific male and female terms, commonly used by breeders and
veterinarians.

Male Female Common Name

lion lioness lion

fox vixen fox

dog bitch dog

tiger tigress tiger

bull cow cow

drake duck duck

boar/hog sow pig

Example sentences:

●​ There’s a black dog in the street. He looks lost.

●​ Is she a big eater, your cat?

4. Inanimate Nouns with Gendered Reference

Although inanimate nouns are generally neutral, certain nouns—such as ships, countries, and
abstract concepts—are sometimes referred to using masculine or feminine pronouns.

●​ Countries: France is increasing her exports.

●​ Ships: The Titanic sank four hours after she struck an iceberg.
●​ Abstract Nouns: Death was upset because he could not take the brothers for his own.

​
PRONOUNS
AND
NOUN
DETERMINERS
OVERVIEW

1. Definition and classification

2. Reflexive pronouns
3. Reciprocal pronouns
4. Interrogative and relative pronouns
5. Indefinite pronouns
6. Pronouns and pronoun reference
 1.​ Definition and Classification
Pronouns are special types of nouns that replace a noun or a whole noun phrase. They are
classified into the following types:

1.​ Personal Pronouns

○​ Subject Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
○​ Object Pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
2.​ Possessive Pronouns
○​ mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
3.​ Reflexive Pronouns
○​ myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, oneself.
4.​ Reciprocal Pronouns
○​ each other, one another.
5.​ Interrogative Pronouns
○​ who, whom, whose, which, what.
6.​ Relative Pronouns
○​ who, whom, which, that.
7.​ Indefinite Pronouns
○​ nobody, somebody, anybody, no one, everybody, one, ones.
8.​ Demonstrative Pronouns
○​ this, these, that, those, the former, the latter, such, the same.

Personal Pronouns and Gender

Personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns show person (first, second, third), number (singular,
plural), and gender (masculine, feminine, neutral). The pronoun "it" is used for non-personal
references, except for some inanimate objects given gender (e.g., ships, personifications like
Death).

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns indicate that the subject and object are the same person or thing.

●​ Examples:
○​ The students tried to motivate themselves before the exam.
○​ We have to cook ourselves a nice meal.
○​ She’s not concerned about herself.

For indefinite pronouns, "one" has its own reflexive form (oneself), while others use
"himself/herself" (formal) or "themselves" (informal).

Note: If a prepositional phrase denotes place, an objective pronoun is used instead of a reflexive
one:

●​ She glanced back and looked around her.

●​ Do you have any keys with you?

Reflexive Emphatic Pronouns

Used for emphasis but can be removed without affecting the sentence’s meaning:

●​ He himself fixed the car.

●​ I heard it from the teacher myself.
Reciprocal Pronouns

There are only two reciprocal pronouns: "each other" (used for two entities) and "one another"
(used for more than two).

●​ Examples:
○​ My friend and I helped each other with the project.
○​ The teacher reminded us to support one another.

Interrogative and Relative Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns introduce questions:

●​ Examples:
○​ Who is your favorite actor?
○​ Which food do you enjoy the most?

Relative Pronouns introduce clauses that refer to an antecedent:

●​ Examples:
○​ The man who spoke at the event is my uncle.
○​ The movie that we watched last night was incredible.

Indefinite Pronouns

These pronouns often take singular agreement:

●​ Examples:
○​ Anybody can join the meeting.
○​ Someone is waiting for you outside.

However, in longer contexts, they may take plural reference:

●​ Examples:
○​ Nobody is here, are they?
○​ Nobody has claimed their prize yet.

Uses of "one"

●​ General reference: One must always be true to oneself.

●​ Noun substitution: Which book do you recommend? That one.

Pronoun Reference

This refers to the relationship between a pronoun and the noun it refers to, called the antecedent.

Maria and Jack went to the park to enjoy the afternoon. Maria brought her dog, while Jack
brought a frisbee. As they arrived, it was a beautiful day, and the sun was shining brightly. Maria
decided to let her dog play first, so she threw the ball into the field. The dog chased after it
eagerly. Meanwhile, Jack found a spot to sit, and he began to stretch. After a while, he joined
Maria and the dog, ready to play. The frisbee was tossed into the air, and the dog jumped to catch
it.

Maria and Jack are the subjects introduced in the first sentence.
In the following sentences, she (referring to Maria), it (referring to the ball), he (referring to Jack),
and it (referring to the frisbee) are used to avoid repetition of the nouns.
The pronouns make the text more fluid and less repetitive.
NOUN DETERMINERS

OVERVIEW

1. Definition and classification

2. The articles and reference (generic vs. specific)
3. Different meanings and uses of the definite, indefinite and zero article
4. Quantifiers
Determiners are words that help specify a noun. They can tell us if the noun is specific or
general, or they can give us information about the quantity.

1.​ Types of Determiners:

○​ Possessive Determiners: These show ownership.​

Examples: my, your, his, her, its, our, their
■​ Example: "Mr. Culver was driving a tractor across his farm."
○​ Demonstrative Determiners: These show whether something is near or far, and
whether it’s singular or plural.​
Examples: this, that, these, those
■​ Example: "Can you give me that book?"
○​ Wh-Determiners: These are used in questions or relative clauses.​
Examples: which, what, whose
■​ Example: "Which book do you want?"
○​ Articles: These determine if something is specific or general.​
Examples: a, an, the
■​ Example: "The dog is barking."
○​ Quantifiers: These give information about the amount or number.​
Examples: some, any, several, many, few, all, enough
■​ Example: "I have some books."

2.​ Articles and Reference​

Determiners also help specify if a noun refers to a general class of things (generic) or a
specific item (non-generic).
○​ Generic reference: Refers to a whole class of things.
■​ Example: "Cats are independent animals." (Refers to all cats in general.)
○​ Non-generic reference: Refers to a specific item or group.
■​ Example: "I need the red pen." (Refers to a specific pen.)

The Indefinite Article "A/An"

●​ Singular countable nouns: "A" and "an" are used with singular countable nouns (e.g., a cup,
a farmer).
●​ Introducing new entities: Used to introduce a new specific entity into discourse (e.g., A
farmer has found a cup).
●​ Profession: Indicates someone's job or profession (e.g., Mr. Culver is a farmer).
●​ "Per" usage: When meaning "per" (e.g., eight hours a day, $12 a kilo).

The Definite Article "The"

●​ Definite meaning: "The" is used to indicate a specific entity that the speaker and listener
both know (e.g., The cup will go to a museum).
●​ Known from the situation: "The" is used when the entity is understood from the situation,
such as in context (e.g., Can you pass me the sugar?).
●​ Identifiable nouns: Used with postmodified nouns (e.g., The effect of an earthquake).
●​ Nominalized adjectives: "The" is used with adjectives representing groups (e.g., the rich,
the poor).
●​ Geographical names: Used with rivers, seas, mountain ranges, etc. (e.g., the River Nile, the
Sahara).
●​ Superlatives: Preceding superlative adjectives (e.g., the best).
●​ Dignified objects: Used with the sun, the moon, etc.
 ●​ Special places: Used with specific places, such as "the school," "the hospital," etc., when
referring to a specific place or activity.

The Zero Article (Ø)

●​ Meals and institutions: No article used for names of meals (e.g., I had Ø breakfast).
●​ Means of transport: Used without an article (e.g., Travel by Ø car).
●​ Headlines: In journalistic language (e.g., Fire kills Ø teenager).
●​ Names of continents, countries, cities, etc.: Ø is used for continents, countries, cities, and
more (e.g., Europe, Paris). However, "the" is used for plural place names or countable nouns
(e.g., the United States).

Quantifiers

●​ All: Refers to the whole of a group or mass (e.g., All cars have wheels).
●​ Both: Refers to two entities (e.g., Both restaurants are expensive).
●​ Each vs. Every: "Each" refers to individuals in a group (e.g., Each politician gave a different
answer), while "every" refers to units within a group (e.g., There’s a bus every ten minutes).
●​ A lot of: Used with both countable and uncountable nouns (e.g., a lot of time).
●​ Much/Many: "Much" is used with uncountable nouns, while "many" is used with plural
countable nouns (e.g., much milk, many people).
●​ Few vs. A Few: "Few" implies a small number, often less than expected, while "a few"
implies some but not many (e.g., I have a few friends).
●​ Little vs. A Little: "Little" implies less than expected, while "a little" suggests a small, but
positive amount (e.g., I have little time vs. I have a little time).

"Either", "Neither", "No"

●​ Either: Refers to one or the other of two items (e.g., We can go to either restaurant).
●​ Neither: Refers to neither of two items (e.g., Neither boy wants to go to bed).
●​ No: Used to indicate a total absence (e.g., No students attended the lecture).

"Some" and "Any"

●​ Some: Used in affirmative sentences, expected positive answers, or when meaning "certain"
(e.g., We bought some flowers).
●​ Any: Used in negative sentences, interrogatives, or when meaning "it doesn’t matter which"
(e.g., You can catch any bus).
SUBJECT- VERB
AGREEMENT
Using Subject-Verb Agreement

In every sentence, the subject and verb must agree. This means that a singular subject needs a
singular verb and a plural subject needs a plural verb. Using correct subject.-verb agreement is
very important in academic writing.

1.a. A singular verb in simple present ends -s She drives to work every day.
b. For the negative, use does+not+verb He does not like spicy food.
c. Noncount nouns always use a singular verb Water boils at 100°C.
d. A subject with the words every or each is Every student has a textbook.
singular

2.a. A gerund (verb+ing) is always plural Choosing furniture is difficult.

In academic writing, it is very common to use Walking in the park makes me happy.
a gerund as the subject of a sentence.
b. Infinitives (e.g., to run, to eat, to furnish) To furnish a room takes time.
used as subjects take singular verbs. To exercise daily is important.

3. The subject and verb must always agree, The boy (along with his friends) is playing
even if there is extra information (a phrase or soccer.​
clause) between them. The extra words do not (boy is singular, so the verb is stays singular.)
change the subject’s number (singular or
plural). The books (on the shelf) belong to me.​
(books is plural, so the verb belong stays
plural.)

4. In there sentences, the subject comes after There is a book on the table. (book is singular
the verb. The verb must agree with the → is)
subject. There are three books on the table. (books is
The word there is not a subject plural → are)

5. A compound subject uses a plural verb Tom and Jerry are best friends.

6. A modal and its verb never change for A job interview should last about 30 minutes
singular or plural. Printers can break for many reasons

7. Some nouns look plural but take a singular The news was bad yesterday. (News is
verb: singular.)
These nouns refer to a single idea, country, The United States has a large budget deficit.
subject, or organization, so they use a singular (Country names are singular.)
verb. Economics is an important field of study for
politicians. (Subjects ending in -ics are
singular.)
The lecture series sounds interesting. (A
"series" is one thing.)

8. Some nouns look singular but take a plural The people in the park look happy. ("People" is
verb: always plural.)
These nouns refer to groups of people or The police have captured the criminal.
animals, so they use a plural verb. ("Police" is plural.)
In the evening, the cattle are herded from the
The key is to focus on whether the noun field to the pen. ("Cattle" is plural.)
represents one thing (singular verb) or a group The local clergy support the decision. ("Clergy"
(plural verb). refers to multiple people.
 Quantifier Agreement Table

Quantifiers Agreement Rule Examples

Each / Every Always singular. Each student is responsible.

Every car needs its engine
checked.

Either / Neither (without "of") Always singular. Either option is fine.

Neither boy wants to leave.

Either of / Neither of Singular verb (refers to Either of the girls works well.
one of two). Neither of the boys wants to
leave.

Both (of) Always plural. Both boys want to leave.

Both of the boys want to leave.

Some, All, Most, None, A lot of, Use a singular verb. Some of the water is dirty.
Plenty of (Uncountable nouns) A lot of money is needed.

Some, All, Most, None, A lot of, Use a plural verb. Some of the students are
Plenty of (Countable nouns) absent.
A lot of people are waiting.

No (Uncountable / Singular Noun) Use a singular verb. No child dislikes ice cream.
No furniture costs that much.

No (Plural Countable Noun) Use a plural verb. No children dislike ice cream.

Fractions & Percentages (Singular Use a singular verb. Fifty percent of the book is
Noun) about poetry.

Fractions & Percentages (Plural Use a plural verb. One-fourth of the students
Countable Noun) have computers.

Not only... but also Verb agrees with the Not only the teacher but also
second subject. the students are excited.

Either... or / Neither... nor Verb agrees with the Either the manager or the
second subject. employees are responsible.
Neither the students nor the
teacher is in the classroom.

As well as / Together with / Along Verb agrees with the The teacher, as well as the
with / In addition to first subject. students, is attending.

Not... but Verb agrees with the Not the students but the
second subject. teacher is in charge.
ADJECTIVES
&
ADVERBS
OVERVIEW - Understanding adjectives

1. Adjectives from the point of view of meaning

2. Adjectives from the point of view of form
3. Positions and functions of adjectives in the sentence
4. Emphasizing or intensifying adjectives
5. Gradable vs. non-gradable adjectives
6. Qualitative vs. classifying adjectives
7. Adjectives functioning as noun-heads
8. Order of adjectives in premodification
9. Complementation of Adjectives
1. Adjectives from the point of view of meaning

Adjectives are words that describe, define, or qualify a noun. They help give more information
about people, animals, or things, making their meaning clearer and more specific.

Examples:

Robert is a very capable worker.

She found an interesting advanced English textbook.

Key Features of Adjectives:

They add detail – Adjectives make nouns more specific.

They are content words – They have meaning on their own.
They belong to an open class – New adjectives can be created or added.
They do not change form – Adjectives do not take plural endings (e.g., interesting, not
interestings).

2. Adjectives from the point of view of form

Adjectives can change form to show comparison and often have typical endings that help identify
them.

A.​ Comparative and Superlative Forms

Short adjectives: Add "-er" for comparatives and "-est" for superlatives.
Fast → faster → fastest
Tall → taller → tallest
Long adjectives: Use "more" for comparatives and "most" for superlatives.
Interesting → more interesting → most interesting
Beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful

B.​ Common Adjective Endings

Adjectives often end in:

"-ed" → pleased (I'm very pleased with your progress.)

"-ing" → boring (She finds opera boring.)
"-ous" → dangerous (The situation is highly dangerous.)
"-able" → disagreeable (He described the meeting as a disagreeable experience.)
"-ful" → wonderful (What a wonderful idea!)

FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives can be simple, complex (derivational or participial), or compound, depending on

how they are formed.

A) Simple Adjectives

These adjectives do not come from another word.​

Examples:

●​ fast
●​ big
●​ mere
B) Complex Adjectives

Complex adjectives come from other words, usually by adding suffixes.

B.1) Derivational Adjectives

These are formed by adding suffixes to nouns or verbs.

Suffix Examples

-able, -ible acceptable, usable,

inedible

-al, -ial normal, comical, radial

-ed timbered, aged

-ful masterful, wishful

-ic frantic, heroic

-ical hysterical, political

-ish amateurish, childish

-ive, -ative active, attractive,

talkative

-less endless, priceless

-ous, -ious, famous, anxious,

-eous erroneous

-y angry, busy, windy,

wealthy

-ly friendly, cowardly,

weekly

B.2) Participial Adjectives

These adjectives come from verbs and look like present (-ing) or past (-ed) participles.

Examples of -ing adjectives:

●​ amazing
●​ boring
●​ exciting
●​ interesting
●​ outstanding

Examples of -ed adjectives:

●​ advanced
●​ bored
●​ confused
●​ depressed
●​ excited
 ●​ worried

Be Careful! Participles vs. Participial Adjectives

●​ Adjective: Julie is calculating but her husband is frank. (Describes personality)

●​ Present Participle: Julie is calculating, so don’t disturb her. (Describes an action)
●​ Past Participle: The children were relaxed by the news. (Passive verb)
●​ Adjective: The children were relaxed, so we could take a nap. (Describes a state)

C) Compound Adjectives

These are made by combining two or more words into a single expression. They often appear in
news or formal writing and replace longer clauses.

Examples:

●​ greyish-blue
●​ full-time
●​ life-long
●​ so-called
●​ newly-restored
●​ slow-moving
●​ highly-sensitive
●​ wishy-washy
●​ classroom-based
●​ law-abiding

3. Positions and functions of adjectives in the sentence

Adjective Placement

Most adjectives can appear in two positions:

●​ Before a noun (attributive position):

○​ the bright sky
○​ the curious child
○​ cheerful faces
●​ After a linking verb (predicative position):
○​ The sky is bright.
○​ The child is curious.
○​ The faces are cheerful.

Adjectives before a noun are called attributive adjectives, while those appearing after a linking
verb are predicative adjectives. Predicative adjectives act as subject complements, meaning
they describe the subject (e.g., "The faces are cheerful"). They can also function as object
complements when they describe the object of a verb (e.g., "I found the child extremely curious").

Postpositive Adjectives

Sometimes, adjectives appear immediately after a noun, especially in certain fixed expressions:

●​ Titles and formal phrases:

○​ Poet Laureate
○​ Director General
○​ President-elect
○​ Heir apparent
●​ With indefinite pronouns and adverbs ending in -where:
○​ something remarkable
○​ everyone involved
 ○​ Did you go anywhere fascinating?
●​ With superlatives:
○​ the best seats available
○​ the worst conditions imaginable

These adjectives are called postpositive adjectives.

Adjectives Limited to One Position

Most adjectives can be used both before and after a noun, but some are restricted to only one
position:

Attributive-Only Adjectives

Some adjectives only appear before a noun:

●​ the primary reason (*not "The reason is primary")

●​ the growing concern
●​ sheer coincidence
●​ utter silence

Predicative-Only Adjectives

Some adjectives only appear after a linking verb:

●​ The child is awake (*not "the awake child")

●​ The manager remained indifferent.
●​ The town was aglow.
●​ She felt unwell.

Many predicative-only adjectives start with a- (e.g., aglow, afloat, afraid, aghast, alike, alive, alone,
aloof, ashamed, asleep, awake, aware). However, some can be modified and placed before a noun
(e.g., "the barely awake employee").

Adjectives That Change Meaning Based on Position

Some adjectives have different meanings depending on whether they appear before or after a
noun:

●​ Present
○​ "The present situation" (current)
○​ "The guests present" (attending)
●​ Concerned
○​ "Concerned citizens voiced their opinions." (worried)
○​ "The parties concerned will be notified." (involved)
●​ Involved
○​ "The involved instructions were confusing." (complicated)
○​ "The individuals involved were questioned." (participating)
●​ Old
○​ "An old colleague of mine." (longtime friend)
○​ "That house is old." (aged)

Substituting Predicative-Only Adjectives

Some predicative-only adjectives can be replaced by synonyms that work in an attributive

position:

●​ "live" instead of "alive" → live fish (*not "alive fish")

●​ "lone" instead of "alone" → a lone explorer (*not "an alone explorer")
 ●​ "sick" instead of "ill" → a sick puppy (*not "an ill puppy")
●​ "sleeping" instead of "asleep" → a sleeping baby (*not "an asleep baby")

4. Emphasizing or Intensifying Adjectives

Some adjectives add emphasis and make descriptions stronger:

●​ a total failure
●​ utter nonsense
●​ sheer brilliance
●​ absolute chaos
●​ unquestionable proof
●​ a genuine expert
●​ a definite success
●​ a complete mystery
●​ his entire earnings

5. Gradable vs. non-gradable adjectives

Gradable Adjectives

Gradable adjectives describe qualities that exist in varying degrees. They can be used with
comparatives, superlatives, and grading adverbs like "very" or "extremely":

●​ very exhausted
●​ incredibly talented
●​ rather large
●​ extremely joyful

Non-Gradable Adjectives

Non-gradable adjectives describe qualities that are either fully present or not at all. They cannot
take comparatives or "very," but they can be used with words like "absolutely" or "completely":

●​ absolutely unique
●​ completely silent
●​ utterly perfect
●​ most extraordinary

6. Qualitative vs. classifying adjectives

Qualitative Adjectives (Descriptors)

These describe qualities of a noun and are usually gradable:

●​ a very creative mind

●​ a circular object

Classifying Adjectives

These define a type or category and are usually non-gradable:

●​ a biological process
●​ an underground tunnel

Some adjectives can function as both, depending on context:

●​ "a criminal investigation" (classifying)

●​ "He looked slightly criminal" (qualitative)
7. Adjectives functioning as noun-heads

Some adjectives can act like nouns when referring to a group of people or an abstract idea. These
require "the" and usually take plural verbs:

●​ The courageous lead the way.

●​ The elderly need assistance.
●​ The rich and the poor live in different conditions.
●​ The unexpected can be alarming.

8. Order of adjectives in premodification

Adjectives usually follow this order in English:

1.​ Determiners – articles and limiters (e.g., "a," "the")

2.​ Opinion – subjective (e.g., "beautiful," "interesting")
3.​ Size and Shape – objective (e.g., "tiny," "oval")
4.​ Age – (e.g., "ancient," "new")
5.​ Color – (e.g., "blue," "golden")
6.​ Origin – nationality or place (e.g., "Spanish," "Asian")
7.​ Material – what something is made of (e.g., "silk," "plastic")
8.​ Qualifier/Purpose – function of the noun (e.g., "camping gear")

For example: a stunning small antique black Italian leather handbag

Too many adjectives should be avoided. When adjectives belong to the same category, they are
separated by commas:

●​ a comfortable, spacious apartment

●​ a brilliant, charismatic, and articulate speaker

9. Complementation of Adjectives
When adjectives occur in the predicative position (after be or other link verbs), they are
sometimes followed by a complement. This can be a prepositional phrase, an infinitive phrase, or
a that clause.

**Pattern Typical Adjectives Example**

Adjective + tough, hard, ready The exam was hard to pass.

to-infinitive

Adjective + certain, glad, aware I’m certain that she knows the answer.
that-clause

Adjective + Prepositional Phrase

of aware, ashamed, proud She was ashamed of her behavior.

to kind, similar, sensitive His answer was similar to mine.

with angry, satisfied, honest They were satisfied with the outcome.

on reliant, keen, set He is keen on learning new languages.

in interested, engaged, skilled She is highly skilled in mathematics.

about worried, nervous, excited He was nervous about his speech.
OVERVIEW - Understanding Adverbs

1. General myths about adverbs

2. Adverbs from the point of view of form
3. Functions of adverbs in the sentence
3.1 Adverbs functioning as modifiers
3. 2 Adverbials
4. Frequent positions of adverbials in the sentence
5. Adverbs with similar forms but different meanings

1. Common Myths About Adverbs

Many learners believe:

●​ All words ending in -ly are adverbs. (Not true! Words like "friendly" are adjectives.)
●​ Sentence structure always follows Subject + Verb + Object + Adverbial. (Adverb placement
is flexible!)

2. Types of Adverbs by Form

2.1 Simple Adverbs

These words are not formed from other words. Examples:

●​ soon, here, too, well, quite

2.2 Compound Adverbs

Made by combining words. Examples:

●​ anywhere (any + where)

●​ nowhere (no + where)
●​ anyhow, therefore

2.3 Derived Adverbs

Created by adding suffixes like -ly, -wise, -ward(s) to other words. Examples:

●​ weekly, quickly, happily (-ly from adjectives)

●​ clockwise, otherwise (-wise)
●​ forwards, afterwards (-ward(s))

3. Functions of Adverbs in a Sentence

3.1 Adverbs as Modifiers

a) Modifying Adjectives

●​ She is very happy.

●​ That test was extremely difficult.

b) Modifying Other Adverbs

●​ He runs surprisingly fast.

●​ They solved the puzzle quite easily.

c) Special Cases​
Adverbs can modify:

●​ Noun phrases: It was quite a surprise.

●​ Prepositional phrases: He walked right through the door.
●​ Numbers: Almost two hundred people attended.

3.2 Adverbs as Adverbials

Adverbials can be:

●​ Single adverbs: I met her yesterday.

●​ Adverb phrases: She arrived very late.
●​ Prepositional phrases: We met at the park.
●​ Noun phrases: I saw her last week.
●​ Adverbial clauses: She left when it got dark.

4. Types of Adverbials

A) Circumstance Adverbials (Adjuncts)

Give details about an action:

✔ Time: He left yesterday.​
✔ Place: They live nearby.​
✔ Manner: She spoke calmly.​
✔ Means: We sent the package by mail.​
✔ Degree: I was totally exhausted.​
✔ Cause/Purpose: He left because he was tired.

B) Stance Adverbials (Disjuncts)

Show opinion or attitude:

✔ Certainly, she will win.​

✔ He is probably coming.​
✔ Evidently, they were wrong.

C) Linking Adverbials (Conjuncts)

Connect sentences:

✔ However, we decided to stay.​

✔ She was tired. Therefore, she slept early.​
✔ We waited for hours. Finally, they arrived.

5. Where Do Adverbs Go?

🔹
🔹 Initial position: Honestly, I didn’t know.​

🔹 Mid position (before the main verb): She often visits us.​
Final position: She answered politely.

6. Adverbs That Look Similar but Have Different Meanings

Adverb Example 1 (Literal Example 2 (Figurative

Meaning) Meaning)

Late He arrived late. I haven't seen him lately.

Hard She works hard. They could hardly see.

High The bird flew high. She is highly respected.

Deep He dug deep into the sand. She is deeply in love.

Right He turned right at the You were right about the

corner. answer.

Fair The judge ruled fair. She has fairly good grades.

1. Adjectives and Adverbs with the Same Form

Some words can be both adjectives (describing nouns) and adverbs (describing verbs) depending
on how they are used.

🔹 Examples:
●​ He is a fast runner. (fast = adjective, describes "runner")
●​ He runs fast. (fast = adverb, describes "runs")
●​ She gave me an early birthday gift. (early = adjective, describes "gift")
●​ We arrived early. (early = adverb, describes "arrived")
●​ His joke was dead serious. (dead = adverb, describes "serious")
2. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs
We compare adjectives and adverbs using three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative.

2.1 Superiority Degree (More/Higher)

We use:

●​ "-er" for short adjectives (fast → faster)

●​ "more" for longer adjectives (beautiful → more beautiful)
●​ "-est" for short adjectives (fast → fastest)
●​ "most" for longer adjectives (beautiful → most beautiful)

🔹 Examples:
●​ This test is harder than the last one. (Comparative)
●​ This is the hardest test of all. (Superlative)
●​ She speaks more fluently than her brother. (Comparative)
●​ She is the most fluent speaker in class. (Superlative)

2.2 Inferiority Degree (Less/Least)

●​ Use "less" + adjective/adverb + "than" for comparatives

●​ Use "the least" + adjective/adverb for superlatives

🔹 Examples:
●​ This movie is less interesting than the last one.
●​ That was the least exciting game of the season.
●​ She works less carefully than her coworker.

2.3 Equality Degree (As...As)

●​ Use "as" + adjective/adverb + "as" for equal things

●​ Use "so...as" in negative sentences

🔹 Examples:
●​ This book is as good as that one. (Same level)
●​ She doesn’t sing so well as her sister. (Negative comparison)

3. Spelling Rules for Comparatives and Superlatives

●​ Double the last consonant for short words: big → bigger → biggest
●​ Drop the "e": nice → nicer → nicest
●​ Change "y" to "i": happy → happier → happiest

4. Irregular Comparisons
Some adjectives and adverbs don’t follow the usual rules.

Positive Comparative Superlative

good/well better best

bad/badly worse worst

little less least

much/many more most

far farther/further farthest/furthest

🔹 Examples:
●​ This cake is better than the one I made yesterday.
●​ He is the best player on the team.
●​ I have less time today than yesterday.
●​ He traveled the farthest of all the competitors.

5. Modifying Comparisons
We can intensify or soften comparisons using words like:

●​ Stronger: much, a lot, far

●​ Weaker: slightly, a bit, somewhat

🔹 Examples:
●​ This book is far more interesting than the other one.
●​ The weather is slightly colder today.
●​ He speaks a lot faster than before.

6. Parallel Increase (The... The...)

This structure shows that when one thing increases, another does too.

🔹 Examples:
●​ The older I get, the wiser I become.
●​ The harder you study, the better your results.

7. Gradual Increase (More and More / -er and -er)

This structure shows something is continuously increasing or decreasing.

🔹 Examples:
●​ He is getting better and better at basketball.
●​ The crowd was cheering louder and louder.
●​ Her English is becoming more and more fluent.
 CLAUSE
ELEMENTS
The Subject
&
the Predicate
What Is a Clause?
🔹
🔹 A clause is a unit of meaning that can stand alone.​

🔹 Every clause contains a verb phrase (VP).​

Some sentences consist of just one clause, while others have multiple.

✔ Examples of Single-Clause Sentences:

●​ Have you got an exam on Monday? (Conversation – COV)

●​ She smiled sweetly. (Fiction – FICT)

✔ Examples of Incomplete Clauses (Missing a Verb Phrase):

●​ More sauce? (Instead of "Would you like more sauce?")

●​ Image crisis for Clinton over haircut. (A headline, missing a verb phrase.)

Even though these examples make sense in context, they are not full clauses because they lack a
verb phrase.

2. Basic Clause Elements

A clause is built from different elements, each playing a role in sentence structure.

Main Clause Elements:

Element Function Example

S (Subject) The doer of the action Sarah and Michael

disappeared.

V (Verb Phrase) The action or state Sarah and Michael

disappeared.

DO (Direct Object) What receives the She changed her dress.

action

IO (Indirect Object) Who receives He gave her a book.

something

SP (Subject Describes the subject The cheese has gone bad.

Predicative)

OP (Object Describes the object That makes me so mad.

Predicative)

A (Adverbial) Provides extra He was in the bathroom.

information

3. Common Clause Patterns

Different verbs require different structures, leading to five major clause patterns:

Intransitive Clause (S + V)

✔ Sarah and Michael disappeared.

●​ No object follows the verb.

Monotransitive Clause (S + V + DO)

✔ She changed her dress.

●​ The verb takes one direct object.

Copular Clauses (S + V + SP / S + V + A)

✔ The cheese has gone bad. (S + V + SP)​

✔ Marc was in the bathroom. (S + V + A)

●​ The verb links the subject to a description (SP) or a location (A).

Ditransitive Clause (S + V + IO + DO)

✔ He gave her the wrong kind of egg.

●​ The verb takes two objects:

○​ Indirect Object (IO) = her
○​ Direct Object (DO) = the wrong kind of egg

Complex Transitive Clause (S + V + DO + OP / S + V + DO + A)

✔ That makes me so mad. (S + V + DO + OP)​

✔ They are sending us to Disneyland. (S + V + DO + A)

●​ The verb is followed by a direct object (DO) plus either:

○​ Object Predicative (OP) (so mad)
○​ Adverbial (A) (to Disneyland)

4. The Role of the Verb: Valency

The verb phrase (VP) is the core of the clause and determines what elements must follow it.
This is called verb valency:

Valency Type Definition Example Clause Pattern Example

Verb

Intransitive No object Disappear S+V She

needed disappeared.

Monotransitive Needs one Change S + V + DO She changed

object her dress.

Ditransitive Needs two Give S + V + IO + DO He gave her a

objects book.

Complex Needs an object Make S + V + DO + OP / S That makes

Transitive + extra info + V + DO + A me so mad.
Clause Elements Overview

1. Subject and Predicate

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.

●​ Subject: The person, thing, or idea the clause is about.

●​ Predicate: The part of the clause that tells us something about the subject (usually
includes the verb).

1.1 The Subject

The subject is usually a noun phrase (a noun with or without modifiers).

Examples:

●​ The cat sleeps all day.

●​ My best friend loves pizza.
●​ The beautiful sunset painted the sky orange.

In these examples, the subject is in bold:

●​ The cat sleeps.

●​ My best friend loves pizza.

1.2 The Predicate

The predicate tells us what the subject does, experiences, or is. It always includes a verb phrase.

Examples:

●​ The cat sleeps all day.

●​ My best friend loves pizza.
●​ The beautiful sunset painted the sky orange.

Types of predicates in the provided examples:

●​ Identity of the subject: The swine flu is a pandemic disease.

●​ Attribute of the subject: The swine flu is fatal.
●​ What the subject does: The swine flu has spread rapidly all over the country.
●​ What the subject experiences: The swine flu has caused the WHO a lot of problems.

2. Distinctive Features of Clause Elements

Each clause consists of different elements that work together. Apart from the subject and verb, a
clause may contain:

1.​ Objects: Receive the action of the verb.

○​ Example: She bought a car. (Direct Object)
○​ Example: She gave me a book. (Indirect Object)
2.​ Complements: Give extra information about the subject or object.
○​ Example: She is happy. (Subject Complement)
○​ Example: They made her president. (Object Complement)
3.​ Adverbials: Give extra information about time, place, manner, etc.
○​ Example: He drives carefully.
○​ Example: We met at the park.

3. Forms of the Subject

The subject can take different forms:

 1.​ Noun Phrase (most common)
○​ The tall man is my uncle.
2.​ Pronoun
○​ She loves ice cream.
3.​ Gerund (-ing form of a verb acting as a noun)
○​ Swimming is fun.
4.​ Infinitive Phrase (to + verb acting as a noun)
○​ To travel is my dream.
5.​ Clause (a whole sentence functioning as a subject)
○​ What he said was surprising.

4. Grammatical Subjects

A grammatical subject is different from a logical subject in some cases.

Examples:

●​ It is raining. (It is the grammatical subject, but there is no logical subject.)

●​ There are many books on the table. (There is a dummy subject; the real subject is many
books.)
●​ That she won the competition is incredible. (That she won the competition is a subject
clause.)

2. Clause Elements (Parts of a Sentence)

A sentence (or clause) is made up of different elements, which are words or groups of words that
serve specific roles. These elements are:

a. Verb Phrase (V) – The Action or State

The verb phrase is the core of the sentence. It tells us what is happening or the state of
something.

Examples:

●​ She is sleeping. (The action is "is sleeping")

●​ He became angry. (The state is "became angry")

b. Subject (S) – Who or What the Sentence is About

The subject is usually a noun phrase (a noun or pronoun with extra details). It does the action or is
the topic of the sentence.

How to identify the subject:

●​ Comes before the verb (except in questions).

●​ It controls verb agreement (singular or plural).

Examples:

●​ John runs every morning. ("John" is the subject because he is doing the action.)
●​ The dogs bark loudly. ("The dogs" is the subject, and "bark" is plural to match it.)
●​ It is raining. (Here, "It" is a "dummy subject" because there is no real subject.)

c. Object (O) – Who or What Receives the Action

The object is the thing or person affected by the action.

How to identify the object:

 ●​ Comes after the verb.
●​ Only exists with transitive verbs (verbs that need an object).

Examples:

●​ She loves music. ("Music" is the object, receiving the action of "loves".)
●​ They watched the movie. ("The movie" is the object, receiving "watched".)

Two Types of Objects:

1.​ Direct Object (DO): The thing/person that directly receives the action.
○​ Example: I gave a gift. ("A gift" is directly affected.)
2.​ Indirect Object (IO): The person who receives the direct object.
○​ Example: I gave her a gift. ("Her" is the indirect object, receiving "a gift".)

Passive Test: You can turn a direct object into the subject of a passive sentence.

●​ Active: She wrote a letter.

●​ Passive: A letter was written (by her).

d. Predicative (P) – Describes the Subject or Object

A predicative tells more information about the subject or object.

Two Types:

1.​ Subject Predicative (SP) – Describes the subject.

○​ Example: He is tall. ("Tall" describes "He".)
○​ Example: That woman is a doctor. ("A doctor" describes "That woman".)
2.​ Object Predicative (OP) – Describes the object.
○​ Example: They made him angry. ("Angry" describes "him".)
○​ Example: We call her our hero. ("Our hero" describes "her".)

e. Adverbials (A) – Extra Information (Time, Place, Manner, etc.)

An adverbial gives extra details about the verb, like when, where, or how something happens.

Two Types:

1.​ Obligatory Adverbials – Needed for the sentence to make sense.

○​ Example: The book is on the table. (Without "on the table", the sentence is unclear.)
2.​ Optional Adverbials – Can be removed without breaking the sentence.
○​ Example: I ate dinner yesterday. ("Yesterday" gives extra info but isn't necessary.)

Examples of Adverbials:

●​ Time: She arrived early.

●​ Place: They live in London.
●​ Manner: He spoke softly.

f. Long Verb Phrases (Big Actions + Extra Info)

A long verb phrase includes the main verb + other elements (like objects or adverbials).

Examples:

●​ She has been working in Paris. (Long verb phrase = "has been working in Paris")
●​ They were given a surprise gift. ("Were given a surprise gift" is a long verb phrase.)
g. Peripheral Elements (Extra Words Not Part of the Main Sentence)

Some elements are loosely connected to the sentence and don’t change the core meaning.

Types of Peripheral Elements:

1.​ Conjunctions: Connect sentences. (And, but, because...)

○​ Example: And she left the party.
2.​ Parentheticals: Extra information in brackets or commas.
○​ Example: She won the race (surprisingly!).
3.​ Prefaces: Words that introduce the sentence.
○​ Example: This book, it's amazing!
4.​ Tags: Words added at the end for emphasis or confirmation.
○​ Example: She’s kind, isn’t she?
5.​ Vocatives: Words used to call or address someone.
○​ Example: Mom, can you help me?

Summary Table

Clause Element Definition Example

Verb Phrase (V) Action or state She sings beautifully.

Subject (S) Who/what does the action The dog barked.

Object (O) Who/what receives the action She saw him.

Predicative (P) Describes the subject or He is happy.

object

Adverbials (A) Extra details (time, place, We met yesterday.

manner)

Long Verb Phrase Verb + extra elements She has been waiting for
hours.

Peripheral Extra words loosely Mom, I'm home!

Elements connected

Identifying Clause Elements in Sentences

Let’s analyze some sentence structures:

1. Intransitive Verb (Vi) (No object, may have an adverbial)

Example: The baby cried loudly.

●​ S: The baby
●​ V: cried
●​ A: loudly

2. Monotransitive Verb (Vmt) (Takes a direct object)

Example: She bought a car yesterday.

●​ S: She
●​ V: bought
●​ O (Direct Object): a car
 ●​ A (Adverbial): yesterday

3. Ditransitive Verb (Vdt) (Takes two objects: indirect and direct)

Example: He gave his friend a book.

●​ S: He
●​ V: gave
●​ O (Indirect Object): his friend
●​ O (Direct Object): a book

4. Complex-Transitive Verb (Vct) (Takes an object + complement or adverbial)

Example 1: They made her happy.

●​ S: They
●​ V: made
●​ O (Direct Object): her
●​ Co (Object Complement): happy

Example 2: She put the keys on the table.

●​ S: She
●​ V: put
●​ O (Direct Object): the keys
●​ A (Adverbial): on the table

5. Linking Verb (VL) (Connects subject to complement)

Example: The sky is blue.

●​ S: The sky
●​ V: is
●​ Cs (Subject Complement): blue

Example: She became a doctor.

●​ S: She
●​ V: became
●​ Cs (Subject Complement): a doctor

How to Identify Clause Elements Easily

Method 1: Ask Questions

●​ Who/What is the subject? → The baby (S)

●​ What is happening? → cried (V)
●​ What did she buy? → a car (O)
●​ Who received the book? → his friend (IO)
●​ What did they make her? → happy (Co)

Method 2: Substitution Test

●​ He gave his friend a book. → He gave him it.

●​ She put the keys on the table. → She put them there.
●​ The sky is blue. → The sky is that.

3. FORMS OF THE SUBJECT

The subject of a sentence is always a noun or a noun equivalent (a word or group of words that
functions as a noun). Even if the subject consists of only one word (a noun), it is still considered a
Noun Phrase (NP) because it acts as a unit.

3.1 CATEGORIES FUNCTIONING AS HEADS OF THE SUBJECT

3.1.1. NOUNS

A noun can function as the head of a noun phrase and serve as the subject.

Examples:

●​ This chewing gum is good! (Specific noun as a subject)

●​ Girls love clothes. (Plural noun as a subject)
●​ Nick went to Paris last week. (Proper noun as a subject)

There are also special cases of nouns acting as subjects:

🔹 Locative subject (places used as subjects)

●​ Washington D.C. is the capital of the USA.

🔹 Temporal subject (time nouns as subjects)

●​ Monday is my favorite day.

3.1.2. NOMINAL ADJECTIVES

Adjectives can function as nouns, usually referring to a group of people or an abstract concept.

Examples:

●​ The retired in Argentina suffer a lot. (Refers to retired people in general)

●​ The disabled should have benefits. (Refers to people with disabilities)
●​ The young are generally energetic. (Refers to young people as a group)
●​ The unknown makes people feel scared. (Abstract concept)

3.1.3. PRONOUNS

Pronouns can also act as subjects.

Examples:

●​ I will consider the offer.

●​ One cannot accept such an invitation.
●​ Someone is singing.
●​ Mine was much better.
●​ Everybody is welcome.

3.1.4. PRONOMINAL GROUPS

Some pronouns, especially indefinites, can appear in "of" expressions where the second part is a
personal pronoun or a noun phrase.

Examples:

●​ Some of us will stay for the weekend.

●​ One of them has already left.
●​ Some of the waiters were quite rude.
 ●​ One of the waiters was quite rude.
●​ Most of the time was used for practical work.

3.1.5. GERUNDS

A gerund (verb + -ing) can act as the subject of a sentence.

Examples:

●​ Smoking is bad for your lungs.

●​ Sunbathing on the beach is my favorite pastime.

3.1.6. INDEPENDENT GENITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

A possessive noun can sometimes function as a subject without explicitly mentioning the
noun it replaces. The missing noun is usually understood from context.

Examples:

●​ Jenny’s was the most accurate. (Jenny’s test/article/result…)

3.1.7. NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause (a dependent clause acting as a noun) can serve as a subject.

Examples:

●​ What he said was bad.

●​ Where he is now is what I’d like to know.

3.1.8. INFINITIVE FORMS

An infinitive (to + verb) can function as a subject, though in everyday English, we often use an
anticipatory "it" for naturalness.

Examples:

●​ To err is human, to forgive is divine.

●​ To smoke more than ten cigarettes a day is really bad. (More natural: It is bad to smoke...)

3.1.9. IMPLIED SUBJECT (UNDERSTOOD SUBJECT)

In imperative sentences, the subject is usually omitted but understood to be "you".

Examples:

●​ (You) Have a look!

●​ (You) Keep still!
●​ (You) Please, do take a seat!

3.1.10. GRAMMATICAL SUBJECTS

These include dummy "it", anticipatory "it", and existential "there", which will be covered in the
next section.

Examples:

●​ It is raining. (Dummy "it" – refers to weather)

●​ It is important to study. (Anticipatory "it" – replaces "To study is important")
●​ There is a book on the table. (Existential "there" – introduces a new subject)
4. GRAMMATICAL SUBJECTS

In English, every sentence must have a subject. However, in some cases, the subject does not refer
to a specific noun or person. Instead, we use "it" as a placeholder to fill the subject position.

There are two types of grammatical subjects with "it":

1.​ Dummy (Empty, Prop) "It" → used when talking about time, weather, or distance.
2.​ Anticipatory "It" → used when the real subject is placed later in the sentence.

4.1 DUMMY (EMPTY) "IT"

What is Dummy "It"?

Dummy "it" does not refer to anything specific. It is only used to make the sentence
grammatically correct.

Examples of Dummy "It":

(a) Time Expressions

●​ It is late. (Not: Is late.)

●​ It is 5 o’clock. (Not: Is 5 o’clock.)
●​ It was my birthday yesterday.

(b) Weather Expressions

●​ It is raining. (Not: Is raining.)

●​ It was very cold last night.
●​ It snows a lot in Canada.

(c) Distance Expressions

●​ It is not far from here to the school.

●​ It’s a long way to the nearest hospital.

In Spanish, we often omit the subject, but in English, "it" is required.

Spanish Incorrect Correct English

English

Es tarde. Is late. It is late.

Está lloviendo. Is raining. It is raining.

Es primavera. Is spring. It is spring.

Son las 3 en Is 3 o’clock It is 3 o’clock

punto. sharp. sharp.

4.2 ANTICIPATORY "IT"

What is Anticipatory "It"?

In some sentences, the real subject (the notional subject) is long or complex. To keep the
sentence structure natural, we place "it" at the beginning and move the real subject to the end.

Examples of Anticipatory "It":

●​ It is important to study English.​

(Real subject: "To study English" → moved to the end)
●​ It is difficult to understand this rule.
●​ It was surprising that he failed the test.
●​ It is necessary to get enough sleep.

Compare these versions:

🔹 Without Anticipatory "It":

🔹 With Anticipatory "It":
●​ To study English is important. (Correct but unnatural)​

●​ It is important to study English. (More natural)

More Examples from the Text "A Kind of Sermon"

Sentence from the text:

●​ It is probably easier for teachers than for students to appreciate the reasons why learning
English seems difficult.​
(Real subject: "To appreciate the reasons why learning English seems difficult")

Sentence from the text:

●​ It can be hard to convince them that they are still making progress.​
(Real subject: "To convince them that they are still making progress")

Sentence from the text:

●​ It is hardly surprising that some give up in disgust.​

(Real subject: "That some give up in disgust")

GRAMMATICAL SUBJECTS

1. DUMMY (EMPTY) "IT"

In English, some sentences require a subject even when there is no clear noun or pronoun to use.
In these cases, we use dummy "it" as a placeholder. This happens mostly with expressions about
time, weather, and distance.

Examples:

Time:

●​ It is 8 o’clock. (NOT: Is 8 o’clock.)

●​ It’s Monday.
●​ It was my birthday yesterday.

Weather:

●​ It is raining. (NOT: Is raining.)

●​ It was very windy yesterday.
●​ It will be sunny tomorrow.

Distance:
 ●​ It is 5 miles to the nearest town.
●​ It’s a long way from here to your house.
●​ It was not far from the train station.

General statements:

●​ It is important to drink water.

●​ It’s hard to learn a new language.
●​ It will take time to solve this problem.

Why do we use “it” here?​

In these cases, “it” does not refer to anything specific. It only fills the subject position because
English sentences must have a subject.

2. ANTICIPATORY "IT"

Sometimes, English speakers postpone the real subject to the end of the sentence for emphasis
or clarity. In these cases, "it" comes first, but the real subject appears later in the sentence.

Examples:

With an infinitive ("to" + verb):

●​ It is difficult to understand physics.

○​ (Real subject = "to understand physics")
●​ It was exciting to travel to Japan.

With a "that" clause:

●​ It is surprising that she won the race.

○​ (Real subject = "that she won the race")
●​ It is obvious that he is lying.

With a gerund ("-ing" verb):

●​ It’s no use arguing.

○​ (Real subject = "arguing")
●​ It was fun playing soccer.

With a wh- clause:

●​ It doesn’t matter what you say.

●​ It is unclear why they left.

Why do we use "it" here?​

The real subject is long or complex, so placing "it" at the beginning makes the sentence clearer
and easier to read.

3. EXISTENTIAL "THERE"

English also uses “there” as a placeholder subject to introduce new information, especially when
talking about the existence of something. This is called existential "there."

Examples:

Basic structure:

●​ There is a book on the table.

 ●​ There are many people at the party.

With different verbs (not just "be"):

●​ There seems to be a problem.

●​ There appeared a strange light in the sky.
●​ There arose a conflict between them.

With phrases for emphasis:

●​ There’s nothing we can do about it.

●​ There was no way to fix the car.
●​ There exist many theories about this topic.

Why do we use "there" here?

●​ To introduce something new in a sentence.

●​ To make the sentence more natural (e.g., “A problem seems to be” sounds unnatural, so
we say “There seems to be a problem.”)

SUMMARY

Placeholder When to Use It Examples

Subject

Dummy "It" Time, Weather, It is raining. / It’s late. / It’s 5 miles to the
Distance city.

Anticipatory "It" Delaying a subject for It is hard to learn Japanese. / It is

clarity obvious that he lied.

Existential Introducing There is a cat outside. / There was a

"There" something new noise in the room.

COMPLEMENTATION OF VERBS​
BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS
English sentences follow a typical word order known as Unmarked Word Order:

a) Subject + Verb + (Object) → S + V + (O)​

b) Subject + Verb + (Adjunct) → S + V + (A)

Three key points to remember:

1.​ In 90% of cases, the subject appears at the beginning of the sentence.
2.​ Some verbs require a complement (an object or an adjunct), while others do not.
3.​ The object and adjunct are placed in brackets because they are optional for some verbs
but necessary for others.

Marked Word Order occurs when word order is changed for emphasis, such as:

1.​ Here is another possibility. (A + V + S)

2.​ Bikes he sells. (O + V + S) → Used to correct a previous statement.
A more natural response to "He sells motorbikes" could be a cleft sentence:​
A: He sells motorbikes.​
B: No, it’s bikes that he sells.

TYPES OF VERBS

There are three main types of verbs in English:

1.​ Linking Verbs (Copulas) – connect the subject to a complement.

2.​ Intransitive Verbs – do not take an object.
3.​ Transitive Verbs – require an object.

Some linguists, such as R.A. Close, categorize verbs into five patterns:

1.​ Intransitive Verbs (Vi) – No object.

2.​ Linking Verbs + Subject Complement (VL + Cs) – Describe the subject.
3.​ Monotransitive Verbs + Direct Object (Vmt + Od) – Require one object.
4.​ Ditransitive Verbs (Vdt) – Require both a direct and an indirect object.
○​ Vdt + Oi + Od → Indirect Object + Direct Object
○​ Vdt + Od + to/for Oi → Direct Object + "to/for" Indirect Object
5.​ Complex Transitive Verbs (Vct) – Require a direct object + an object complement or an
obligatory adverbial.
○​ Vct + Od + Co → Direct Object + Object Complement
○​ Vct + Od + Ao → Direct Object + Obligatory Adverbial

1. INTRANSITIVE VERBS
An intransitive verb does not require an object. The action or event involves only the subject.

Examples:

●​ The girl screamed. (Vi)

●​ Her whole body ached. (Vi)
●​ Such people exist. (Vi)

Common Intransitive Verbs:​

ache, arise, arrive, bleed, blush, collapse, cough, cry, die, disappear, exist, expire, faint, fall, happen,
laugh, moan, rise, scream, shine, sleep, smile, sneeze, swim, vanish, wait, work, yawn.

1.1 Complete Predication Intransitive Verbs

Some intransitive verbs can stand alone but may take an optional adjunct (Aopt).

Examples:

●​ The coach left (early, at 6:30, from the station).

●​ The lady vanished (a minute later, from sight).

1.2 Incomplete Predication Intransitive Verbs

Some intransitive verbs must be followed by an obligatory adverbial (Aobl).

Examples:

●​ "Star Trek" lasts more than two hours. (Obligatory Adverbial)​

("Star Trek lasts." is incorrect)
●​ The conductor remained in the auditorium. (Obligatory Adverbial)

Some groups of intransitive verbs always require an adjunct:

a) Verbs of Movement – Require direction adjuncts.

●​ He went back to his room. (Vi + Obligatory Adverbial)

●​ I traveled south. (Vi + Obligatory Adverbial)

Common Verbs: come, crawl, flow, gallop, glide, go, plunge, run, stroll, travel, walk.

b) Stance Verbs – Require position adjuncts.

●​ Donald was lying on the bed. (Vi + Obligatory Adverbial)

●​ She lives in Paris. (Vi + Obligatory Adverbial)

Common Verbs: live, hang, lie, stay, sit, stand.

c) Extent Verbs – Require extent adjuncts.

●​ The storm extends all the way from here to Newfoundland. (Vi + Obligatory Adverbial)

Final Notes

●​ Some verbs always require an adjunct (e.g., "behave," "progress").

○​ It behaves like a squirrel. (Vi + Obligatory Adverbial)
●​ Verbs like look, gaze, stare require a directional adjunct (usually starting with "at").
○​ She stared at the painting. (Vi + Obligatory Adverbial)
2. TRANSITIVE VERBS

2.1. Monotransitive Verbs (Vmt + Od)

Example Verb (Vmt) Direct Object

(Od)

The extra profit justifies the justifies the investment

investment.

He has committed a disgraceful committed a disgraceful

action. action

I saw that play. saw that play

Herman buys the newspaper every buys the newspaper

day.

Dogs don’t eat vegetables. eat vegetables

I heard a noise. heard a noise

Common Monotransitive Verbs

address, affect, avoid, bear, blame, build, calm, claim, commit, complete, convince, damage,
demand, describe, design, destroy, discuss, exchange, expect, favour, fill, free, handle, hate, have,
hear, include, influence, justify, kill, like, mention, need, plant, prefer, prevent, produce, raise,
reach, receive, recommend, remove, rent, report, reveal, see, sell, specify, spot, test, trust,
welcome.

Monotransitive Verbs with Human Objects

anger, brief, comfort, contact, frighten, interest, suit, surprise, tease, thank, trouble, warn.

2.1.2 Transitive Verbs Followed by Reflexive Pronouns

Example Verb Object (Reflexive

(Vmt/Vdt) Pronoun)

After the meeting, he introduced introduced himself

himself to me.

Don’t deceive yourself. deceive yourself

We must ask ourselves several ask ourselves

questions.

2.1.3 Transitive Verbs Followed by a Cognate Object

Example Verb (Vmt) Direct Object (Od -

Cognate)

Steve smiled a thin, cruel smile. smiled a thin, cruel smile

He lived the life of a rich gentleman. lived the life

Cognate Object Verbs

dance, die, dream, laugh, live, sigh, smile.

2.2 Ditransitive Verbs (Vdt + Oi + Od or Vdt + Od + to/for Oi)

Example Verb Indirect Object Direct Object

(Vdt) (Oi) (Od)

Alice bought her mother a theatre bought her mother a theatre ticket
ticket.

Alice bought a theatre ticket for bought for her mother a theatre ticket
her mother.

Alice will give her mother the give her mother the ticket
ticket.

Alice will give the ticket to her give to her mother the ticket
mother.

Ditransitive Verb Patterns

1.​ Vdt + Oi + Od or Vdt + Od + to Oi bring, feed, give, hand, leave, lend, mail, offer, owe, pass,
pay, play, post, read, rent, sell, send, serve, show, sing, take, teach, tell, write.
2.​ Vdt + Oi + Od or Vdt + Od + for Oi bake, bring, build, buy, cash, cook, cut, fetch, find, fix,
get, keep, leave, make, mix, order, paint, play, pour, prepare, save, set, sing, spare, take,
win, write.
3.​ Vdt + Od + to Oi explain, announce, introduce, suggest, pronounce, mention.
4.​ Vdt + Od + for Oi open, collect, change, design.
5.​ Vdt + Oi + Od ask, cost, charge.

2.3 Complex Transitive Verbs

Vct + Od + Obligatory Adverbial

Example Verb Object Obligatory

(Vct) (Od) Adverbial

They put the ladder against the wall. put the ladder against the wall

Tim kept his hands in his pocket. kept his hands in his pocket

The paramedics laid the man on the laid the man on the stretcher
stretcher.

Vct + Od + Object Complement

B1) Vct + Od + Co (Noun Phrase)

Example Verb Object Object Complement (Co

(Vct) (Od) - NP)

They will elect her president of elect her president of the board
the board.

We found the house a ruin. found the house a ruin

B2) Vct + Od + Co (Adjective Phrase)

Example Verb Object Object Complement (Co - Adj.

(Vct) (Od) Phrase)

We found the house found the house empty

empty.

I’ll paint the office paint the office white

white.

They considered him considere him stupid

stupid. d

3. LINKING VERBS (Describing and Identifying Things)

Definition and Function Linking verbs, also known as copulas, are special verbs used to describe
or identify someone or something. They connect the subject of a sentence to a complement,
which provides more information about the subject.

Examples:

●​ Smoking is harmful to your health.

●​ The station seemed very small.
●​ He looked British.
●​ I became very fond of her.

A linking verb does not show action; instead, it connects the subject with a subject complement,
which can be either an adjective phrase or a noun phrase.

Linking Verb Patterns

1. Linking Verb + Noun Phrase The subject complement is a noun or noun phrase that identifies
the subject.

Examples:

●​ Lisa is my personal assistant. (S + VL + Cs (Noun Phrase))

●​ He became a doctor.
●​ That man remains a mystery.

2. Linking Verb + Adjective Phrase The subject complement is an adjective or adjective phrase
that describes the subject.

Examples:

●​ Lisa is really gorgeous. (S + VL + Cs (Adjective Phrase))

●​ The kid looked miserable.
●​ This pear tastes sweet.
●​ The teacher seemed very patient.

Common Linking Verbs

Many verbs function as linking verbs, including:

●​ Be (is, are, was, were, etc.)

●​ Appear, feel, look, prove, seem, sound, stay, remain
 ●​ Become, grow, turn, turn into
●​ Smell, taste, get, go, run, fall, keep, come

Linking Verbs Indicating a Change of State

Some linking verbs express a transition or transformation. They often function as synonyms of
“become.”

Examples:

●​ The baby fell asleep.

●​ The frightened woman went pale.
●​ Meat goes bad if left outside the fridge.
●​ She grew into a confident leader.
●​ The bus driver ran wild.
●​ The leaves turn yellow in autumn.

Subject Complements: Description vs. Identification

A) Describing Things: Adjectives as Complements

Many adjectives can act as subject complements, and they can be modified in different ways.

Examples:

●​ I am proud of my students.
●​ Their house was larger than expected.
●​ The cake smells delicious.

Common verbs that take adjectives as complements:

●​ Turn, appear, feel, look, prove, seem, smell, get, sound, go, taste, grow, become, keep,
come, remain, stay

B) Identifying Things: Noun Phrases as Complements

Some linking verbs take noun phrases as subject complements, helping to identify or define the
subject.

Examples:

●​ She became a teacher.

●​ The issue constitutes a major problem.
●​ This book represents a masterpiece.

Common verbs that take noun phrases as complements:

●​ Be, seem, become, sound, remain, feel, look, prove, fall, constitute, make, represent,
comprise, form

Linking Verbs + Adverbials

When the verb to be is followed by an adverbial, some grammarians classify it under the pattern:

Linking Verb + Obligatory Adverbial

Examples:

●​ Everything is in the air.

●​ Your fax was here!
 ●​ Katmandu is in Nepal.

Some linguists, however, argue that in such cases, “to be” functions as an intransitive verb
followed by an obligatory adverbial.
PHRASES
OVERVIEW

1.​ Definition and Classification

2.​ The Noun Phrase
3.​ The Adjective Phrase
4.​ The Adverb Phrase
5.​ The Prepositional Phrase
6.​ The Verb Phrase
7.​ Non-Finite Clauses
1. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
A grammatical unit typically consists of one or more elements at a lower level. For example:

●​ A sentence consists of one or more clauses.

●​ A clause consists of one or more phrases.
●​ A phrase consists of one or more words.

What Is a Phrase?

🔹
🔹 A phrase is a higher-level unit made up of words​

🔹 APhrases
phrase can be a single word or multiple words​
can be substituted and moved around

✔ Example of Phrase Structure:​

Sentence: The opposition demands a more representative government.​
Broken into phrases:

●​ [The opposition] (noun phrase – subject)

●​ [demands] (verb phrase – verb)
●​ [a more representative government] (noun phrase – object)

✔ Substitution Test:

●​ [It] [demands] [something].

●​ The phrase "a more representative government" can be replaced with "something",
proving it's a phrase.

✔ Movement Test:

●​ [A more representative government] [is demanded] [by [the opposition]].

●​ Moving the phrase keeps the meaning, confirming it as a unit.

2. How Phrase Structure Affects Meaning

Sometimes, the way words are grouped into phrases affects meaning.

Example: They passed the table with the two men.​

Two Possible Interpretations:​
[They] [passed] [the table [with [the two men]]]. (The two men are sitting at the table.)​
[They] [passed] [the table] [with [the two men]]. (They were accompanied by the two men.)

The different phrase structures create two distinct meanings!

3. Types of Phrases & Their Roles

Different phrases serve different syntactic functions:

🔹 Noun Phrase (NP) – Acts as a subject, object, or complement.​

✔ Example: [The kitty] [loves] [Mommy]. (The subject and object are noun phrases.)

🔹 Verb Phrase (VP) – Includes the verb and any auxiliary verbs.​
✔ Example: [will be following] (future progressive verb phrase.)

🔹 Prepositional Phrase (PP) – Starts with a preposition and provides additional context.​
✔ Example: [on the dismantling [of a nuclear plant]]. (The phrase is embedded within another
phrase.)
🔹 Adjective Phrase (AdjP) – Modifies a noun or acts as a complement.​
✔ Example: [A more representative government]. (The adjective phrase modifies
"government.")

🔹 Adverb Phrase (AdvP) – Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.​

✔ Example: [Very quickly]. (The adverb phrase modifies "quickly.")

4. How Phrases Differ in Different Texts

Spoken vs. Written Language:

●​ Conversation uses short, simple phrases, mostly one-word phrases.

●​ News writing uses longer, multi-word phrases with embedded structures.
●​ Academic writing has the most complex phrase structures with multiple layers of
embedding.

Example from News Text:​

✔ [Work [on [the dismantling [of [a nuclear reprocessing plant [at [Sellafield]]]]]]]

●​ This noun phrase contains multiple embedded prepositional phrases, making it complex.

Example from Conversation:​

✔ [Do you want to go by yourself?]

●​ The phrase "Do you want" is split, making it more fluid and natural for speech.

2. THE NOUN PHRASE

A noun phrase (NP) has a noun (common, proper, or abstract) or a noun equivalent (pronoun,
gerund, nominal adjective) as its head.

Task 2: Identify noun phrases in the following text and categorize their heads as a noun (N),
pronoun (P), nominal adjective (A), or gerund (G):

The homeless need more help from the government. They not only need food and
shelter but also a decent job. Living on the streets as tramps must be humiliating.

A noun phrase may include determiners and modifiers, as seen in:

●​ a decent job → [Det. + Adj + N]

●​ The government → [Det. + N]

2.1 SYNTACTIC ROLES OF THE NOUN PHRASE

A noun phrase can function as:

●​ Subject (S): Those workers were really efficient.

●​ Direct Object (Od): Sheila told us the truth.
●​ Indirect Object (Oi): The cashier charged the elderly man two dollars.
●​ Subject Complement (Cs): They have always been good companions.
●​ Object Complement (Co): The school committee appointed my neighbor headmaster of
the school.
●​ Prepositional Complement (C prep): Parrots abound in Córdoba.
●​ Adverbial (Adv): Last week, we visited the museum.

2.2 NOUN EQUIVALENTS

A noun equivalent performs the same function as a noun but belongs to a different category:

●​ Gerunds: Reading is a receptive skill. (S)

●​ Nominal adjectives: The deaf-mute must learn lip-reading. (S)
●​ Pronouns: Everybody should hand in their assignment tomorrow. (S)

3. THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE

An adjective phrase is a group of words built around an adjective (the head). It may include
modifiers (words that change the intensity of the adjective) and complements (words that
complete its meaning).

Structure of an Adjective Phrase

1.​ Modifiers (optional) → Adjective (head) → Complement (optional)

Examples of Adjective Phrases:

●​ Very old (modifier + adjective)

●​ Incredibly beautiful (modifier + adjective)
●​ Good enough (adjective + modifier after it)
●​ Guilty of a crime (adjective + complement)

1. How Adjective Phrases Work

A) Modifiers in Adjective Phrases

Modifiers usually answer "How [adjective]?" and describe the degree of the quality.

✔ Examples:

●​ Very lucky (How lucky? → Very lucky.)

●​ Desperately poor (How poor? → Desperately poor.)
●​ So obnoxious that she had to be expelled (How obnoxious? → So obnoxious.)

B) Complements in Adjective Phrases

Complements give extra information about the adjective, answering "In what respect?"

✔ Examples:

●​ Guilty of a serious crime (Guilty in what way? → Of a serious crime.)

●​ Slow to respond (Slow in what way? → To respond.)
●​ More blatant than anything they had done before (More blatant in what way? → Than
anything they had done before.)

2. Common Uses of Adjective Phrases

A) As a Modifier Before a Noun (Attributive Use)

In this case, the adjective phrase describes a noun and comes before it.

✔ Examples:

●​ He’s [a deeply sick man]. (Adjective phrase: "deeply sick")

●​ We saw [a very good movie] last night. (Adjective phrase: "very good")
●​ She asked [a slightly different question]. (Adjective phrase: "slightly different")

B) As a Subject Predicative (After the Verb "Be")

Here, the adjective phrase follows the verb and describes the subject.

✔ Examples:

●​ That’s right. (Adjective phrase: "right")

●​ He’s totally crazy. (Adjective phrase: "totally crazy")
●​ Gabby was afraid to say anything. (Adjective phrase: "afraid to say anything")

3. Split Adjective Phrases

Sometimes, an adjective phrase can be split by the noun it describes.

✔ Examples:

●​ You couldn’t have a better name than that.​

(Adjective phrase: "better than that" → split by the noun "name.")
●​ When he plays his best, he’s a really tough player to beat.​
(Adjective phrase: "really tough to beat" → split by "player.")

4. THE ADVERB PHRASE

An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb. It has an adverb as its main
word (head) and may include modifiers (words that change or intensify the meaning) or
complements (words that complete its meaning).

Structure of Adverb Phrases

1.​ Modifiers (optional) → Adverb (head) → Complements (optional)

Examples of Adverb Phrases

●​ Very soon (modifier + adverb)
●​ Quite easily (modifier + adverb)
●​ More quickly than expected (adverb + complement)
●​ Fortunately enough (adverb + modifier)

How Adverb Phrases Function

Adverb phrases can play different roles in a sentence:

1. Modifying an adjective or another adverb

They change the intensity of an adjective or adverb.

●​ He was [extremely happy]. (The adverb phrase modifies the adjective happy.)
●​ She finished [incredibly quickly]. (The adverb phrase modifies the adverb quickly.)

2. Acting as an adverbial in a sentence

They describe how, when, where, or to what extent an action happens.

●​ She smiled [sweetly]. (Describes how she smiled.)

●​ They sang [amazingly well]. (Describes how they sang.)
●​ He left [quite early]. (Describes when he left.)
 Adverb Phrase vs. Adverbial
●​ An adverb phrase is a grammatical structure (a group of words with an adverb as the
main word).
●​ An adverbial is a function in a sentence (a word, phrase, or clause that adds information
about the verb).

Example:

●​ Incredibly fast is an adverb phrase because it consists of a modifier (incredibly) and an

adverb (fast).
●​ He ran incredibly fast. → Incredibly fast is an adverbial in this sentence because it modifies
the verb ran.

5. THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

A prepositional phrase consists of:

1.​ A preposition (e.g., in, on, at, to, with, after)

2.​ A noun phrase (called the prepositional complement)

Examples of Prepositional Phrases:

●​ To town (Preposition: to, Complement: town)

●​ In the morning (Preposition: in, Complement: the morning)
●​ On the night of the first day (Preposition: on, Complement: the night → contains another
prepositional phrase: of the first day)

1. Functions of Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases act as modifiers or adverbials, providing extra details about location, time,
manner, or relationships between elements in a sentence.

A) As an Adverbial (Modifying the Whole Clause)

Prepositional phrases often function as adverbials, giving information about time, place, reason,
etc.

✔ Examples:

●​ He worked [in a shop]. (Where did he work? → In a shop.)

●​ He retired [after three minor heart attacks] [at the age of 36]. (When did he retire? →
After three minor heart attacks, at 36.)

B) As a Modifier or Complement After a Noun

Prepositional phrases can modify nouns, adding extra details about them.

✔ Examples:

●​ He was a poet, {a teacher [of philosophy]}, and {a man [with a terrible recent history]}.​
(The phrases "of philosophy" and "with a terrible recent history" modify "teacher" and
"man", respectively.)
●​ That is {the ambition [of {the industrial development commission [of a small
Pennsylvania steel town]}]}.​
(Prepositional phrases "of the industrial development commission" and "of a small
Pennsylvania steel town" describe "ambition" and "commission," respectively.)
 2. Complex Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrases can include embedded prepositional phrases (a phrase inside another
phrase).

✔ Examples:

●​ On the night [of the first day] (Prepositional phrase inside another.)
●​ In a street [with no name] (The phrase "with no name" modifies "street.")

They can also take complement clauses (a clause acting like a noun phrase):

✔ Examples:

●​ Instructions [on where they are used]. (Complement clause "where they are used"
follows the preposition "on.")
●​ It was hard to live in Missouri [after spending so much time in California]. (The "after"
phrase explains when it was hard to live there.)

3. Extended Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases can be expanded using adverbs or particles that add meaning.

✔ Examples:

●​ Back to the fifties ("Back" adds direction.)

●​ Down in the south ("Down" adds location.)
●​ Exactly at noon ("Exactly" adds precision.)
●​ Nearly till eleven ("Nearly" adds degree.)

4. Stranded Prepositions
A stranded preposition appears when the prepositional complement is moved away from the
preposition. This often happens in questions, relative clauses, or informal speech.

✔ Examples:

●​ What more could a child ask for? (Instead of: "For what more could a child ask?")
●​ The paper it is written on. (Instead of: "The paper on which it is written.")

Even though some traditional grammar rules disapprove of stranded prepositions, they are very
common in modern English, especially in conversation.

6. THE VERB PHRASE

A verb phrase is a group of words built around a main verb, which may stand alone or be
accompanied by auxiliary verbs (helping verbs). The auxiliaries modify the meaning by showing
tense, aspect, mood, or voice.

Structure of Verb Phrases

1.​ Main verb (head) → Optional auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) before it

Examples of Verb Phrases:

 ●​ She sings. (Main verb only)
●​ She is singing. (Auxiliary + main verb)
●​ She has been singing. (Multiple auxiliaries + main verb)
●​ She will have been singing. (Even more auxiliaries!)

Types of Verb Phrases

1. Finite vs. Non-Finite Verb Phrases

●​ Finite Verb Phrases show tense (past/present) and can include modal verbs.
○​ She sings beautifully. (present tense)
○​ She sang beautifully. (past tense)
○​ She will sing beautifully. (includes modal auxiliary: will)
●​ Non-Finite Verb Phrases do not show tense and cannot stand alone in a sentence.
○​ To sing beautifully (infinitive phrase, non-finite)
○​ Singing beautifully (participle phrase, non-finite)

Common Verb Phrase Forms

Tense/Aspect Example Verb Phrase (using
"show")

Simple Present shows, show

Present Progressive is showing

Present Perfect has shown

Present Perfect has been showing

Progressive

Simple Past showed

Past Progressive was showing

Past Perfect had shown

Past Perfect had been showing

Progressive

Modal (Future could show, might show

Possibility)

Modal Perfect could have shown

Examples in Sentences:

●​ The movie is showing now. (progressive form – happening now)

●​ He had shown me the way. (past perfect – action completed before another past event)
●​ She might have been showing them the pictures. (modal perfect progressive – possibility
in the past)

Split (Discontinuous) Verb Phrases

Verb phrases can be split in sentences, especially in questions and with adverbs.

✔ In Questions:
 ●​ What’s he doing? (The verb phrase is "is doing", but "he" separates it.)

✔ With Adverbs:

●​ She has definitely started well. (The adverb "definitely" interrupts the verb phrase "has
started.")

7. NON-FINITE CLAUSES
A non-finite clause is a clause where the verb does not indicate tense or mood. These include:

7.1 -ING PARTICIPLE CLAUSES

●​ Modifier: The boy reading at the back is our best student.

●​ Adverbial: Reading an old book, he came across a photograph.

7.2 -ED PARTICIPLE CLAUSES

●​ Modifier: The only exam corrected in blue is Tina’s.

●​ Adverbial: Helped by her teacher, Sue passed the exam.

7.3 INFINITIVE CLAUSES

●​ Modifier: The last person to leave was the suspect.

●​ Adverbial: We shouted to warn everybody.
●​ Subject: To give is more rewarding than to receive.

7.4 GERUNDIAL CLAUSES

●​ Subject: Reading historical novels is my grandma’s favorite hobby.

●​ Object: My grandma loves reading historical novels.
●​ Prepositional Complement: The police arrested Mike for speeding.
Reference

Longman student grammar of spoken and written English. Douglas Biber, Susan
Conrad Geoffrey Leech, Longman
Grammar Explorer 3. Amy Cooper and Samuela Eckstut-Dider, Cengage-National
Geographic Learning
Grammar for Great Writing B, Keith S. Folse, Deborah Gordon, Barbara Smith-Palinkas,
Cengage-National Geographic Learning
Advanced Grammar in Use, Fourth Edition, Martin Hewings, Cambridge
English Grammar in Use Intermediate, Fourth Edition, Louise Hashemi with Raymond
Murphy, Cambridge.