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 22EC401 CONTROL ENGINEERING

Department : ECE
Batch/Year : 2023- 2027/II
Created by : Dr.SK.Hedayath Basha ASP/ECE
Ms.C.NITHIYA AP/ECE
Date : 28.01.2025

4
Table of Contents
1. Course Content
2. Course Objectives
3. Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code)
4. Syllabus (With Subject Code, Name, LTPC details)
5. Course outcomes
6. CO - PO/PSO Mapping
7. Lecture Plan
8. Activity based learning
9. Lecture Notes
10. Assignments
11. Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)
12. Part B Q & A (with K level and CO)
13. Supportive online Certification courses
14. Real time Application in day to day life and Industry
15. Contents beyond the Syllabus
16. Assessment Schedule
17. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
18. Mini Project suggestions

5
1.Course Content

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

STABILITY AND COMPENSATION DESIGN

STATE VARIABLES AND STATE SPACE MODELLING

6
2.Course Objectives

To determine the transfer function models of mechanical and

electrical systems

To develop adequate knowledge in the time response of

systems and steady state error analysis

To analyze the open loop and closed loop frequency response of

linear systems

To design the compensators for Linear Systems

To estimate stability for Linear Systems

To make use of state variable representation of physical

systems

3.Pre Requisites
(Course Names with Code)

22MA201 Engineering Mathematics II

22EC201 Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Circuits

7
4.SYLLABUS

22EC401 CONTROL ENGINEERING LTPC 3024

UNIT I MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Basic elements in control systems: – Open and closed loop systems –
Mathematical model and Electrical analogy of mechanical systems –
Transfer function – Block diagram reduction techniques – Signal flow
graphs- Applications of Control system

UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Time response: Time domain specifications – Types of test input – I and
II order system response – Error coefficients – Generalized error series –
Steady state error – Effects of P, PI, PID modes of feedback control

UNIT III FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Frequency response analysis – Bode plot – Polar plot. Determination of
closed loop response from open loop response –M and N circles.
Correlation between frequency domain and time domain specifications

UNIT IV STABILITY AND COMPENSATOR DESIGN

Characteristics equation – Routh Hurwitz criterion- Root locus
construction – Effect of Lag, lead and lag-lead compensation on
frequency response - Design of Lag, lead and lag lead compensator
using bode plots.

UNIT V STATE VARIABLE AND STATE SPACE

MODELLING
Concept of state variables – State models for linear and time invariant
Systems – Solution of state and output equation in controllable canonical
form – Concepts of controllability and observability.

8
5.Course outcomes

Upon completion of the course, the student should be able to:

CO1: Develop mathematical model of linear mechanical

and electrical systems

CO2: Model the time response analysis of first and second

order systems

CO3: Analyze the frequency response of open and closed

loop systems CO4: Design the compensators for Linear
Systems

CO5: Analyze stability methods for Linear Systems

CO6: Examine the state variables, controllability and

observability of linear and time invariant systems

9
6.CO- PO/PSO Mapping
CO

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES(PO) PSO*

PO10

PO11

PO12

PSO1

PSO2

PSO3
PO4
PO1

PO2

PO3

PO5

PO6

PO7

PO9
P08
CO6 CO5 CO4 CO3 CO2 CO1

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

*Program Specific Outcome

10
Table ofContents
Page
S.No Contents
Number

1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 7

3 Syllabus 8

4 Course outcomes 9

5 CO - PO/PSO Mapping 10

6 UNIT IV STABILITY AND COMPENSATOR DESIGN

6.1 Lecture Plan 13

6.2 Activity basedlearning 14

16
6.3 Lecture Notes

4.1 Characteristics equation 16

4.2 Routh Hurwitz criterion 19

4.3 Root Locus Construction 33

4.4 Construction of compensators with root locus

4.5 Design of compensators 56

4.6 Effect of Lead compensation on frequency response 59

4.7 Design of lead compensator using bode plots 63

4.8 Effect of lag compensation on frequency response 71

4.9 Design of Lag compensator using bode plots. 74

4.10. Effect lag-lead compensation on frequency response 87

4.11 Design of lag lead compensator using bode plots. 90

6.4 Assignments 106

11
 Page
S.No Contents
Number

6.5 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO) 107

6.6 Part B Q 112

6.7 Supportive online Certification courses 114

6.8 Real time Application in day to day life and Industry 115

6.9 Contents beyond the Sylabus 117

7 Assessment Schedule 119

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 120

9 Mini Project suggestions 121

12
 6.1.Lecture Plan
UNIT IV STABILITY AND COMPENSATOR DESIGN

Taxonomy
pertaining
Proposed

Delivery
Mode of
Periods

Actual
No. of

Date

level
S.No

date

CO
Topic

Characteristics
1 1 CO5 K2
equation

Routh Hurwitz
2 1 CO5 K2
criterion

Root Locus
3 1 CO5 K3
Construction

Construction of
4 compensators with 1 CO5 K3
root locus
Effect of Lag, lead
and lag-lead
5 compensation on 1 CO5 K3
frequency
response
Design of lead
6 compensator using 1 K3
CO5
bode plots
Design of lead
7 compensator 1 K3
CO5
using bode plots
Design of lag
8 compensator 1 K3
CO5
using bode plots
Design of lag lead
9 compensator 1 K3
CO5
using bode plots.

13
 6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
ACTIVITY 1

From the given diagram, identify the following:

1. What is this diagram called?
2. What is the order of the system?
3. Is the plot symmetric. If so, why?
4. How many zeros does the system have?
5. Is there any break away point or break-in point. If so, what does it signify?
6. The given diagram crosses the imaginary axis. What does it signify?

Answer
1. Root locus
2. 3
3. yes. Symmetric about x axis. Because Complex roots occur in pair
4. No zeros
5. Breakaway point. Because, two locus moves from real axis at same point
6. It says that the system is unstable for larger values of K
 6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
ACTIVITY 2

1. Connect the diagram and identify the word.

2. Connect the diagram and identify the word.

Answer
1. Routh-Hurwitz (Edward Routh and Adolf Hurwitz)
2. Poles and zeros
 6.3 Lecture Notes
UNIT 4- STABILITY AND COMPENSATOR DESIGN
4.1 CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION
Definition of stability
The term stability refers to the stable working condition of a control
system. Every working system is designed to be stable. In a stable system, the
response or output is predictable, finite and stable for a given input (or for any
changes in input or for any changes in system parameters).
The different definitions of the stability are the following
A system is stable, if its output is bounded (finite) for any bounded
(finite) input.
A system is asymptotically stable, if in the absence of the input, the
output tends towards zero (or to the equilibrium state) irrespective of
initial conditions.
A system is stable if for a bounded disturbing input signal the output
vanishes ultimately as t approaches infinity.
A system is unstable if for a bounded disturbing input signal the output
is of infinite amplitude or oscillatory.
For a bounded input signal, if the output has constant amplitude
oscillations then the system may be stable or unstable under some
limited constraints. Such a system is called limitedly stable.
If a system output is stable for all variations of its parameters, then the
system is called absolutely stable system
If a system output is stable for a limited range of variations of its
parameters, then the system is called conditionally stable system.
IMPULSE RESPONSE OF A SYSTEM
Let, M(s) — Closed loop transfer function of a system.
C(s) - Output / Response in s-domain.
R(s) = Input in s-domain
𝐶(𝑠)
Now, M(s) = 𝑅(𝑠)
Response or Output in s-domain, C(s) = M(s) R(s)
Now, Response in time domain, c(t) =L-1 {C(s)}
Input in time domain, r(t) = L-1{R(s)}
For an impulse input, r(t) = δ(t) ; R(s) = £{δ(t)] = 1
Impulse response =£-1{C(s)} = £-1(M(s) R(s)} = £-1 {M(s)} = m(t)
Hence, impulse response of a system is the inverse Laplace transform of system
transfer function.
The importance of impulse response is that, the output of a system for any arbitrary
input can be obtained by convolution of input and impulse response.
i.e., Response, c(t) = m(t)*r(t)
where * is the symbol for convolution. Mathematically the convolution operation is
defined as,
∞
C(t) = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑚 𝜏 𝑟(𝑡 − 𝜏)d𝜏
where 𝜏 is the dummy variable used for integration.
 The closed loop transfer function, M(s) can be expressed as a ratio of two
polynomials in s. The denominator polynomial of closed loop transfer function is
called characteristic equation. The roots of characteristic equation are poles of
closed loop transfer function.
For BIBO stability the integral of impulse response should be finite, which implies
that the impulse response should be finite as t tends to infinity. This requirement
for stability can be linked to the location of roots of characteristic equation in the
s-plane.
The closed loop transfer function M(s) can be expressed as a ratio of two
polynomials in s as shown.
𝑏0 𝑠 𝑚 +𝑏1 𝑠 𝑚−1 +𝑏2 𝑠 𝑚−2 ±⋯…..+𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 +𝑏𝑚
M(s) =
𝑎0 𝑠 𝑛 +𝑎1 𝑠 𝑛−1 +𝑎2 𝑠 𝑛−2 + ……….+𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 +𝑎𝑛
𝑠+ 𝑧1 𝑠+ 𝑧2 𝑠+ 𝑧3 ……..(𝑠+ 𝑧𝑚 )
=
𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 ……(𝑠+𝑝𝑛 )
The roots of numerator polynomial Z1, Z2…..Zm are zeros. The roots of
denominator polynomial p1 ,p2 , p3 ....pn are poles. The denominator polynomial is
the characteristic equation and so the poles are roots of characteristic equation.
By partial fraction expansion we can write,
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴𝑛
M(s) = + + +…….
𝑠+ 𝑝1 𝑠+ 𝑝2 𝑠+ 𝑝3 𝑠+ 𝑝𝑛
The roots (or poles) p1 ,p2 , p3 ....pn may be at origin or lying on imaginary axis or
lying on right or left half of s-plane. The impulse response is given by inverse
Laplace transform of M(s). The inverse Laplace transform of each term of M(s)
depends on the location of roots (or poles) in s-plane. The impulse response of
various types of M(s) are shown in table.
The following conclusions are drawn based or the location of roots of
characteristic equation.
1. If all the roots of characteristic equation have negative real parts (i.e.,
lying on left half s-plane) them the impulse response is bounded (i.e., it decreases
to zero as t tends to ∞).
∞
Hence ‫׬‬0 𝑚 𝑡 dt is finite and the system is bounded-input bounded-output stable.
2. If any root of the characteristic equation has a positive real part (i.e.,
lying on right half s-place) then impulse response is unbounded. (i.e., it increases to
∞ as t tends to ∞).
∞
Hence ‫׬‬0 𝑚 𝑡 dt is infinite and so system is unstable.
3. If the characteristic equation has repeated roots on the imaginary axis
then impulse response is unbounded (i.e., it increases to ∞ as t tends to ∞).
∞
Hence ‫׬‬0 𝑚 𝑡 dt is infinite and so the system is unstable.
4. If one of more non - repeated roots of the characteristic equation are
lying on the imaginary axis, then impulse response is bounded (i.e., it has const
amplitude oscillations) but is infinite and so the system is unstable.
 5. If the characteristic equation has single root at origin them the impulse
∞
response is bounded (i.e, it has constant amplitude) but ‫׬‬0 𝑚 𝑡 dt is infinite
and so the system is unstable.
6. If the characteristic equation has repeated roots at origin then the
impulse response is unbounded (i,e., it linearly increases to infinity as t tends to
∞) and so the system is unstable.
7. ln system with one or more non-repeated roots on imaginary axis or
with single root at origin, the output is Bounded for bounded inputs except for
the inputs having poles matching the system poles. These cases may be treated
as acceptable or non-acceptable. Hence when the system has non repeated poles
on imaginary axis or single pole at origin, it is referred as limitedly or marginally
stable system.
In summary, the following three points may he stated regarding the stability of
the system depending on the location of roots of characteristic equation.
1. If all the roots of characteristic equation has negative real parts, then
the system is stable.
2. If any root of the characteristic equation has a positive real part or if
there is a repeated root on the imaginary axis then the system is unstable.
3. If the condition (1) is satisfied except for the presence of one or more
non repeated roots on the imaginary axis, then the system is limitedly or marginally
stable.
In summary following conclusions can be make about coefficients of characteristic
polynomial.
1. If all the coefficients are positive and if no coefficient is zero, then all
the roots are in the left half of s- plane.
2. If any coefficient ai is equal to zero then, some of the roots may be on
the imaginary axis or on the right half of s- plane.
3. If any coefficient ai is negative then at least one root is in the right half
of s- planes
4.2. ROUTH- HURWITZ CRITERION

Before discussing the Routh-Hurwitz Criterion, firstly we will study the stable,
unstable and marginally stable system.
1. Stable System: If all the roots of the characteristic equation lie on the right half
of the 'S' plane then the system is said to be a stable system.
2. Marginally Stable System: If all the roots of the system lie on the imaginary
axis of the 'S' plane then the system is said to be marginally stable.
3. Unstable System: If all the roots of the system lie on the left half of the 'S'
plane then the system is said to be an unstable system.
STATEMENT OF ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION
Routh Hurwitz criterion states that any system can be stable if and only if all the
roots of the first column have the same sign and if it does not has the same sign or
there is a sign change then the number of sign changes in the first column is equal
to the number of roots of the characteristic equation in the right half of the s-plane
i.e. equals to the number of roots with positive real parts.
Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion is having one necessary condition and one sufficient
condition for stability. If any control system doesn’t satisfy the necessary condition,
then we can say that the control system is unstable. But, if the control system
satisfies the necessary condition, then it may or may not be stable. So, the sufficient
condition is helpful for knowing whether the control system is stable or not.
Necessary Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability
The necessary condition is that the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial
should be positive. This implies that all the roots of the characteristic equation
should have negative real parts.
Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ as,

𝒂𝟎 𝑺𝒏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝑺𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑺𝒏−𝟐 +..........+ 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑺+ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎, Where 𝒂𝟎 > 𝟎

Note that, there should not be any term missing in the nth order characteristic
equation. This means that the nth order characteristic equation should not have any
coefficient that is of zero value.
Sufficient Condition for Routh-Hurwitz Stability
The sufficient condition is that all the elements of the first column of the Routh array
should have the same sign. This means that all the elements of the first column of
the Routh array should be either positive or negative.
Construction of Routh Array
Consider the characteristic equation of the order ‘n’ as,

𝒂𝟎 𝑺𝒏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝑺𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑺𝒏−𝟐 +..........+ 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑺+ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎, Where 𝒂𝟎 > 𝟎

The coefficients of the polynomial are arranges in two rows as follows:
𝑺𝒏 : 𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟒 𝒂𝟔 ……
𝑺𝒏−𝟏 : 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟑 𝒂𝟓 𝒂𝟕 ……
When ‘n’ is even, form the 𝑺𝒏 row with the coefficients of even order terms,
Similarly, when ‘n’ is odd, form the 𝑺𝒏−𝟏 row with the coefficients of odd order terms
and vice-versa.
The other rows can be formed with the help of the first two rows using the following
procedures. Consider two rows,
𝑺𝒏−𝒙 : 𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑 ……
𝑺𝒏−𝒙−𝟏 : 𝒃𝟎 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑 ……
Let the next row be,
𝑺𝒏−𝒙−𝟐 : 𝒄𝟎 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 𝒄𝟑 ……
The elements of 𝑺𝒏−𝒙−𝟐 can be calculated as follows,

𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟏
(−𝟏) 𝒃 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟎 𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟎 𝒃𝟏
𝟎
𝒄𝟎 = =
𝒃𝟎 𝒃𝟎

𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟐
(−𝟏) 𝒃 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟎 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟎 𝒃𝟐
𝟎
𝒄𝟏 = =
𝒃𝟎 𝒃𝟎

𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟑
(−𝟏) 𝒃 𝒃𝟑 𝒃𝟎 𝒂𝟑 − 𝒂𝟎 𝒃𝟑
𝟎
𝒄𝟐 = =
𝒃𝟎 𝒃𝟎

𝒂𝟎 𝒂𝟒
(−𝟏) 𝒃 𝒃𝟒 𝒃𝟎 𝒂𝟒 − 𝒂𝟎 𝒃𝟒
𝟎
𝒄𝟑 = =
𝒃𝟎 𝒃𝟎
And so on. The missing terms in the characteristic equation is considered as zero.
Also if there is any common factor in any row of Routh Array, we can divide the
whole row with the same factor.
CASES:
Finding the stability from Routh Array can be categorized under three cases.
Case (i) : Non-Zero elements in the first column of Routh array
Case (ii) : All Zero row
Case (iii) : First element in a row is Zero
CASE (I) - Non-Zero elements in the first column of Routh array
In this case,
• If there is no sign change in the first column of Routh array then all the root are
lying on the left half of the S-Plane and the system is stable
• If there is a sign change in the first column of the Routh array then the system is
unstable and number of sign change is equal to the number of roots lying on the
right half of the S-plane
CASE (II) - All Zero row
• All zero row indicates the existence of an even polynomial as a factor of the given
characteristic equation. The exponents of S in this polynomial is an integer or a
zero. This even polynomial is called auxiliary equation.
• The roots of auxiliary polynomial occur in pairs that are equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign hence, these roots can be purely imaginary, purely real or
complex.
• Purely imaginary and purely real occurs in pairs whereas complex root occur in
groups of 4 and have quadrantal symmetry, i.e., the roots are symmetrical with
respect to both real and imaginary axis.

𝒋𝝎 𝒋𝝎 𝒋𝝎

× × ×

× × 𝝈
𝝈 𝝈
× ×
×

Fig.4.1. Roots of an even Polynomial

Analysis of Case 2 can be done using one of the following methods:
METHOD 1:
• Determine the auxiliary polynomial and differentiate with respect to S.
𝑑𝐴
• The row of zeros is replaced with coefficients of .
𝑑𝑆

Steps to interpret Routh array

• If there is a change in sign in the first column of the Routh array then the system
is unstable. Number of sign change = number of roots in the right half of S plane.
• The number of roots on imaginary axis can be estimated from the roots of
auxiliary polynomial.
• The remaining roots lies on the left half of the S plane.
• If there is no sign change then all the zero row indicate the existence of purely
imaginary roots and so the system is limitedly or marginally stable.
• The roots of the auxiliary equation lie on the imaginary axis and the remaining
roots lies on the left half of the S plane.
METHOD 2:
• Determine the auxiliary polynomial.
• Divide the given characteristic equation by auxiliary polynomial.
• Construct Routh array using the coefficients of quotient polynomial.
Steps to interpret Routh array
• If there is a change in sign in the first column of the Routh array then the system
is unstable. Number of sign change = number of roots in the right half of S plane.
• The roots of auxiliary polynomial can be purely imaginary, purely real or complex.
• The total number of roots on the right half of S plane = number of sign changes
+ number of roots of auxiliary polynomial with positive real part.
• The number of the roots on the imaginary axis can be estimated from the roots of
auxiliary polynomial.
• The remaining roots lies on the left half of the S plane.
• If there is no sign change then all the zero row indicate the existence of purely
imaginary roots and so the system is limitedly or marginally stable.
• The roots of auxiliary polynomial can be purely imaginary, purely real or complex.
• The number of roots lie on the imaginary axis and on the right half of S plane can
be calculated from the roots of auxiliary polynomial and the remaining roots lies
on the left half of the S plane.
CASE (III) - First element in a row is Zero
While constructing Routh array if there comes a zero as the first element of a row
then consider 𝜖 → 0 and determine the values of the elements of the array as a
function of 𝜖
Steps to interpret Routh array
• If there is no sign change in the first column of the Routh array and if there is no
all zero row then all the roots lie on the left half of S plane and the system is
stable.
• If there is a sign change in the first column of the Routh array and there is no all
zero row then the system is unstable and number of sign change = number of
root on right half of S plane and the remaining roots lie on the left half of the S
plane.
• If there is an all zero row after letting 𝜖 → 0 then there is a possibility of roots on
imaginary axis. Determine the auxiliary polynomial and divide the given
characteristic equation by auxiliary polynomial to eliminate imaginary roots.
• Follow Method 2 under case 2.
PROBLEMS:
Ex.1. Using Routh criterion, determine the stability of the system
represented by the characteristic equation 𝑺𝟒 + 𝟖𝑺𝟑 + 𝟏𝟖𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝑺 + 𝟓 = 𝟎 .
Comment on the location of the roots of characteristics equation.
Solution:
The characteristic equation is given as, 𝑺𝟒 + 𝟖𝑺𝟑 + 𝟏𝟖𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝑺 + 𝟓 = 𝟎
The highest power of S is 4. Thus, the Routh array is constructed as follows,
𝑺𝟒 : 1 18 5
𝑺𝟑 : 8 16 (Divide by 8)
𝑺𝟑 : 1 2
𝑺𝟐 : 16 5
𝑺𝟏 : 1.7
𝑺𝟎 : 5
On examining the first column in the Routh array, it is observed that, all the
elements are Positive and there is no Sign change.
Result:
❖ System is STABLE.
❖ All the four roots lie on the left half of the S-plane.
Ex.2. Construct Routh array and determine the stability of the system
represented by the characteristic equation 𝑺𝟔 + 𝟐𝑺𝟓 + 𝟖𝑺𝟒 + 𝟏𝟐𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝟎𝑺𝟐 +
𝟏𝟔𝑺 + 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟎 . Comment on the location of the roots of characteristics
equation.
Solution:
The characteristic equation is given as,
𝑺𝟔 + 𝟐𝑺𝟓 + 𝟖𝑺𝟒 + 𝟏𝟐𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝟎𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝑺 + 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟎.
The highest power of S is 6. Thus, the Routh array is constructed as follows,
𝑺𝟔 : 1 8 20 16
𝑺𝟓 : 2 12 16 (Divide by 2)
𝑺𝟓 : 1 6 8
𝑺𝟒 : 1 6 8
𝑺𝟑 : 0 0
𝑺𝟑 : 1 3
𝑺𝟐 : 3 8
𝑺𝟏 : 0.33
𝑺𝟎 : 8
On examining the first column, we can see that, there is a ALL ZERO ROWSi. Thus,
we are considering an AUXILIARY EQUATION as,
The Auxiliary Equation is,
𝑺𝟒 + 𝟔𝑺𝟐 + 𝟖 = 𝟎
Let 𝑺𝟐 = 𝑿,
𝑿𝟐 + 𝟔𝑿 + 𝟖 = 𝟎
The roots of the above quadratic equation is,
𝑿 = −𝟐, −𝟒
We know that,
𝑺𝟐 = 𝑿
𝑺 = 𝑿 = ± −𝟐, ± −𝟒

𝑺 = +𝒋 𝟐, −𝒋 𝟐, +𝒋𝟐, −𝒋𝟐
Since there is no sign change in the first column of Routh array, the roots of
Auxiliary equation can be considered along with the remaining roots to comment on
stability of the system.
From the roots of Auxiliary equation, it can be concluded that FOUR ROOTS are
purely imaginary and lies on imaginary axis and the remaining TWO ROOTS lie on
left half of S plane.
Result:
❖ System is LIMITEDLY or MARGINALLY STABLE.
❖ The four roots lie on the imaginary axis and the remaining two roots lie
on the left half of the S-plane.
Ex.3. Construct Routh array and determine the stability of the system
represented by the characteristic equation𝑺𝟓 + 𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝑺𝟐 + 𝟑𝑺 + 𝟓 = 𝟎.
Comment on the location of the roots of characteristics equation.
Solution:
The characteristic equation is given as,
𝑺𝟓 + 𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝑺𝟐 + 𝟑𝑺 + 𝟓 = 𝟎
The highest power of S is 5. Thus, the Routh array is constructed as follows,
𝑺𝟓 : 1 2 3
𝑺𝟒 : 1 2 5
𝑺𝟑 : 0 -2
𝑺𝟑 : ∈ -2 (Letting ∈→ 𝟎)
𝟐∈+𝟐
𝑺𝟐 : 5
∈
− 𝟓∈𝟐 +𝟒∈+𝟒
𝑺𝟏 : 𝟐∈+𝟐

𝑺𝟎 : 5
On Letting ∈→ 𝟎,
𝑺𝟓 : 1 2 3
𝑺𝟒 : 1 2 5
𝑺𝟑 : 𝟎 -2
𝑺𝟐 : ∞ 5
𝑺𝟏 : -2
𝑺𝟎 : 5
On examining the first column in the Routh array, it is observed that, there are two
sign changes. Thus, two roots lie on the Right half of S plane.
Result:
❖ System is UNSTABLE.
❖ Two roots lie on the Right half of the S plane and the remaining three
roots lie on the left half of the S-plane.
Ex.4. Construct Routh array and determine the stability of the system
represented by the characteristic equation 𝟗𝑺𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎𝑺𝟒 + 𝟏𝟎𝑺𝟑 − 𝑺𝟐 − 𝟗𝑺 −
𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎. Comment on the location of the roots of characteristics equation.
Solution:
The characteristic equation is given as,
𝟗𝑺𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎𝑺𝟒 + 𝟏𝟎𝑺𝟑 − 𝑺𝟐 − 𝟗𝑺 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎
The highest power of S is 5. Thus, the Routh array is constructed as follows,
𝑺𝟓 : 9 10 -9
𝑺𝟒 : -20 -1 -10
𝑺𝟑 : 9.55 -13.5
𝑺𝟐 : -29.3 -10
𝑺𝟏 : -16.8
𝑺 𝟎
: -10
On examining the first column in the Routh array, it is observed that, there are three
sign changes. Thus, three roots lie on the Right half of S plane.
Result:
❖ System is UNSTABLE.
❖ Three roots lie on the Right half of the S plane and the remaining two
roots lie on the left half of the S-plane.
Ex.5. The characteristic polynomial of a system is 𝑺𝟕 + 𝟗𝑺𝟔 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟓 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟒 +
𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺 + 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎. Determine the location of the roots on S plane
and hence the stability of the system.
Solution:
METHOD 1
The characteristic equation is given as,
𝑺𝟕 + 𝟗𝑺𝟔 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟓 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺 + 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎
The highest power of S is 5. Thus, the Routh array is constructed as follows,
𝑺𝟕 : 1 24 24 23
𝑺𝟔 : 9 24 24 15 (Divide by 3)
𝑺𝟔 : 3 8 8 5
𝑺𝟓 : 1 1 1
𝑺𝟒 : 1 1 1
𝑺𝟑 : 0 0
𝑺𝟑 : 2 1
𝑺𝟐 : 0.5 1
𝑺𝟏 : -3
𝑺𝟎 : 1
On examining the first column, we can see that, there is a ALL ZERO ROW. Thus, we
are considering an AUXILIARY EQUATION as,
The Auxiliary Equation is,
𝑺𝟒 + 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
Let 𝑺𝟐 = 𝑿,
𝑿𝟐 + 𝑿 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
The roots of the above quadratic equation is,
𝟏 𝟑
𝑿=− ±𝒋 = 𝟏∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎° or 𝟏∠ + 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
𝟐 𝟐
We know that,
𝑺𝟐 = 𝑿
𝑺 = 𝑿 = ± 𝟏∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎° 𝒐𝒓 ± 𝟏∠ + 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
= ±𝟏∠ − 𝟔𝟎°𝒐𝒓 ± 𝟏∠ + 𝟔𝟎°
𝑺 = ± 𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝒋𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝒐𝒓 ± 𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
The Auxiliary equation has totally FOUR roots, out of which two roots are lying on
the right half of S plane and remaining two roots lie on the left half of S plane.
Thus, it can be concluded that TWO ROOTS are lying on the right half of S plane
and remaining FIVE roots lie on the left half of S plane.
Result:
❖ System is UNSTABLE.
❖ TWO roots lie on the Right half of the S plane and the remaining FIVE
roots lie on the left half of the S-plane.
METHOD II
The characteristic equation is given as,
𝑺𝟕 + 𝟗𝑺𝟔 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟓 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺 + 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟎
The highest power of S is 5. Thus, the Routh array is constructed as follows,
𝑺𝟕 : 1 24 24 23
𝑺 𝟔
: 9 24 24 15 (Divide by 3)
𝑺 𝟔
: 3 8 8 5
𝑺 𝟓
: 1 1 1
𝑺𝟒 : 1 1 1
𝑺𝟑 : 0 0
𝑺𝟑 : 1 23
𝑺𝟐 : 9 15 (Divide by 3)
𝑺𝟐 : 3 5
𝑺𝟏 : 21.33
𝑺𝟎 : 5
The Auxiliary Equation is,
𝑺𝟒 + 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
Divide the characteristic equation by Auxiliary Equation,

𝑺𝟑 + 𝟗𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺 + 𝟏𝟓
𝑺𝟒 + 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏 𝑺𝟕 + 𝟗𝑺𝟔 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟓 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺 + 𝟏𝟓
𝑺𝟕 + 𝟎𝑺𝟔 + 𝑺𝟓 + 𝟎𝑺𝟒 + 𝑺𝟑
𝟗𝑺𝟔 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺𝟓 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟐
𝟗 𝑺𝟔 + 𝟎𝑺𝟓 + 𝟗𝑺𝟒 + 𝟎𝑺𝟑 + 𝟗𝑺𝟐
𝟐𝟑𝑺𝟓 + 𝟏𝟓𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺𝟑 + 𝟏𝟓𝑺𝟐 +𝟐𝟑𝑺
𝟐𝟑𝑺𝟓 + 𝟎𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺𝟑 + 𝟎𝑺𝟐 +𝟐𝟑𝑺
𝟏𝟓𝑺𝟒 + 𝟎𝑺𝟑 + 𝟏𝟓𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎𝑺 +𝟏𝟓
𝟏𝟓𝑺𝟒 + 𝟎𝑺𝟑 + 𝟏𝟓𝑺𝟐 + 𝟎𝑺 +𝟏𝟓
0
The characteristics equation can be expressed as,
𝑺𝟕 + 𝟗𝑺𝟔 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟓 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟒 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝟒𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝟑𝑺 + 𝟏𝟓 = ( 𝑺𝟒 + 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏 )( 𝑺𝟑 + 𝟗𝑺𝟐 +
𝟐𝟑𝑺 + 𝟏𝟓)
On examining the first column, we can see that, there is a ALL ZERO ROW. Thus, we
are considering an AUXILIARY EQUATION as,
The Auxiliary Equation is,
𝑺𝟒 + 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
Let 𝑺𝟐 = 𝑿,
𝑿𝟐 + 𝑿 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
The roots of the above quadratic equation is,
𝟏 𝟑
𝑿=− ±𝒋 = 𝟏∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎° or 𝟏∠ + 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
𝟐 𝟐
We know that,
𝑺𝟐 = 𝑿
𝑺 = 𝑿 = ± 𝟏∠ − 𝟏𝟐𝟎° 𝒐𝒓 ± 𝟏∠ + 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
= ±𝟏∠ − 𝟔𝟎°𝒐𝒓 ± 𝟏∠ + 𝟔𝟎°
𝑺 = ± 𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝒋𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 𝒐𝒓 ± 𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔
The Auxiliary equation has totally FOUR roots, out of which two roots are lying on
the right half of S plane and remaining two roots lie on the left half of S plane.
Thus, it can be concluded that TWO ROOTS are lying on the right half of S plane
and remaining FIVE roots lie on the left half of S plane.
Result:
❖ System is UNSTABLE.
❖ TWO roots lie on the Right half of the S plane and the remaining FIVE
roots lie on the left half of the S-plane.
Ex.6. Determine the range of K for stability of a unity feedback system
𝑲
whose open loop transfer function is 𝑮 𝑺 = 𝑺(𝑺+𝟏)(𝑺+𝟐)

Solution:
The closed loop transfer function is given by,
𝑲
𝑪(𝑺) 𝑮(𝑺) 𝑺(𝑺 + 𝟏)(𝑺 + 𝟐)
= =
𝑹(𝑺) 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝑺 𝑯(𝑺) 𝟏 + 𝑲
𝑺(𝑺 + 𝟏)(𝑺 + 𝟐)
𝑪(𝑺) 𝑲
=
𝑹(𝑺) 𝑺 𝑺 + 𝟏 𝑺 + 𝟐 + 𝑲

𝑪(𝑺) 𝑲
= 𝟑 𝟐
𝑹(𝑺) 𝑺 + 𝟐𝑺 + 𝟑𝑺 + 𝑲

Thus, the characteristic equation is,

𝑺𝟑 + 𝟐𝑺𝟐 + 𝟑𝑺 + 𝑲 = 𝟎

The highest power of S is 3. Thus, the Routh array is constructed as follows,

𝑺𝟑 : 1 3
𝑺𝟐 : 2 K
𝟔−𝑲
𝑺𝟏 : 𝟑

𝑺𝟎 : K
From 𝑺𝟎 row, 𝐾 > 0, Since it is mentioned as a stable system
𝟔−𝑲
From 𝑺𝟏 row, >0
𝟑
𝟔−𝑲>𝟎
𝑲<𝟔
Thus, the range of K for a system to be stable is 𝟎 < 𝑲 < 𝟔
Result:
❖ The range of K for a system to be stable is 𝟎 < 𝑲 < 𝟔.
Ex.7. The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is
𝑲
𝑮 𝑺 = (𝑺+𝟐)(𝑺+𝟒)(𝑺𝟐 +𝟔𝑺+𝟐𝟓) . By applying the Routh Criterion, discuss the
stability of the closed loop system as a function of K. Determine the value
of K which will cause sustained oscillations in closed loop system. What
are the Corresponding oscillating frequencies.
Solution:
The closed loop transfer function is given by,
𝑲
𝑪(𝑺) 𝑮(𝑺) (𝑺 + 𝟐)(𝑺 + 𝟒)(𝑺𝟐 + 𝟔𝑺 + 𝟐𝟓)
= =
𝑹(𝑺) 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝑺 𝑯(𝑺) 𝟏 + 𝑲
(𝑺 + 𝟐)(𝑺 + 𝟒)(𝑺𝟐 + 𝟔𝑺 + 𝟐𝟓)
𝑪(𝑺) 𝑲
=
𝑹(𝑺) 𝑺 + 𝟐 𝑺 + 𝟒 𝑺𝟐 + 𝟔𝑺 + 𝟐𝟓 + 𝑲

𝑪(𝑺) 𝑲
= 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐
𝑹(𝑺) 𝑺 + 𝟏𝟐𝑺 + 𝟔𝟗𝑺 + 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝑺 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝑲

Thus, the characteristic equation is,

𝑺𝟒 + 𝟏𝟐𝑺𝟑 + 𝟔𝟗𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏𝟗𝟖𝑺 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝑲 = 𝟎

The highest power of S is 4. Thus, the Routh array is constructed as follows,

𝑺𝟒 : 1 69 200+K
𝑺𝟑 : 12 198 (Divide by 12)
𝑺𝟑 : 1 16.5
𝑺𝟐 : 52.5 200+K
𝟔𝟔𝟔.𝟐𝟓−𝑲
𝑺𝟏 : 𝟓𝟐.𝟓

𝑺𝟎 : 200+K
From 𝑺𝟎 row, 200 + 𝐾 > 0,
i.e., 𝐾 ≻ −200 which is not possible, Since it is mentioned as a stable system
𝟔𝟔𝟔.𝟐𝟓−𝑲
From 𝑺𝟏 row, > 0
𝟓𝟐.𝟓
𝟔𝟔𝟔.𝟐𝟓−𝑲
> 0
𝟓𝟐.𝟓

𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝑲>0
 𝑲 < 666.25
Thus, the range of K for a system to be stable is 𝟎 < 𝑲 < 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟓
In order to determine the oscillating frequency and value of K responsible for
sustained oscillations, consider, 𝑺𝟐 row.
From 𝑺𝟐 row,
52.5 𝑺𝟐 +200+K=0
Substitute 𝑲 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟓,
𝟓𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎

𝟖𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟓
𝑺𝟐 =
𝟓𝟐. 𝟓
𝑺 = ± 𝒋𝟒. 𝟎𝟔

Thus, the frequency of Oscillation, 𝝎 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟔 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄

Result:
❖ The range of K for a system to be stable is 𝟎 < 𝑲 < 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟓.
❖ The system oscillates when 𝑲 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟓
❖ The frequency of Oscillation, 𝝎 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟔 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄 at 𝑲 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟐𝟓
Ex.8. The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is
𝑲(𝑺+𝟏)
𝑮 𝑺 = 𝑺𝟑 +𝒂𝑺𝟐 +𝟐𝑺+𝟏 . Determine the value of K and a so that the system
oscillates at a frequency of 𝟐 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄.
Solution:
The closed loop transfer function is given by,
𝑲(𝑺 + 𝟏)
𝑪(𝑺) 𝑮(𝑺) 𝑺𝟑 + 𝒂𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝑺 + 𝟏
= =
𝑹(𝑺) 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝑺 𝑯(𝑺) 𝑲(𝑺 + 𝟏)
𝟏+ 𝟑
𝑺 + 𝒂𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝑺 + 𝟏
𝑪(𝑺) 𝑲(𝑺 + 𝟏)
= 𝟑
𝑹(𝑺) 𝑺 + 𝒂𝑺𝟐 + 𝟐𝑺 + 𝟏 + 𝑲(𝑺 + 𝟏)

𝑪(𝑺) 𝑲
= 𝟑 𝟐
𝑹(𝑺) 𝑺 + 𝒂𝑺 + (𝟐 + 𝑲)𝑺 + (𝟏 + 𝑲)

Thus, the characteristic equation is,

𝑺𝟑 + 𝒂𝑺𝟐 + (𝟐 + 𝑲)𝑺 + (𝟏 + 𝑲) = 𝟎
The highest power of S is 4. Thus, the Routh array is constructed as follows,
𝑺𝟑 : 1 2+K
𝑺𝟐 : a 1+K
𝒂 𝟐+𝑲 −(𝟏+𝑲)
𝑺𝟏 : 𝒂

𝑺𝟎 : 1+K
From 𝑆 2 row, the auxiliary equation is,
𝒂𝑺𝟐 + 𝟏 + 𝑲 = 𝟎
𝒂𝑺𝟐 = − 𝟏 + 𝑲

𝟏+𝑲
𝑺 = ±𝒋
𝒂

Given, 𝑆 = ±𝑗2,

𝟏+𝑲
±𝑗2 = ±𝒋
𝒂

𝟏+𝑲
4=
𝒂
𝑲 = 𝟒𝒂 − 𝟏

From 𝑆 1 row,

𝒂 𝟐 + 𝑲 − (𝟏 + 𝑲)
=𝟎
𝒂
𝒂 𝟐+𝑲 − 𝟏+𝑲 = 𝟎
𝒂 𝟐 + 𝟒𝒂 − 𝟏 − 𝟏 + 𝟒𝒂 − 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟒𝒂𝟐 − 𝟑𝒂 = 𝟎

𝟑
𝒂 = 𝟒 and 𝑲 = 𝟐

Result:

𝟑
When the system Oscillates at 𝟐𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄, the values of 𝑲 = 𝟐 and 𝒂 = 𝟒
4.3. ROOT LOCUS
In 1948, W.R Evans introduced the concept called root locus which is a powerful
tool to adjust the location of closed loop poles in order to achieve the desired
system performance. This can be done by varying one or more system
parameters.
Consider a open loop system with the transfer function
𝐾
G(s) = 𝑠 (𝑠+𝑝1 )(𝑠+𝑝2 )

Then, the closed loop transfer function with unity feedback is given by
𝐾
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠) 𝐾
= =
𝑠 (𝑠+𝑝1 )(𝑠+𝑝2)
= 𝐾
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐺(𝑠) 1+ 𝑠 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 +𝐾
𝑠 (𝑠+𝑝1 )(𝑠+𝑝2)

The denominator polynomial of

𝐶(𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠)
is called as the characteristic equation of
the system, which is given as
S (s+p1)(s+p2) + K = 0.
The roots of the this equation is a function of open loop gain K. So, when the value
of K is varied, the roots of the characteristic equation will take different values.
When K=0, the roots are open loop poles.
When K= ∞, the roots are open loop zeros.
The path taken by the roots of the characteristic equation when the open
loop gain K is varied from 0 to ∞ is called as root locus.
In general, the closed loop transfer function is given by
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

The characteristic equation of this system is given by

1+ G(s)H(s) = 0
i.e. G(s)H(s) = -1 ------------------(4.1)
Eq (4.1) states that the roots of the characteristic equation occur only for those
values of s for which G(s)H(s) = -1.
Eq (4.1) can be converted to two Evans condition. They are
|G(s)H(s)| = 1 ----→ Magnitude criterion
< G(s)H(s) = ± 1800 (2q +1), where q = 0,1,2,3…….. -----→ Angle criterion.
The magnitude criterion states that s= sa will be a point on root locus if for that
value of s, |G(s)H(s)| = 1
The angle criterion states that s= sa will be a point on root locus if for that value of
s , < G(s)H(s) is equal to odd multiple of 1800
 The function G(s)H(s) can be expressed as a ratio of two polynomials in s as follows:
𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 …… ς𝑚
𝑗=1 |𝑠+𝑧𝑖|
G(s)H(s)= K 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 ……..
=K ς𝑛
𝑖=1 |𝑠+𝑝𝑖|
Where m= number of zeros of loop transfer function
n= number of poles of loop transfer function.
The magnitude criterion states that |G(s)H(s)| = 1.
ς𝑚
𝑗=1 |𝑠+𝑧𝑖| ς𝑛
𝑖=1 |𝑠+𝑝𝑖|
So, K ς𝑛
= 1 or K = ς𝑚
𝑖=1 |𝑠+𝑝𝑖| 𝑗=1 |𝑠+𝑧𝑖|

i.e
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠=𝑠𝑎
K=
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠=𝑠𝑎

Construction of root locus

The root locus is constructed by trial and error method which is very complex. To
develop a quick approximate sketch of root locus, set of rules have been developed.
From the approximate sketch , a more accurate root locus can be obtained in a few
trials.
Rules for construction of root locus:
Rule 1: The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis.
Rule 2: Each root locus branch originates from an open loop pole corresponding to
K=0 and terminates at either on a finite open loop zero or on a open loop zero at
infinity. The number of root locus branch terminating on infinity is equal to n-m(i.e
number of open loop poles minus the number of finite zeros)
Rule 3: The segments of the real axis having an odd number of real axis poles plus
zeros to their right are parts of he root locus.
Rule 4 : The n—m root locus branches that tend to infinity, do so along straight line
asymptotes making angles with the real axis given by,
180° (2𝑞 + 1)
ɸA = 𝑛−𝑚
Rule 5 : The point of intersection of the asymptotes with the real axis is at s = σA
where,
Sum of poles − Sum of zeros
σA = 𝑛−𝑚
Rule 6 : The breakaway and breakin points of the root locus are determined from
the roots of the equation dK/ds = 0. If r numbers of branches of root locus meet at
a point, then they break away at an angle of ±1800/r.
Rule 7 : The angle of departure from a complex open-loop pole is given by,
ɸp = ± 180° (2q + 1)+ɸ ; q = 0, 1, 2, ....
where ɸ, is the net angle contribution at the pole by all other open loop poles and
zeros. Similarly the angle of arrival at a complex open loop zero is given by,
ɸz = ±180° (2q + 1) +ɸ ; q = 0, 1, 2, ....
where ɸ is the net angle contribution at the zero by all other open-loop poles and
zeros.
 Rule 8 : The points of intersection of root locus branches with the imaginary axis
can be determined by use of the Routh criterion. Alternatively they can be
evaluated by letting s = jω in the characteristic equation and equating the real
part and imaginary part to zero, to solve for ω and K. The values of ω are the
intersection points on imaginary axis and K is the value of gain at the intersection
points.
Rule 9 : The open-loop gain K at any point s = sa on the root locus is given by,
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠=𝑠𝑎
K= 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠=𝑠𝑎

Typical Sketches of Root locus:

Fig. 4.2. Typical sketches of Root Locus

PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTING ROOT LOCUS
Step 1 : Locate the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) on the s-plane. The root locus
branch starts from open loop poles and terminates at zeros.
Step 2 : Determine the root locus on real axis.
Step 3 : Determine the asymptotes of root locus branches and meeting point of
asymptotes with real axis.
Step 4 : Find the breakaway and breakin points.
Step 5 : If there is a complex pole then determine the angle of departure from
the complex pole. If there is a complex zero then determine the angle of arrival at
the complex zero.
Step 6 : Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis.
Step 7 : Take a series of test points in the broad neighborhood of the origin of
the s-plane and adjust the test point to satisfy angle criterion. Sketch the toot
locus by joining the test points by smooth curve.
Step 8 : The value of gain K at any point on the locus can be determined from
magnitude condition. The value of K. at a point s = sa is given bv.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠=𝑠𝑎
K= 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠=𝑠𝑎

EXPLANATION FOR THE VARIOUS STEPS IN THE PROCEDURE

FOR CONSTRUCTING ROOT LOCUS
Step 1 : Location of poles and zeros
Draw the real and imaginary axis on an ordinary graph sheet and choose
same scales both on real and imaginary axis.The poles are marked by cross "X" and
zeros are marked by small circle "o". The number of root locus branches is equal to
number of poles of open loop transfer function. The origin of a root locus is at a pole
and the end is at a zero.
Let, n = number of poles
m = number of finite zeros
Now, m root locus branches ends at finite zeros. The remaining n-m root locus
branches will end at zeros at infinity.
Step 2 : Root locus on real axis
In order to determine the part of root locus on real axis, take a test point
on real axis. If the total number of poles and zeros on the real axis to the right of
this test point is odd number, then the test point lies on the root locus. If it is even
then the test point does not lie on the root locus
 Step 3 : Angles of asymptotes and centroid
If n is number of poles and m is number of finite zeros, then n—m root
locus branches will terminate at zeros at infinity. These n—m root locus branches
will go along an asymptotic path and meets the asymptotes at infinity. Hence
number of asymptotes is equal to number of root locus branches going to infinity.
180° (2𝑞 + 1)
Angles of asymptotes = ± 𝑛−𝑚
where, q = 0, 1, 2, 3,…….(n - m)
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 −𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
Centroid (meeting point of asymptote with real axis) = 𝑛 −𝑚

Step 4 : Breakaway and Break-in points

The breakaway or break-in points either lie on real axis or exist as
complex conjugate pairs. If there is a root locus on real axis between 2 poles then
there exist a breakaway point. If there is a root locus on real axis between 2 zeros
then there exist a break-in point. If there is a root locus on real axis between pole
and zero then there may be or may not be breakaway or break-in point.
Let the characteristic equation be in the form, B(s) + K A(s) = 0
𝐵(𝑠)
i.e., K = - 𝐴(𝑠)

The breakaway and break-in point is given by roots of the equation dK/ds = 0. The
roots of dK/ds = 0 are actual breakaway or break-in point provided for this value of
root, the gain K should be positive and real.
Step 5 : Angle of Departure and angle of arrival
Angle of Departure 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒
= 180o -
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒
-
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
 Angle of 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒
= 180o -
𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐴 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒
-
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐴 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

Step 6 : Point of intersection of root locus with imaginary axis

The point where the root loci intersects the imaginary axis can be found
by following three methods.
By Routh Hurwitz array.
By trial and error approach.
Letting s = jω in the characteristic equation and separate the real part
and imaginary part. Two equations are obtained : one by equating real
part to zero and the other by equating imaginary part to zero. Solve the
two equations for ω and K. The values of ω gives the points where the
root locus crosses imaginary axis. The value of K gives the value of gain
K at the crossing points. Also this value of K is the limiting value of K for
stability of the system.
Step 7 : Test points and root locus
Choose a test point. Using a protractor roughly estimate the angles of
vectors drawn to this point and adjust the point to satisfy angle criterion. Repeat the
procedure for few more test points. Sketch the root locus from the knowledge of
typical sketches and the information obtained in steps 1 through 6.
 Example 1: A unity feedback control system has an open loop
𝐾
transfer function G(s) = 2 . Sketch the root locus.
𝑠(𝑠 +4𝑠+13)

Solution:
Step 1: To locate poles and zeros
The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation
s(s2+4s+13) = 0
−4 ± 16−4∗13
s= = -2 ±j3
2

The poles are located at 0, -2 + j3, -2 – j3.

Step 2 : To find the root locus on real axis

There is only one pole on the origin. If any test point is chosen on negative real
axis, then to the right of that the total number of roots is an odd number. So, the
entire negative real axis will be a part of the root locus.
Step 3 : To find angles of asymptotes and centroid
Since there are 3 poles, the number of root locus branches are three.
There is no finite zero. Hence all the three root locus branches ends at zeros at
infinity. The number of asymptotes required are three.

180o (2q +1)

Angles of asymptotes = ± 𝑛−𝑚

Here n = 3, and m = 0
q = 0, 1,……n — m. so, q = 0, 1, 2, 3.
180
When q = 0, Angles= ± = ±60°
3
180 ∗3
When q = 1, Angles= ± = ± 180°
3
180 ∗5
When q = 2, Angles= ± = ± 300° = ±60°
3
180 ∗7
When q = 3, Angles= ± = ± 420° = ±60°
3
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 −𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 −2+𝑗3 −2 −𝑗3 −4
Centroid = = = = -1.33
𝑛 −𝑚 3 3

The centroid is marked on real axis and from the centroid the angles of asymptotes
are marked using a protractor. The asymptotes are drawn as dotted lines.
 Step 4 : To find the breakaway and break-in points
𝐾
The closed loop transfer function
𝐶(𝑠)
𝑅 𝑠
=
𝐺(𝑠)
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
= 𝑠(𝑠2+4𝑠+13)
𝐾 = 2
𝐾
𝑠 𝑠 +4𝑠+13 +𝐾
1+
𝑠(𝑠2+4𝑠+13)

The characteristic equation is 𝑠 𝑠2 + 4𝑠 + 13 + 𝐾 = 0

s3 + 4s2 + 13s + K = 0
i.e. K = - (s3 + 4s2 + 13s)
On differentiating the above eqn, we get
𝑑𝐾
= -(3s2 +8s +13) = 0 ---→ (3s2 +8s +13) = 0
𝑑𝑠
−8 ± 64 −(4∗3∗3)
s= = -1.33 ±j1.6
2∗3

Check for K : When, s = - 1.33 +j1.6, the value of K is given by,

K = - (s3 + 4s2 + 13s)
= - [(-1.33 +j1.6)3 + 4 (-1.33 +j1. 6)2 + 13 (-1.33 +j1.6))
≠ positive and real.
Also it can be shown that when s= - 1.33 - j1.6 the value of K is not equal to real
and positive.
Since the values of K for, s= -1.33 ± j1.6, are not real and positive, these points are
not an actual breakaway or break-in points. The root locus has neither breakaway
nor break-in point.
 Step 5 : To find the angle of departure
Let us consider the complex pole p2 shown in fig. Draw vectors from all
other poles to the pole p2, as shown. Let the angles of these vectors be Θ1, and Θ2.
Here, Θ1 = 180° - tan-1(3/2) = 123.70 ; Θ2 = 900
Angle of departure from the complex pole p2 = 180° - (Θ1 + Θ2)
= 180° - (123.7° + 900)
= - 33.7°
The angle of departure at complex pole p3 is negative of the angle of departure at
complex pole A.
So, the angle of departure at pole p3 = +33.7°
Step 6 : To find the crossing point on imaginary axis
The characteristic equation is s3 + 4s2 + 13s + K = 0
Put s= jω, we get
(Jω)3 + 4(jω)2 +13 jω +K =0
→ - jω3 -4ω2 +13 jω +K =0
On equating imaginary part to zero, we get
- ω3 +13 ω = 0 → ω3 = 13 ω
→ ω2 = 13
ω = 13 = ±j3.6
On equating real part to zero, we get
-4ω2 + K = 0 → K = 4ω2
K = 4 *13 = 52
The crossing point of root locus is ± j3.6. The value of K at this crossing point is K=
52.(This is the limiting value of K for the stability of the system).
The complete root locus sketch is shown in fig. The root locus has three branches:
one branch starts at the pole at origin and travel through negative real axis to meet
the zero at infinity. The other two root locus branches starts at complex poles (along
the angle of departure), crosses the imaginary axis at ± j3.6 and travel parallel to
asymptotes to meet the zeros at infinity.
 EXAMPLE 2: The open loop transfer function of a unity
𝐊(𝐬+𝟗)
feedback system is given by, G(s) = . Sketch
s (s + 4s + 11)
2
the root locus of the system.
SOLUTION
Step 1:. To locate poles and zeros
The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation
s (s2 +4s + 11)= 0.
−4 ± 42−4∗11
s= = -2 ± j 2.64
2
The poles are lying at, s = 0, - 2 +j2.64, -2 - j2.64
The zero lie at, s = - 9.
Let us denote the poles as p1, p2, p3, finite zero by z1.
Here, p1= 0, p2 = - 2+j2.64, p3 = - 2 - j2.64 and z1= - 9.
The poles are mated by X(cross) and zeros by ”o”(circle) as shown in fig.

Step 2 : To find the root locus on real axis.

One pole and one zero lie on real axis.
Choose a test point to the left of s= 0, then to the right of this point, the total
number of poles and zeros is one which is an Odd number. Hence the portion of real
axis from s = 0 to s = - 9 will be a part of root locus.
If we choose a test point to the left of s= - 9 then to the right of this point, the total
number of poles and zeros is two, which is an even number. Hence the real axis
from s = - 9 to s = - ∞ will not be a part of root locus.
 Step 3: To find angles of asymptotes and centroid
Since there are 3 poles, the number of root locus branches are three. One root locus
branch starts at the pole at origin and travel along negative real axis to meet the
zero at s =- 9. The other two root locus branches meet the zeros at infinity. The
number of asymptotes required are two.
180o (2q +1)
Angles of asymptotes = ± 𝑛−𝑚
Here n = 3, and m = 1
q = 0, 1,…..n — m. so, q = 0, 1, 2.
180
When q = 0, Angles= ± = ±90°
2
180 ∗3
When q = 1, Angles= ± 2 = ± 270°
180 ∗5
When q = 2, Angles= ± 2 = ± 450° = ±90°
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 −𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 −2+𝑗2.64 −2 −𝑗2.64 −(−9) 5
Centroid = = = = 2.5
𝑛 −𝑚 2 2
The centroid is marked on real axis and from the centroid the angles of asymptotes
are marked using a protractor. The asymptotes are drawn as dotted lines.
Step 4 : To find the breakaway and break-in points
From the location of poles and zero and from the knowledge of typical sketches of
root locus, it can be concluded that there is no possibility of breakaway or break-in
points.
Step 5 : To find the angle of departure
Let us consider the complex pole p2 shown in fig. Draw vectors from all
other poles and zero to the pole p2, as shown. Let the angles of these vectors be
Θ1, Θ2 and Θ3.
Here, Θ1 = 180° - tan-1(2.64/2) = 127.10 ; Θ2 = 900 ; Θ3 = tan-1(2.64/7) = 20.70
Angle of departure from the complex pole p2 = 180° - (Θ1 + Θ2) + Θ3
= 180° - (127.1° + 900) + 20.70
= - 16.4°
The angle of departure at complex pole p3 is negative of the angle of departure at
complex pole A.
So, the angle of departure at pole p3 = +16.4°
Step 6 : To find the crossing point on imaginary axis
𝐊(𝐬+𝟗)
s (s2 + 4s + 11)
The closed loop transfer function
𝐶(𝑠)
𝑅 𝑠
=
𝐺(𝑠)
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
= 1+
𝐊(𝐬+𝟗)
s (s2 + 4s + 11)
𝐾(𝑠+9)
= 2
𝑠 𝑠 +4𝑠+11 +𝐾(𝑠+9)
The characteristic equation is 𝑠 𝑠2 + 4𝑠 + 11 + 𝐾(𝑠 + 9 ) = 0
s3 + 4s2 + 11s +Ks +9K = 0
Put s= jω, we get
(jω)3 + 4(jω)2 + 11(jω) + 9K = 0 → - jω3 - 4 ω2 + 11 jω + K jω +9K = 0
On equating imaginary part to zero, we get
- ω3 +11 ω + K ω = 0 → ω3 = 11 ω + K ω
→ ω2 = 11 + K
On equating real part to zero, we get
-4ω2 + 9K = 0 → 9K = 4ω2 = 4 * (11 + K)
9K = 44 +4 K → 5K = 44
𝟒𝟒
K= = 8.8
𝟓
ω2 = 11 + K = 11 + 8.8 = 19.8
→ ω = 19.8 = ±4.4
→ The crossing point of root locus is ±j4.4. The value of K at this crossing point is
K= 8.8 (This is the limiting value of K for the stability of the system).
The complete root locus sketch is shown in fig. The root locus has three branches.
One branch starts at pale at origin and travel through negative real axis to meet the
zero at s=- 9.
The other two root locus branches starts at complex poles (along the angle of
departure) crosses the imaginary axis at ± j4.4 and travel parallel to asymptotes to
meet the zeros at infinity.
 Example 3: Sketch root locus for the unity feedback system
K (s2 + 6s + 25)
whose open loop transfer function is G(s) =
s (s +1) (s + 2)
SOLUTION
Step 1: To locate poles and zeros
The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation
s(s +1)(s+2)= 0 and the zeros are the roots of the equation (s2 + 6s + 25) = 0.
The poles are at, s = 0, -1 and -2.
−6 ± 36 −4 ∗25
The zeros are at s = = -3 ± j4
2

Here P1 = 0 , P2 = -1 and P3 = -2: Z1 = -3+j4 and Z2 = -3- j4

The poles are mated by X(cross) and zeros by ”o”(circle) as shown in fig.
Step 2 . To find root locus on real axis
The segment of real axis between s= 0 and s= -1 and the entire negative real axis
from s=-2 will be part of root locus.
Step 3 : To find angles of asymptotes and centroid
Since there are three poles the number of root locus branches are three.
There are two finite zeros. so two root locus branch will end at finite zeros. The third
root focus will meet the zero at infinity by travelling through negative real axis. Here
the number of asymptote is one and the angle of asymptote is ±180°.
Here n=3 and m=3, n-m = 0 .so q=0
Step 4 : To find the breakaway and
break-in points
The closed loop transfer function
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅 𝑠 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
K (s2+ 6s + 25)
s (s +1) (s + 2) 𝐾(s2 + 6s + 25)
= =
1+
K (s2 + 6s + 25) 𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)+𝐾 𝑠2+6𝑠+25
s (s +1) (s + 2)
The characteristic equation is
s(s+1)(s+2) +K 𝑠2 + 6𝑠 + 25 = 0
− s(s+1)(s+2) −𝑠 (𝑠2+3𝑠+2) −𝑠3−3𝑠2 −2𝑠
K= 𝑠2 + 6𝑠 + 25 = 𝑠2+6𝑠+25 = 𝑠2+6𝑠+25
Differentiating K w.r.t s , we get
𝑑𝐾 𝑠2+6𝑠+25 −3𝑠2 −6𝑠 −2 − (−𝑠3−3𝑠2 −2𝑠)(2𝑠+6)
=
𝑑𝑠 𝑠2+6𝑠+25 2
−3𝑠4− 18𝑠3 −75𝑠2 −6𝑠3−36𝑠2−150𝑠−2𝑠2−50+2𝑠4+6𝑠3+18𝑠2+4𝑠2+12𝑠
=
𝑠2+6𝑠+25 2
−(𝑠4+12𝑠3+91𝑠2+150𝑠+50)
=
𝑠2+6𝑠+25 2
𝑑𝐾
For = 0, the numerator should be zero.
𝑑𝑠
i.e.. −(𝑠4 + 12𝑠3 + 91𝑠2 + 150𝑠 + 50) = 0
The fourth order polynomial can be split into two quadratic equations. The two
quadratic factors can be obtained by Lin's method
To find quadratic factors by lin’s method:

On neglecting the small remainder we get,

(𝑠4 + 12𝑠3 + 91𝑠2 + 150𝑠 + 50) = (s2 + 2s +0.7)(s2+10s+70.3)
−2 ± 4 −4 ∗0.7
The roots of the quadratic, s2+ 2s + 0.7= 0 are s = = - 0.45, -1.55
2
−10 ± 100 −4 ∗70.3
The roots of the quadratic, s2+ 10s +70.3 = 0 are s = = - 5 ±j6.73
2

Here, s = -1.55 is not a point on root locus, hence it cannot be a breakaway point
Check the other three values for actual breakaway point
 −𝑠3−3𝑠2 −2𝑠 −(−0.45)3−3(−0.45)2 −2(−0.45)
When s = -0.45, K = = = 0.017
𝑠2+6𝑠+25 (−0.45)2+6(−0.45)+25
For s = —0.45, the value of K is positive and real and so it is actual breakaway point.
It can be shown that for s = -5 ±j6.73 the value of K is not positive and real and so
they cannot be breakaway points.
Step 5 : To find the angle of departure
Let us consider the complex zero Z1 shown in fig. Draw vectors from all
other poles and zero to the zero Z1, as shown. Let the angles of these vectors be
Θ1, Θ2 , Θ3 and Θ4.
Here, Θ1 = 180° - tan-1(4/3) = 126.90 ;
Θ2 = 180° - tan-1(4/2) = 116.90 ;
Θ3 = 180° - tan-1(4/1) = 1040 ;
Θ4 = 900 ;
Angle of arrival at the complex Zero Z1
= 180° - (Θ4 ) + (Θ1 + Θ2+ Θ3)
= 180° - 900 + (126.9° + 116.9° + 1040)
= 77.5°
The angle of arrival at complex Zero Z2 is negative of the angle of departure at
complex zero Z1.
So, the angle of arrival at zero Z2 = - 77.5°
Step 6 : To find the crossing point on imaginary axis.
The characteristic equation is
s(s+1)(s+2) +K 𝑠2 + 6𝑠 + 25 = 0
s(s2 +3s +2) + Ks2 + 6Ks +25K =0
s3 + 3s2 +2s + Ks2 + 6Ks +25K =0
s3 + s2 (3 +K) + s (2 +6K) +25K = 0
Put s= jω, we get
(jω)3 + (jω)2 (3 +K) + jω (2 +6K) +25K = 0
-J ω3 - ω2 (3 +K) + jω (2 +6K) +25K = 0
On equating imaginary part =0, we get,
-ω3 + ω (2 +6K) = 0 → ω3 = ω (2 +6K)
ω2 = (2 +6K)
On equating real part =0, we get,
- ω2 (3 +K) + 25K = 0 → - (2 +6K) (3 +K) + 25K =0
- (6 +2K +18K + 6K2) + 25K = 0
-6K2 -20K – 6 +25K = 0
-6K2 +5K – 6 = 0
 − 5 ± 52 −4(−6)(−6)
K= = 0.4 ± j 0.9
2(−6)
Since the value of K is not real and positive, there is no crossing point on imaginary axis,
or for any positive values of K the root focus will not cross imaginary axis.
Step 7:To find points on root locus
Choose test points a, b, c, d on the s-plane and adjust the test points to satisfy
angle criterion. The test points are shown in fig. On the upper half of s-plane the
root locus is sketched through the test points a, b, c and d. The root locus on the
lower half of s-plane is the mirror image of the root locus on the upper half of s-
plane.
The root locus has three branches. One branch sorts at s = - 2 and goes to
infinity along negative real axis. The other two root locus branches starts at s= 0
and s=-1 and breaks from real axis at s= -0.45, then meets the complex zeros.
 Example 4: Sketch root locus for the unity feedback
system whose open loop transfer function is
K
G(s) =
s (s +4)(s2 + 4s + 20)
SOLUTION
Step 1: To locate poles and zeros
The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation
s(s +4) (s2 + 4s + 20) = 0.
−4 ± 16 −4 ∗20
The roots of the quadratic term is s = = -2 ± j4
2
The poles are at, s = 0, -4 and -2 ± j4.
P1 = 0, P2 = -4 , P3 = -2 +j4 and P4 = -2 –j4.
The poles are marked by X(cross) as shown in fig.
Step 2 : To find root locus on real axis
There are two poles on the real axis. Choose a test point on real axis between s= 0
and s= —4. To the right of this point, the total number of real poles is one which is
an odd number. Hence the real axis between s= 0 ands= —4 will be a part of root
locus. Choose a test point to the left of s =—4, now to the right of this test point the
total number of poles and zeros is two which is even number. Hence the real axis
from s=—4 to s= —∞ will not be a part of root locus.
Step 3: To find angles of asymptotes and centroid
Since there are four poles, the number of root locus branches are four. There is no
finite zero. Hence all the four root locus branches ends at zeros at infinity. Hence the
number of asymptotes required is four.
180o (2q +1)
Angles of asymptotes = ± 𝑛−𝑚
Here n = 4, and m = 0
q = 0, 1,…..n — m. so, q = 0, 1, 2,3,4.
180
When q = 0, Angles= ± = ±45°
4
180 ∗3
When q = 1, Angles= ±
4
= ± 135°
As we need only four angles,
four value are calculated.
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 −𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠
Centroid = 𝑛 −𝑚
−2+𝑗4 −2 −𝑗4 −4 −(0) −8
= = 4 = -2
4

The centroid is marked on real axis and from the centroid the angles of asymptotes
are marked using a protractor. The asymptotes are drawn as dotted lines.
 Step 4 : To find the breakaway and break-in points
The closed loop transfer function
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅 𝑠 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
K
s (s +4)(s2 + 4s + 20) 𝐾
= =
1+
K 2
𝑠(𝑠+4) 𝑠 +4𝑠+20 +𝐾
s (s +4)(s2 + 4s + 20)
The characteristic equation is
s(s+4) 𝑠2 + 4𝑠 + 20 +K= 0
K = - s(s+4) 𝑠2 + 4𝑠 + 20 = - 𝑠2 + 4𝑠 𝑠2 + 4𝑠 + 20
= - 𝑠4 + 8𝑠3 + 35s2 + 80𝑠
Differentiating K w.r.t s , we get
𝑑𝐾
= - 4𝑠3 + 24s2 + 72𝑠 + 80 = 0 -→ 4𝑠3 + 24s2 + 72𝑠 + 80 = 0
𝑑𝑠

𝑠3 + 6s2 + 18𝑠 + 20 = 0
To find quadratic factors by lin’s method:

Since the remainder converge for every trial

let us take s = -2.
 𝑠3 + 6s2 + 18𝑠 + 20 = (s + 2)(s2 + 4𝑠 + 10)
−4 ± 16 −4 ∗10
The roots of the quadratic term is s = = -2 ± j2.45
2

Check for K :
When, s = - 2, K = - (s4 - 8s3 +36s2 + 80s) = - {(—2)4 + 8 x (—2)3 +
36 x (—2)2 +80 x (—2)}
= - [—64] = 64
When S = - 2 ± j2.45 = 3.16 ∠±1290
K = - (s4 + 8s3 + 36s2 + 80s)
= - (3.16 ∠±129°)4 + 8( 3.16 ∠±1290 )3 + 36 x (3.16 ∠±1290)2 +
80 x (3.16 ∠±1290)
= - [99.7 ∠± 156°+252.41 ∠± 27°+359.5 ∠± 258°+252.8 ∠± 129°]
For positive values of angles,
K = - [- 91+ j40 + 225 + j115 —75 — j351—159 + j196j = —[—100] = 100
For negative values of angles,
K = -[- 91— j40 + 225 + j115 - 75 + j351- 159 — jJ96] = -[-100] = 100
For all the roots of the equation dK /ds = 0, the value of K is positive and real.
Hence all the three roots are actual breakaway points.
Step 5 : To find the angle of departure
Let us consider the complex pole P3 shown in fig. Draw vectors from all
other poles to the pole p3, as shown. Let the angles of these vectors be Θ1, Θ2 and
Θ3
Here, Θ1 = 180° - tan-1(4/2) = 1170 ; Θ2 = 90o
Θ3 = tan-1(4/2) = 630 ;
Angle of arrival at the complex Pole P3
= 180° - (Θ1 + Θ2+ Θ3)
= 180° - (117° + 90° + 630) = -90°
The angle of departure at complex pole P4 is negative of the angle of departure at
complex pole P3.
So, the angle of departure at pole P4 = 90°
Step 6 : To find the crossing point on imaginary axis.
The characteristic equation is
𝑠4 + 8𝑠3 + 36s2 + 80𝑠 + 𝐾 =0
Put s= jω, we get
(jω)4 +8 (jω)3 + 36(jω)2 + 80(jω) + K = 0
ω4 - j8ω3 - 36 ω2 + 80 j ω + K = 0
On equating imaginary part =0, we get,
-8ω3 + 80 ω = 0 → 8ω3 = 80ω
ω2 = 10 -→ ω = ± 3.2
On equating real part =0, we get,
ω4 - 36 ω2 + K = 0 → K = - ω4 +36 ω2 = -102 + 36*10 = 260
The crossing point of root locus is ± j3.2. The value of K at this crossing point is K =
260. (This is the limiting value of K for stability). The root locus has four branches.
All the root locus branches goes to infinity along the asymptotic lines to meet the
zeros at infinity.
4.4 Construction of compensators with root locus

The compensation using Bode plot is applicable when the specifications

are given in the frequency domain. When the specifications are given in the time
domain the root locus approach of design is very powerful.
The damping factor and the undamped natural frequency are the two main
specifications used in the root locus compensation. These two specifications
decide the dominant closed loop poles near jω axis. Thus compensation using
root locus means to reshape the root locus near jω axis and origin, in order to
place the dominant dosed loop Poles at the desired locations.
The root locus compensation also can be achieved using series compensation with
lead, lag or lag-lead network.
Let us revise the relation between damping ratio ζ and angle θ.
The dominant complex conjugate poles are expressed as - ζωn ± jωd . Then in the
complex plane we have ζ = sin θ where θ is measured from jω axis or ζ = cos θ if
θ is measured from negative real axis.
Thus lines of constant ζ are radial lines passing through the origin as shown.

Let us choose ζ = sin θ and design lag , lead and lag-lead compensators.

Designing Lead Compensator using Root Locus

rd
The procedure to design lead compensator is,
Step 1 : From the given specifications, find the desired locations of the
dominant closed loop poles.

Step 2 :Assume the lead compensator as,

( 1+𝑇𝑠)
𝐺𝑐 (s) = Kc 𝛼 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 < 1 and Kc
(1+𝛼𝑇𝑠)
is determined from the requirement of open loop gain.

Step 3 :Find the sum of the angles at the desired location of one of the
dominant closed loop poles with the open loop poles and zeros of the
original system. This angle must be an odd multiple of 1800. If it is not,
calculate the necessary angle φ to be added to get the sum as an odd
multiple of 1800. This φ must be contributed by lead compensator. If φ is
more than 600 , then two or more lead networks may be needed. This φ
helps to determine values of 𝛼 and T.

Step 4 :To determine 𝛼 and T for known φ

draw the horizontal line from one of
the dominant closed loop pole say P.
Join origin to P, as shown in Fig. Bisect the
Angle between the lines PA and PO. Draw the
φ
two line PC and PD that makes angle ± with
2

the bisector PB. The intersection of PC and PD with the negative real axis gives the
necessary pole and zero of compensator.
Step S :The open klop gain can be dctt.-rmincd by applying the ma.gn!ludc
CQndllion
at point P.
Slep 6 : Check that the compen.:;ated systen1 !>atisfics aU the specifications. If
not
adjust the compensator pol<' <'Ind zero till all the spoo"K'<'Hons :1rC ":-'i$ficd.
4.5 DESIGN OF COMPENSATORS

It has often been observed that the performance of a control system does not satisfy the
given specification in terms of accuracy, stability, damping, speed response and so on. After
design and testing if the system does not perform satisfactorily some changes may need to
be introduced to achieve the desired results. The change could be in form of adjustment of
forward path gain or insertion of compensating device in the control system.

To reduce the steady state error, gain can be increased. However, it results in an
oscillatory transient response or even instability under such circumstances, it may be
necessary to introduce some kind of corrective subsystems to force the chosen plant to
meet the given specification. These subsystem are known as compensators and their job is
to compensate for deficiency in the performance of plant.

Compensators are required in following two cases. Namely,

i. System is unstable: Compensation is required to stabilize it and also achieve the

desired performance specifications.

ii. System is stable: Compensation is required to achieve the improved performance

specification.

100
Designing Lag Compensator using Root Locus
Step 1: Draw the root locus of the uncompensated system.
Step 2: Determine the dominant pole Sd. Draw a straight line through
the origin with an angle cos-1(τ) with respect to negative real axis.
The intersection of straight line with root locus gives the dominant
pole Sd.
Step 3: Determine the open loop gain K of the uncompensated
system at s = Sd
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒔𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔
K=
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒔𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒔
Step 4: Calculate the parameter 𝛽 of the compensator
Let 𝐾𝑣𝑢 is the velocity error constant of uncompensated system.
𝐾𝑣𝑑 is the desired velocity error constant.
𝐾𝑣𝑢 = lim[𝑠𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ]
𝑠→0
Let A be the factor by which the velocity error constant of the system
𝐾
that has to be increased where A = 𝑣𝑑 .
𝐾𝑣𝑢
Closed 𝛽 such that it is 10 to 20% > A
𝛽 = ( 1.1 to 1.2) x A
Step 5: Determine the transfer function of the lag compensator. Zero
of the lag compensator is chosen to be 10% of the second pole of
uncompensated system.
 Compensation by Inserting N/W

Series compensation Parallel compensation Series-parallel

(or) (or) compensation
Cascade compensation Feedback compensation

Cascade lag N/W Cascade lead N/W Cascade lag-lead N/W

(phase lag occurs in 𝐹𝐿 ) (phase lead occurs in 𝐹𝐻 )

Cascade Compensation:

If the compensator 𝐺𝐶 𝑠 is placed in series with forward path transfer

function of the plant, the scheme is called series or cascade compensation. The flow
of signal in such series is from lower energy level towards higher energy level. This
requires additional amplifiers to increase the gain and also to provide necessary
isolation.

+
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) G(s)
-

H(s)

101
Feedback Compensation:

If compensator 𝐺𝐶 (𝑠) is placed in feedback path to provide an

additional internal feedback loop. The energy transfer is from higher energy level
towards lower energy level point. Additional amplifiers are not required.

𝐺1 (𝑠) 𝐺2 (𝑠)
-

𝐺𝐶 (𝑠)

H(s)

Series-parallel compensation:

The selection of proper compensation scheme depends on nature of

signals available in the system, power levels at various points, available components,
economic consideration and designer’s experience.

𝐺𝐶1 (𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)

- -

𝐺𝐶2 (𝑠)

H(s)

102
 4.6 Effect of Lead compensation on frequency response

Consider an electrical RC network which is lead compensating networks.

Fig 4.3 Lead Compensator

𝐸𝑂 (𝑠)
Transfer function: 𝐺𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)

Apply KCL, 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼

𝑐𝑑(𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 ) 1 1
+ 𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 = 𝑒 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑜

Take Laplace transform on both sides

1 1
𝑆𝐶 𝐸𝑖 𝑠 − 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) + 𝐸𝑖 𝑠 − 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝐸 (𝑠)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑜

1 1 1
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 𝑆𝐶 + = 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑆𝐶 + +
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑅2 1 + 𝑆𝐶𝑅1
𝑇. 𝐹 = =
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑆𝐶 𝑅1

1 1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑆+𝑅 𝐶 𝑆+𝑅 𝐶
1 1
= =
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 1
𝑆+ 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 𝑆+ 𝑅2
1 2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝐶

103
This is generally expressed as,

1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑆+𝑇
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑆 + 1
𝛼𝑇
𝑅2
Where 𝑇 = 𝑅1 𝐶, 𝛼 = 𝑅 <1
1 +𝑅2

In lead compensator has

1
𝑖 . 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 ⟹ 𝑠 = −
𝑇
1
𝑖𝑖 . 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 ⟹ 𝑠 = −
𝛼𝑇

Maximum lead angle 𝜙𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 :-

1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑆+𝑇 𝛼(1 + 𝑇𝑆)
= =
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑆 + 1 (1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑆)
𝛼𝑇

Replace 𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑗𝜔,

𝐸𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 𝛼(1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑇)

=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) (1 + 𝛼𝑗𝜔𝑇)

𝐸𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 𝛼 1 + 𝜔2𝑇 2
=𝑀=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑗𝜔0 1 + 𝜔2𝛼2𝑇 2

While phase angle is given by,

𝜙 = tan−1 𝜔𝑇 − tan−1 𝜔𝛼𝑇

𝑑𝜙
Then = 0 ⟹ 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝜔𝑚 (maximum frequency)
𝑑𝜔

𝑑
tan−1 𝜔𝑇 − tan−1 𝜔𝛼𝑇 = 0
𝑑𝜔

104
 1ൗ 1ൗ
𝑇 𝛼𝑇
2− 2 =0
1 1
𝜔2 + 𝑇 𝜔 2 + 𝛼𝑇

𝑇 𝛼𝑇
2 2
− =0
1+𝜔 𝑇 1 + 𝛼2𝜔2𝑇2
𝑇 1 + 𝛼 2 𝜔2 𝑇 2 − 𝛼𝑇 1 + 𝜔2 𝑇 2 = 0
1 + 𝛼 2 𝜔2 𝑇 2 − 𝛼 − 𝛼𝜔2 𝑇 2 = 0
𝜔2 𝛼𝑇 2 𝛼 − 1 + 1 − 𝛼 = 0

1
𝜔2 =
𝛼𝑇 2

1 1 1
𝜔𝑚 = =
𝑇 𝛼 𝑇 𝛼𝑇

This is the frequency at which phase lead is at its maximum. The corner frequencies
of compensator.

1 1
𝜔𝐶1 = ; 𝜔𝐶2 =
𝑇 𝛼𝑇

Taking tan on both sides of phase angle,

tan 𝜙 = tan tan−1 𝜔𝑇 − tan−1 𝛼𝜔𝑇

𝜔𝑇 − 𝛼𝜔𝑇 𝜔𝑇(1 − 𝛼)
= =
1 + 𝜔𝑇. 𝛼𝜔𝑇 1 + 𝜔 2 𝑇 2 𝛼

𝜔𝑇(1 − 𝛼)
tan 𝜙 =
1 + 𝜔2𝑇2𝛼

1
𝐴𝑡 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑚 =
𝑇 𝛼

105
 𝜔𝑇(1 − 𝛼)
tan 𝜙 =
1 + 𝜔2𝑇2𝛼

𝜔𝑚 𝑇(1 − 𝛼) 1−𝛼 1−𝛼

tan 𝜙𝑚 = 2 2
⟹ =
1 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑇 𝛼 𝛼 1+1 2 𝛼

1−𝛼
sin 𝜙𝑚 =
1+𝛼

This equation is also used to get the relation between 𝛼 and maximum lead angle
𝜙𝑚 .

Bode plot of lead compensators:

1 1
𝜔𝐶 1 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑆 = −
𝑇 𝑇
1 1
𝜔𝐶 2 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑆 = − &𝑘 =𝛼
𝛼𝑇 𝛼𝑇

1
𝛼 1 + 𝜔𝑚 2 𝑇 2 𝛼 1+𝛼
𝑀= =
1 + 𝜔𝑚 2 𝛼 2 𝑇 2 1+𝛼

𝑀 = 𝛼 𝑎𝑡 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑚
1ൗ
= 20 log 𝛼 2

= 10 log 𝛼

1
𝑀 = −10 log 𝑑𝐵.
𝛼

Fig 4.4 Lead compensation graph

 4.7 Design of lead compensator using bode plots
Step 1:

At zero frequency, lead compensator has gain 𝛼. But as 𝛼 < 1, it provides

attenuation.
𝑘

1 + 𝑇𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝑠
𝐺𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾𝐶 𝛼 =𝑘
1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑠 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑠

Open loop transfer function of compensated system,

𝑘 1 + 𝑇𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝑠
𝐺𝐶 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = .𝐺 𝑠 = . 𝑘𝐺(𝑠)
1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑠 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑠

(1 + 𝑇𝑠)
= 𝐺 (𝑠)
(1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑠) 1

Where, 𝐺1 𝑠 = 𝑘𝐺(𝑠)

Determine the value of 𝑘 satisfying given error constant.

Step 2:

Draw the Bode plot 𝐺1 𝑗𝜔 with 𝑘 gives uncompensated system. Obtain the
phase margin ′𝜙1 ′.

Step 3:

Let 𝜙𝑠 = 𝑃𝑀 specified

𝜙1 = 𝑃𝑀 obtained in step 2.
∴ 𝜙𝑚 = 𝜙𝑠− 𝜙1 + 𝜀

Where 𝜀 = 5𝑜 𝑡𝑜 15𝑜 (margin of safety as cross over frequency).

Step 4:

1−𝛼
sin 𝜙𝑚 =
1+𝛼

Determine value of 𝛼.

107
Step 5:

Determine frequency 𝜔𝑚 at which magnitude of uncompensated system is

1
− 10 log 𝑑𝐵. select this frequency as new gain cross over frequency.
𝛼

1
𝜔𝑚 = 𝑎𝑠 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛, 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 1ൗ𝑇 .
𝑇 𝛼

Step 6:

Determine two frequencies of lead compensator.

1
𝜔𝐶1 =
𝑇
1
𝜔𝐶2 =
𝛼𝑇

Step 7:

As 𝑘 = 𝐾𝐶 𝛼.

Determine value of 𝐾𝐶 .

Step 8:

Check the gain margin of compensated system. If it is not satisfactory, repeat

the design by modifying pole-zero location of compensator till a satisfactory result is
obtained.

108
Problem on Lead Compensator

1. For the system shown in figure. Design a lead compensator such that closed loop system will
satisfy the following specification. Static velocity error constant= 20 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 , phase
margin=50𝑜 , Gain margin= 10 𝑑𝐵.

+ 10
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
-

Solution:

Step 1:

Assume a lead compensators as,

1 + 𝑇𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝑠
𝐺𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐾𝐶 𝛼 =𝑘
1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑠 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑠

10𝑘
𝐺1 𝑠 = 𝑘𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)

10𝐾(1 + 𝑇𝑠)
𝐾𝑣 = 20 ⟹ lim 𝑆 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = lim 𝑆
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑠)
20 = 𝐾10 ⟹𝐾=2

20
𝐺1 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)

109
Step 2:

Sketch Bode plot 𝐺1 𝑠 .

Factors: 20 log 20 = 26 dB

1 pole at origin.

𝑑𝐵
1 simple pole with corner frequency 𝜔𝐶 = 1. Thus line of slope −20 𝑑𝑒𝑐

𝑑𝐵
till 𝜔𝐶 = 1 and line of slope −40 𝑑𝑒𝑐 from 1 onwards.

Phase angle table:

20
𝐺1 𝑗𝜔 =
𝑗𝜔(1 + 𝑗𝜔)

𝝎 𝟏ൗ − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝝎 𝝓𝑹
𝒋𝝎

0.1 −90𝑜 −5.71𝑜 −95.71𝑜

1 −90𝑜 −45𝑜 −135𝑜

2 −90𝑜 −63.4𝑜 −153.4𝑜

10 −90𝑜 −84.2𝑜 −174.2𝑜

𝛼 −90𝑜 −90𝑜 −180𝑜

From diagram,
𝜙1 = 𝑃𝑀 = 15𝑜
𝜔𝑔𝑐 = 4 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐺𝑀 = +∞ 𝑑𝐵.

110
Step 3:

𝜙𝑆 = 50𝑜 (given)
𝜙𝑚 = 𝜙𝑠 − 𝜙1 − 𝜀
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝜀 = 5𝑜
𝜙𝑚 = 50 − 15 − 5 = 40𝑜 .

Step 4:

1−𝛼
sin 𝜙𝑚 =
1+𝛼
1−𝛼
sin 40𝑜 = = 0.6427
1+𝛼
𝛼 = 0.2174

Step 5:

1
𝛼 = −10 log = −6.78 𝑑𝐵.
𝛼

Find the frequency at which gain of uncompensated system is −6.78 𝑑𝐵 (from

figure).

𝑟𝑎𝑑
∴ 𝜔𝑚 = 6 𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −6.78 𝑑𝐵
𝑠𝑒𝑐

1 1
𝜔𝑚 = 𝑖. 𝑒. , = 2.7495.
𝑇 𝛼 𝑇

Step 6:

1
𝜔𝐶1 = = 2.7495
𝑇
1
𝜔𝐶2 = = 13.09
𝛼𝑇

111
Step 7:
𝑘 = 𝐾𝐶 𝛼

𝑘 2
𝐾𝑐 = = = 9.523
𝛼 0.21

Step 8:

1 + 0.3637 𝑠 2 1 + 0.3637 𝑠
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 9.523 ∗ 0.21 =
1 + 0.0763 𝑠 1 + 0.0763 𝑠

This is the designed lead compensator.

20(1 + 0.3637 𝑠)
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(1 + 𝑠)(1 + 0.0763 𝑠)

Draw the Bode plot for this transfer function and obtain values of GM and PM.

Phase angle table:

𝝎 𝟏ൗ − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝝎 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟑𝟕𝝎 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟑𝝎 𝝓

𝒋𝝎

0.1 −90𝑜 −5.71𝑜 +2.08𝑜 −0.43𝑜 −94.6𝑜

+20𝑜
1 −90𝑜 −45𝑜 −4.36𝑜 −119.36𝑜

+36𝑜
2 −90𝑜 −63.4𝑜 −8.67𝑜 −126.07𝑜

+74𝑜
10 −90𝑜 −84.2𝑜 −37.3𝑜 −137.05𝑜

+88𝑜
100 −90𝑜 −89.4𝑜 −82.53𝑜 −173.9𝑜

112
From magnitude plot

K=20

20 log 20= 26 dB

One pole at origin, straight line of slope -20 dB/dec

dB
𝜔𝐶1 = 1, slope = −40 due to simple pole.
dec

1 𝑑𝐵
𝜔𝐶2 = 𝑇 = 2.75, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −20 𝑑𝑒𝑐 due to simple zero.

1 𝑑𝐵
𝜔𝐶3 = 𝛼𝑇 = 13.09, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −40 𝑑𝑒𝑐 due to simple pole.

From fig.,
𝜙1 = 𝑃𝑀 = +50𝑜
𝜔𝑔𝑐 = 7 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐺𝑀 = +∞ 𝑑𝐵.

Thus compensated systems satisfy all specification.

113
114
4.8 Effect of Lag compensation on frequency response

Consider an electrical network which is a lag compensating network.

Fig 4.6 Lag Compensator

Assuming unloaded circuit and applying KVL to the loop.

1
𝑒𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅1 + 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅2 +
𝐶
න 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1

Taking Laplace transform,

1
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +
𝐶𝑆

Now o/p equation is

𝑒𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅2 +
1
න 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
2
𝐶

Taking Laplace transform,

1
𝐸𝑜 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 𝑅2 +
𝑆𝐶

Substitute 𝐼 𝑠 from eq (2) to (1)

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +
1 𝐶𝑆
𝑅2 + 𝐶 𝑆

115
 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑆 𝐶 + 1
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 =
1 + 𝑅2 𝑆 𝐶

1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1 + 𝑆 𝑅2 𝐶 𝑅2 𝑆+𝑅 𝐶
2
= =
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 1 + 𝑆 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 1
𝑆+
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶

This is generally expressed as,

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1 𝑆 + 1ൗ𝑇
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝛽 𝑆 + 1ൗ
𝛽𝑇

𝑅1 +𝑅2
Where 𝑇 = 𝑅2 𝐶, 𝛽 = >1
𝑅2

The lag compensator has zero at 𝑠 = − 1Τ𝑇 and pole at 𝑠 = − 1ൗ𝛽𝑇 . As β > 1, the pole
is always located to the right of the zero.

Maximum lag angle &𝛽:

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1 𝑠 + 1ൗ𝑇 1 + 𝑇𝑠
= =
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝛽 𝑠 + 1ൗ 1 + 𝛽𝑇𝑠
𝛽𝑇

In frequency domain, we get,

𝐸𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝑇
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝛽𝑇

𝐸𝑜 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝜔2𝑇2
𝑀= = Magnitude
𝐸𝑖 (𝑗𝜔) 1 + 𝜔 2 𝑇 2 𝛽2

𝜙 = tan−1 𝜔𝑇 − tan−1 𝜔𝛽𝑇 Phase

The equation is similar exactly to the lead network, only 𝛽 > 1.

116
 𝑑𝜙
=0
𝑑𝜔
𝑑
tan−1 𝜔𝑇 − tan−1 𝜔𝛽𝑇 = 0
𝑑𝜔

Solving we get,

This is the frequency at which phase lag is at its maximum. The two corner
frequencies of lag compensator are,

1
𝜔𝐶1 =
𝑇
1
𝜔𝐶2 =
𝛼𝑇

Thus 𝜔𝑚 is geometric mean of two corner frequencies. The phase lag angle
does not play a role in the lag compensation.

Bode plot of Lag compensation:

1 1
𝜔𝐶1 = 𝛽𝑇 for a pole at 𝑠 = − 𝛽𝑇

1 1
𝜔𝐶2 = 𝑇 for a zero at 𝑠 = − 𝑇 .

Fig 4.7 Lag compensator graph

117
 4.9 Design of lag compensator using bode plots
Step 1:

Assume a lag compensator having Transfer Function

1
1 𝑠+𝑇 1 + 𝑇𝑠
𝐺𝐶 𝑠 = =
𝛽 𝑠+ 1 1 + 𝛽𝑇𝑠
𝛽𝑇

Assume 𝐺1 𝑠 = 𝑘𝐺 𝑠

From given error constant, determine the value of k which satisfies the
steady state performance.

Step 2:

Using the value of k determined above, draw Bode plot of 𝐺1 𝑗𝜔 . Obtain the
phase margin. This is say 𝜙1 for uncompensated system.

Step 3:

Let 𝜙𝑠 = 𝑃. 𝑀 specified
𝜙2 = 𝜙𝑠 + 𝜀

𝜀 → margin of safety = 5𝑜 𝑡𝑜 15𝑜 .

Then 𝜀 compensates for phase lag of lag compensator.

Step 4:

Find the frequency 𝜔2 corresponding to phase margin of 𝜙2 degree. i.e., the

frequency at which phase angle of open loop T. F is −180𝑜 + 𝜙2 . Choose this new
gain cross over frequency.

118
Step 5:

To have 𝜔2 as new gain cross over frequencies, determine the attenuation

necessary to shift the magnitude curve up and down to 0dB. This shift is due to the
contribution of 𝛽 which is 20 log 1ൗ𝛽 .

Therefore shift to have 𝜔2 as new gain cross over

1
= 20 log = −20 log 𝛽
𝛽

Step 6:

Choose upper corner frequency 1/T which is ½ or 1/10 below the 𝜔2 is

determined in step 4.

1 𝜔2 𝜔2
𝜔𝐶2 = = 𝑜𝑟
𝑇 2 10

Thus determine the value of T.

1
The other corner frequency for lag compensator is 𝜔𝐶1 = 𝛽𝑇

Step 7:

Thus once Transfer Function of lag compensator is known, draw Bode plot
of compensated system and check the specifications. If it is not satisfied, repeat the
design by modifying pole zero locations of compensator till a satisfactory result is
obtained.

119
Effects & limitations of lag compensator:

1. It allows high gain at low frequencies. Thus it basically low pass filter.

2. Attenuation shift 𝜔𝑔𝑐 to low frequency points. Thus bandwidth gets reduced.

3. If Bandwidth reduced, provides slower response. Thus rise time and settling
time are usually longer. The transient response lasts for longer time.

4. S/m becomes more sensitive to parameter variations.

5. It acts as PI controller. Thus tends to make system less stable.

Problem:

1. For a certain system,

0.025
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(1 + 0.5𝑠)(1 + 0.05𝑠)

Design a suitable lag compensator to give velocity error constant= 20 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 and
P.M=40𝑜 .

Step 1:

Assume 𝐺1 𝑠 = 𝑘 𝐺(𝑠)

0.025𝑘
=
𝑠(1 + 0.5𝑠)(1 + 0.05𝑠)

120
 𝐾
2. A unity feedback system has OLTF 𝐺 𝑠 = . Design a suitable lag
𝑠(1+2𝑠)

compensator so that phase margin is 40𝑜 and ss error for ramp I/P is 0.2.
G(s)
+ C(s)
R(s) 𝐾
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)
𝑠(1 + 2𝑠)
-

H(s)

Solution:

𝐾
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(1 + 2𝑠)

(1+𝑠𝑇)
i) 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑐 𝛽 ,𝛽 >1
(1+𝑠𝛽𝑇)

𝐾 = 𝐾𝑐 𝛽 𝛽>1

(1 + 𝑠𝑇)
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾 ,𝛽 > 1
(1 + 𝑠𝛽𝑇)

ii) OLTF of compensated system:

(1 + 𝑠𝑇) 1
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐾 . ∵𝐾=1
(1 + 𝑠𝛽𝑇) 𝑠(1 + 2𝑠)

Let 𝐺1 𝑠 = 𝐾 𝐺(𝑠)

𝐾
𝐺1 𝑠 = 𝑠(1+2𝑠) OLTF of uncompensated system.

iii) Find K:

For ramp 𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡 = 0.2 = 𝐾𝑉

𝐾𝑉 = lim 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =1
𝑠→0

1
= lim 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
𝑠→0 0.2
∴𝐾=5

121
 Substitute in 𝐺1 𝑠 ,

5
𝐺1 𝑠 = 𝑠(1+2𝑠) (uncompensated system)

iv). Draw Bode plot for 𝐺1 (𝑠)

Replace s by 𝑗𝜔,

5
𝐺1 𝑗𝜔 =
(𝑗𝜔)(1 + 2𝑗𝜔)
1
𝜔𝐶1 = = 0.25 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
4

Corner Slope Change in slope

S. No. Term frequency 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵
( ) ( )
(𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec) 𝑑𝑒𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑐

1 5 - 0

1
2 − -20 -20
𝑗𝜔
1
3 𝜔𝐶1 =0.5 -20 -40
1 + 𝑗2𝜔

𝜔𝐿 = 0.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec ≪ 𝜔𝐶1

𝜔𝐻 = 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec > 𝜔𝐶1
𝜔𝐿 → 𝜔𝐶1

1
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 5 + 20 log
𝜔
5
= 20 log
𝜔

= 33.98 dB

122
 5
𝜔𝐶1 = 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = 20 log
𝜔
= 20 dB
𝜔𝐻
𝜔𝐻 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶1 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐻 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶1
𝜔𝐶1

100
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = −40 log + 20
0.5

= −72 𝑑𝐵
𝝎 (𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄) Gain (dB)
𝜔𝐻 = 10
= −32 𝑑𝐵 0.1 33.98

0.5 20

10 -32
Phase plot:
𝜙 = −90𝑜 − tan−1 2𝜔

𝝎 (𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄) 𝝓 (deg)

0.1 -101.3

0.2 -111.8

0.5 -135

1 -153.43

1.5 -162

5 -174

10 -177

100 -179.7

123
Gain Margin:

Phase plot may reach −180𝑜 at ∞.

∴ 𝐾𝑔 = ∞ 𝑑𝐵

Phase Margin:
𝜗 = 180𝑜 + 𝜙𝑔𝑐
𝜙𝑔𝑐 = −162𝑜
𝜗 = 180𝑜 − 162𝑜 = 18𝑜
𝜗 = 22𝑜

v). 𝜗𝑟 = 𝜗𝑑 + 𝜖
(𝜖 → 5𝑜 𝑡𝑜 12𝑜 )
𝜗𝑛 = 40𝑜 + 5𝑜
𝜗𝑛 = 45𝑜 (𝜙𝑚 max 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)
𝜗𝑛 = 45𝑜 = 180𝑜 + 𝜙𝑔𝑐𝑛
𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑛 = 𝜔𝑛
𝜙𝑔𝑐𝑛 = 45𝑜 − 180𝑜 = −135𝑜

𝜙𝑔𝑐𝑛 = −135𝑜 (draw the line from −135𝑜 & find 𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑛 )
𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑛 = 0.5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑛 = 20 𝑑𝐵 (from graph)

20 log 𝛽 = 20
𝛽 = 10 𝛽>1

1 𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑛
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 = =
𝑇 10
1 0.5
𝜔𝐶2 = =
𝑇 10
10
𝑇=
0.5

T=20

124
 1 1
𝜔𝐶1 = 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 = =
𝛽𝑇 10 ∗ 20

1
=
200
𝜔𝐶1 = 0.005

vi). Compensated Transfer function:

𝐾 𝑠 + 1ൗ𝑇
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 1ൗ𝛽𝑇

𝐾 = 𝐾𝑐 𝛽

𝐾
𝐾𝑐 = = 0.5
𝛽
𝐾𝑐 = 0.5

5(𝑠 + 0.05)
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 0.005)

𝐾𝑐 𝛽 (1 + 𝑠𝑇)
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 =
(1 + 𝑠𝛽𝑇)

5(1 + 20𝑠)
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 =
(1 + 200𝑠)

(T.F of lag compensator)

vii). T.F of compensated system:

5 1 + 20𝑠 . (1)
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 . 𝐺 𝑠 =
1 + 200𝑠 𝑠 (1 + 2𝑠)

125
viii). Draw Bode plot for compensated system:
𝑇. 𝐹 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 . 𝐺(𝑠)

Determine Gain Margin & Phase Margin.

a) Replace 𝑠 → 𝑗𝜔

5(1 + 20𝑗𝜔)
𝐺𝑐 𝑗𝜔 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 =
𝑗𝜔 1 + 200𝑗𝜔 (1 + 2𝑗𝜔)

b) Corner frequencies:

1
𝜔𝐶1 = = 0.005 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
200

1
𝜔𝐶2 = 20 = 0.05 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐.

1
𝜔𝐶3 = = 0.5 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2

c) Choose 𝜔𝐿 , 𝜔𝐻
𝜔𝐿 = 0. 001 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec (𝜔𝐿 ≪ 𝜔𝐶1 )
𝜔𝐻 = 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec (𝜔𝐻 > 𝜔𝐶3 )

d) Magnitude plot

Corner Slope Change in slope

S. No. Term frequency 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵
( ) ( )
(𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec) 𝑑𝑒𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑐

5
1 - -20 -
𝑗𝜔
1
2 𝜔𝐶1 = 0.005 -20 -40
(1 + 200𝑗𝜔)

3 (1 + 20 𝑗𝜔) 𝜔𝐶2 =0.05 +20 -20

1
4 𝜔𝐶3 =0.5 -20 -40
1 + 𝑗2𝜔

126
e) Calculate Gain:

When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐿 ,

5 5
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log = 20 log
𝜔 0.001
= 73.98 𝑑𝐵
When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶1

5 5
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log = 20 log
𝜔 0.005
= 60 𝑑𝐵
When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶2

𝜔𝐶2
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶1 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐶2 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶1
𝜔𝐶1

0.05
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = −40 log + 60
0.005
= 20 𝑑𝐵
When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶3

𝜔𝐶3
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶2 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐶3 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶2
𝜔𝐶2

0.5
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log + 20
0.05

= −20 + 20
= 0 𝑑𝐵
When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐻

𝜔𝐻
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶3 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐻 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶3
𝜔𝐶3

10
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = −40 log +0
0.5

= −52.04 𝑑𝐵

127
 𝝎 (rad/sec) Gain (dB)

𝜔𝐿 =0.001 73.98

𝜔𝐶1 =0.005 60

𝜔𝐶2 =0.05 20

𝜔𝐶3 =0.5 0

𝜔𝐻 =10 -52.04

f) Phase plot:

∠𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = −90𝑜 + tan−1 20𝜔 − tan−1 200𝜔 − tan−1 (2𝜔)

𝝎 (rad/sec) 𝝓 (deg)

0.001 -100

0.005 -130

0.05 -135
0.5 -140
1 -156
2 -167
5 -175
10 -177

Gain Margin:
𝐾𝑔 = ∞ 𝑑𝐵

Phase Margin:
𝜗 = 40𝑜

Therefore the given specification is satisfied.

If the given specification is not met, change 𝜖 in the range 5𝑜 𝑡𝑜 12𝑜 and again do it.

128
129
130
 4.10 Effect of Lag-Lead compensation on frequency
response

A combination of lag and lead compensator is nothing but lag-lead compensator.

Consider an electrical network which is lag-lead network.

Fig 4.8 Lag Lead Compensation

Let us obtain the transfer function of electrical lag-lead network. Now, sum of currents
through 𝑅1 and 𝐶1 is nothing but 𝑖 𝑡 .

𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 𝑑(𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 )
+ 𝐶1 = 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡

Taking Laplace transform we get,

1 1 1
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 − 𝐸𝑜 𝑠 + 𝐸 𝑠 − 𝑆 𝐶1 𝐸𝑜 𝑠 = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑆 𝐶1 𝑖

The output equation is,

1
𝑖 𝑡 𝑅2 + න 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒𝑜 (𝑡) 1
𝐶2

Taking Laplace transform,

1
𝐼 𝑠 𝑅2 +
𝑆 𝐶2
= 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 2

131
Substitute (1) in (2) we get,

1 1 1
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑆 𝐶1 − 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) + 𝑆 𝐶1 𝑅2 + = 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑆 𝐶2

𝐸𝑖 𝑠 1 + 𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶1 − 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)(1 + 𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶1 1 + 𝑆 𝑅2 𝐶2
= 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
𝑅1 𝑆 𝐶2

1 + 𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶1 (1 + 𝑆 𝑅2 𝐶2 (1 + 𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶1 )(1 + 𝑆 𝑅2 𝐶2 )
𝐸𝑖 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑜 𝑠 1+
𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶2

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) (1 + 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1 )(1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 )

=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶2 + 1 + 𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶1 (1 + 𝑆 𝑅2 𝐶2 )

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) (1 + 𝑆𝑅1 𝐶1 )(1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 )

= 2
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑆 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 + 𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝐶2 + 1

1 1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑆 + 𝑅 𝐶 𝑆+𝑅 𝐶
1 1 2 2
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 𝐶 𝑆 2 + 𝑆 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
1 2 1 2 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2

1 1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑆+𝑇 𝑆+𝑇
1 2
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝛽 1
𝑆+𝑇 𝑆+
1 𝛽𝑇2

Where 𝑇1 = 𝑅1 𝐶1 ; 𝑇2 = 𝑅2 𝐶2

𝛽 1 1 1 1
+ = + +
𝑇1 𝛽𝑇2 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝐶1

𝛼𝛽𝑇1 𝑇2 = 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2

𝛼𝛽 = 1.

It is also can be expressed as,

𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1 + 𝑇1 𝑆 (1 + 𝑇2 𝑆)
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 > 1
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑇
1 + 1 𝑆 1 + 𝑇2 𝛽𝑆
𝛽

132
Bode plot of lag-lead compensator:

Fig 4.9 Lag Lead Compensation Graph

Effect of lag-lead compensators:

It is used when both fast response and good static accuracy are desired.
Use of lag-lead compensators increases the low frequency gain which improves the
steady state while at same time, it increases Bandwidth of the system, making
system response very fast.

133
 4.11 Design of lag lead compensator using bode plots

1. Consider unity feedback system whose OLTF is

𝑘
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)

Design suitable lag-lead compensator so as to achieve static velocity error constant

= 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 , 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 50𝑜 , 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 10 𝑑𝐵.
Solution:
Transfer function of compensator is,

(1 + 𝑇1 𝑠)(1 + 𝑇2 𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑇
1 + 1 𝑠 1 + 𝛽𝑇2 𝑠
𝛽
𝐾𝑣 = lim 𝑠𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑠→0

𝑠(1 + 𝑇1 𝑠)(1 + 𝑇2 𝑠) 𝑘
10 = lim .
𝑇
1 + 1 𝑠 1 + 𝛽𝑇2 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
𝑠→0
𝛽
𝑘
10 =
2
𝑘 = 20
Uncompensated system,
20
𝐺1 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)

10
𝐺1 𝑠 =
𝑠(1 + 𝑠)(1 + 0.5𝑠)
Draw Bode plot for uncompensated system,
Factors:
20 log 10 = 20 𝑑𝐵
1 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛, −20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐
𝜔𝐶1 = 1, 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒, −20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐

𝜔𝐶2 = 2, 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒, −20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐.

134
2. Consider a unity feedback system whose OLTF is

𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 6)

Design a lag-lead compensator to meet following specification starting velocity

error constant

(i). 𝐾𝑉 = 80 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (ii). 𝑃𝑀 ≥ 35𝑜

Solution:

𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 6)

1) H(s)=1
𝐾𝑉 = 80 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1

𝐾𝑉 = lim 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
𝑠→0

𝐾
80 = lim 𝑠.
𝑠→0 𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 6)

𝐾
80 =
18
𝐾 = 1440

1440
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 6)

2) Bode plot for uncompensated system

1440
i). 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠 𝑠
𝑠 1+ .3 1+ .6
3 6

1440
=
18 𝑠(1 + 0.33𝑠)(1 + 0.167𝑠)

80
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 (1 + 0.33𝑠)(1 + 0.167𝑠)

135
 ii). Replace s by 𝑗𝜔,

80
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 =
(𝑗𝜔)(1 + 0.33𝑗𝜔)(1 + 0.167𝑗𝜔)

iii). Corner frequencies

1
𝜔𝐶1 = = 3 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.33

1
𝜔𝐶2 = 0.167 = 6 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐.

iv). Choose 𝜔𝐿 , 𝜔𝐻
𝜔𝐿 = 0. 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec
𝜔𝐻 = 100 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

v). Magnitude plot

Corner Slope Change in slope

S. No. Term frequency 𝑑𝐵 𝑑𝐵
( ) ( )
(𝑟𝑎𝑑/sec) 𝑑𝑒𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑐

80
1 - -20 -
𝑗𝜔
1
2 𝜔𝐶1 = 3 -20 -40
1 + 0.33𝑗𝜔
1
3 𝜔𝐶2 =6 -20 -60
1 + 0.167𝑗𝜔
vi). Calculate Gain:

When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐿 ,

80 80
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log = 20 log
𝜔 0.1
= 58.06 𝑑𝐵

136
 When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶1

5 80
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log = 20 log
𝜔 3

= 28.5 𝑑𝐵

When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶2

𝜔𝐶2
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶1 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐶2 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶1
𝜔𝐶1

6
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = −40 log + 28.5
3

= 16.46 𝑑𝐵

When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐻

100
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = −60 log + 16.46
6

= −56.85 𝑑𝐵

𝝎 (rad/sec) Gain (dB)

𝜔𝐿 =0.1 58.06

𝜔𝐶1 =3 28.5

𝜔𝐶2 =6 16.46

𝜔𝐻 =100 -56.85

vii). Phase plot

𝜙 = −90𝑜 − tan−1 0.33𝜔 − tan−1 (0.167𝜔)

137
 𝝎 (rad/sec) 𝝓 (deg)

0.1 -92.84
1 -118
3 -161
6 -198
10 -222
20 -245
50 -260
100 -265

viii). Gain Margin & Phase Margin:

GM
𝐾𝑔 = − 20 log 𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝜔𝑔𝑐

= − +21
𝐾𝑔 = −21 𝑑𝐵

PM
𝜗 = 180𝑜 + 𝜙𝑔𝑐

𝜙𝑔𝑐 = 226𝑜 (from graph)

𝜗 = 180𝑜 − 226𝑜 = −46𝑜
𝜗 = −46𝑜

Design of Lag Compensator

3) New Phase Margin

𝜗𝑛 = 𝜗𝑑 + 𝜖

Given desired 𝜗𝑑 = 35𝑜 (∵ ≥ 35𝑜 )

𝜖 = 5𝑜 𝑡𝑜 12𝑜

Take 𝜖 = 5𝑜
𝜗𝑛 = 𝜗𝑑 + 𝜖 = 35𝑜 + 5𝑜
𝜗𝑛 = 40𝑜

138
4) New gain cross over frequency
𝜗𝑛 = 180𝑜 + 𝜙𝑔𝑐𝑛
40𝑜 = 180𝑜 + 𝜙𝑔𝑐𝑛
𝜙𝑔𝑐𝑛 = 40𝑜 − 180𝑜 = −140𝑜
𝜙𝑔𝑐𝑛 = −140𝑜

Draw the line from −140𝑜 in phase plot, Extend it & find 𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑛

From Bode plot,

𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑛 = 1.8 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec (2 rad/sec)

5) Choose 𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑙 ≫ 𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑛

Take twice of 𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑛

𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑙 = 4 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

6) Determine 𝛽

Magnitude
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑙 = 20 log 𝛽

24 = 20 log 𝛽

𝛽 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 24ൗ20

𝛽 = 15.85> 1

7) Pole & Zero of lag compensator

1 𝜔𝑔𝑐𝑙 4
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 = = = = 0.4
𝑇1 10 10

1
= 0.4
𝑇1

1
𝑇1 =
0.4

𝑇1 = 2.5

139
 1 1
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 = =
𝛽𝑇1 15.85 ∗ 2.5

1
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 = = 0.025
39.6

8) T.F of lag compensator

𝛽(1 + 𝑠𝑇1 )
𝐺𝐶1 𝑠 =
(1 + 𝑠𝛽𝑇1 )

15.85(1 + 2.5𝑠)
𝐺𝐶1 𝑠 =
(1 + 39.6 𝑠)

9) Design of Lead compensator T.F 𝐺𝐶2 (𝑠)

1
Choose 𝛼 = 𝛽 (∵ 𝛼𝛽 = 1)

𝛼 = 0.063 <1

1
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑇2 𝛼

1
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) = −20 log
𝛼

1
= −20 log
0.063
= −12 𝑑𝐵

Draw the line from -12 d. Find frequency 𝜔𝑚 .

𝜔𝑚 = 17 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 (From graph)

1 1
𝜔𝑚 = =
𝑇2 𝛼 17 ∗ 0.063
𝑇2 = 0.23

140
10. T.F of lead compensator

1 1
𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 = = = 4.35
𝑇2 0.23

1 1
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 = = = 69
𝛼𝑇2 0.014

T.F of lead compensator

𝛼(1 + 𝑠𝑇2 )
𝐺𝐶2 𝑠 =
(1 + 𝑠𝛼𝑇2 )

0.063 (1 + 0.23 𝑠)
𝐺𝐶2 𝑠 =
(1 + 0.014 𝑠)

11.

𝐺𝐶1 (s) 𝐺𝐶2 (s)

R(s)
0.063(1 + 0.23𝑠) 1440 G(s)
15.85 (1 + 2.5 𝑠)
(1 + 39.6 𝑠) (1 + 0.014𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 6)

Lag Lead

12. Lag-Lead compensated system T.F

1437.91(1 + 2.5𝑠)(1 + 0.23𝑠)

𝐺𝐶1 𝑠 . 𝐺𝐶2 𝑠 . 𝐺 𝑠 =
1 + 39.6𝑠 1 + 0.014𝑠 𝑠 ∗ 3 ∗ 6 ∗ (1 + 0.33𝑠)(1 + 0.167𝑠)

80 (1 + 2.5𝑠)(1 + 0.23 𝑠)
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 1 + 0.33 𝑠 1 + 0.167𝑠 1 + 0.014 𝑠 (1 + 39.6 𝑠)

a). Replace s by 𝑗𝜔,

80 1 + 2.5 𝑗𝜔 (1 + 0.23 𝑗𝜔)

𝐺𝑐 𝑗𝜔 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 =
𝑗𝜔 1 + 0.33𝑗𝜔 1 + 0.167𝑗𝜔 1 + 0.014𝑗𝜔 (1 + 39.6 𝑗𝜔)

141
b. Corner frequencies

1
𝜔𝐶1 = = 0.4 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2.5

1
𝜔𝐶2 = 0.23 = 4.35 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐.

1
𝜔𝐶3 = = 3 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.33
1
𝜔𝐶4 = = 6 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.167

1
𝜔𝐶5 = 0.014 = 71.43 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐.

1
𝜔𝐶6 = = 0.025 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
39.6

c. Magnitude plot

Change in
Corner Slope
slope
S. No. Term frequency 𝒅𝑩
( ) 𝒅𝑩
(𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝐬𝐞𝐜) 𝒅𝒆𝒄 ( )
𝒅𝒆𝒄

80
1 - -20 -
𝑗𝜔
1
2 𝜔𝐶1 =0.025 -20 -40
(1 + 39.6𝑗𝜔)

3 𝜔𝐶2 =0.4 +20 -20

1 + 2.5𝑗𝜔
1
4 𝜔𝐶3 =3 -20 -40
1 + 0.33𝑗𝜔

5 (1 + 𝑗0.26𝜔) 𝜔𝐶4 =4.34 +20 -20

1
6 𝜔𝐶5 =6 -20 -40
(1 + 𝑗0.16𝜔)
1
7 𝜔𝐶6 =71.43 -20 -60
(1 + 𝑗0.014)

142
d) Choose 𝜔𝐿 , 𝜔𝐻

𝜔𝐿 = 0. 01 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ sec

𝜔𝐻 = 100 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

e) Calculate Gain

Let 𝐴 = 𝐺(𝑗𝜔)

When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐿 ,

1 80
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log 80 + 20 log = 20 log
𝜔 𝜔
= 78.06 𝑑𝐵
When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶1

80
𝐺(𝑗𝜔) 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log
0.025
= 70.04 𝑑𝐵
When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶2

𝜔𝐶2
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶1 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐶2 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶1
𝜔𝐶1

0.4
𝐴𝜔𝐶2 = −40 log + 70.104
0.025
= 21.94 𝑑𝐵
When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶3

𝜔𝐶3
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶2 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐶3 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶2
𝜔𝐶2

3
𝐴𝜔𝐶3 = −20 log + 21.94
0.4

= 4.44 𝑑𝐵

143
When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶4

𝜔𝐶4
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶3 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐶4 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶3
𝜔𝐶3

4.34
𝐴𝜔𝐶4 = −40 log + 4.44
3

= −1.97 𝑑𝐵

When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶5

𝜔𝐶5
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶4 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐶5 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶4
𝜔𝐶4

6
𝐴𝜔𝐶 = −20 log + (−1.97)
5 4.34

= −4.78 𝑑𝐵

When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐶6

𝜔𝐶6
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶5 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐶6 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶5
𝜔𝐶5

71.43
𝐴𝜔𝐶6 = −40 log + (−4.78)
6

= −47.8 𝑑𝐵

When 𝜔 = 𝜔𝐻

𝜔𝐻
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜔𝐶6 𝑡𝑜 𝜔𝐻 ∗ log + 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝐶6
𝜔𝐶6

100
𝐴𝜔𝐻 = −60 log + (−47.8)
71.43

= −56.56 𝑑𝐵

144
 𝝎 (rad/sec) Gain (dB)

𝜔𝐿 =0.01 78.06

𝜔𝐶1 =0.025 70.10

𝜔𝐶2 =0.4 21.94

𝜔𝐶3 =3 4.44

𝜔𝐶4 =4.34 -1.97

𝜔𝐶5 =6 -4.78

𝜔𝐶6 =71.43 -47.8

𝜔𝐻 =100 -56.56

f) Phase plot:
∠𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = 𝜙 = −90𝑜 + tan−1 2.5 𝜔 + tan−1 0.23𝜔 − tan−1 0.33𝜔 − tan−1 (0.167𝜔)
− tan−1 0.014𝜔 − tan−1 (39.6𝜔)

𝝎 (rad/sec) 𝝓 (deg)

0.01 -110.33

0.025 -131.54

0.4 -138

3 -136

4.34 -144

6 -153

10 -166

50 -210

71.43 -222

100 -232

145
g) Phase margin
𝜗 = 180𝑜 + 𝜙𝑔𝑐
𝜙𝑔𝑐 = −140𝑜
𝜗 = 180𝑜 − 140𝑜

𝜗 = 40𝑜 (≥ 35𝑜 )

Result:

Thus the given specification are met & design is accepted.

146
147
148
 VIDEO LINKS

Root Locus
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sUDoTw_LIbk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjWFF9buV-Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yOWT-STIbag

Routh Hurwitz Criterion

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cyBrZyGWaOE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QdT-leoeyoc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJRlUGDtS-0

E-BOOK REFERENCES
Control System Engineering - I J Nagrath, M Gopal
Feedback Control Systems - Katsuhiko Ogata
Control System Engineering - Nagoor Kani A
6.4 ASSIGNMENTS – UNIT IV

S.NO QUESTION K LEVEL CO

1 A unity feedback is characterized by the open-loop K3 CO5

𝐾
transfer function, 𝐺 𝑆 = (𝑆+2)(𝑆+4)(𝑆2 +6𝑆+25) . Using
Routh-stability criterion, calculate the range of values
of k for system to be stable. Determine the value of K,
which will cause sustained oscillations in the closed
loop system. Also determine the frequency of
sustained oscillations.

2 Sketch the root locus of the system whose open loop K3 CO5
𝐾
transfer function is 𝐺 𝑆 = 𝑆(𝑆+4)(𝑆2 +4𝑆+20) .

3 Consider a unity feedback system with open loop K3 CO5

𝐾
transfer function G(s) = 𝑠(𝑠+8) . Design a lead
compensator to meet the following specifications. (i)
Percentage overshoot = 9.5% (ii) Natural frequency of
oscillation = 12 rad/sec (iii) velocity error constant> 10
4 Apply Routh criterion to check the stability of 𝑆6 + K3 CO5
9𝑆 5 + 20𝑆 4 + 12𝑆 3 + 8𝑆 2 + 16𝑆 + 16 = 0.

5 For 𝐾 = 2 , determine whether the following unity K3 CO5

feedback system is stable. Use Routh criterion. 𝐺 𝑆 =
𝐾(2𝑆+1)(4𝑆+1)
𝑆 2 (𝑆 2 +2𝑆+21)
6.5 TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-UNIT IV

S. QUESTION K CO
NO LEVEL

1 Discuss the term stability. K2 CO5

A linear relaxed system is said to have BIBIO
stability if every bounded input results in a bounded output.

2 Discuss the necessary condition for stability? K2 CO5

The necessary condition for stability is that all the
coefficients of the characteristic polynomial be positive. The
necessary and sufficient condition for stability is that all of
the elements in the first column of the routh array should
be positive.
3 Contrast the requirements for BIBO Stability? K2 CO5
The requirement of the BIBO stability is that the
absolute integral of the impulse response of the system
should take only the finite value.

4 Describe Relative stability. K2 CO5

Relative stability is the degree of closeness of the
system; it is an indication of strength or degree of stability.
5 classify the nature of impulse response when the K2 CO5
roots of characteristic equation are lying on
imaginary axis?
If the root of characteristic equation lies on
imaginary axis the nature of impulse response is oscillatory.

6 Contrast the relationship between Stability and K2 CO5

coefficient of characteristic polynomial?
If the coefficient of characteristic polynomial are
negative or zero, then some of the roots lie on the negative
half of the S-plane. Hence the system is unstable. If the
coefficients of the characteristic polynomial are positive and
if no coefficient is zero then there is a possibility of the
system to be stable provided all the roots are lying on the
left half of the S-plane.
S.NO QUESTION K CO
LEVEL

7 Describe Routh stability criterion? K2 CO5

Routh criterion states that the necessary and
sufficient condition for stability is that all of the elements in
the first column of the routh array is positive. If this
condition is not met, the system is unstable and the
number of sign changes in the elements of the first column
of routh array corresponds to the number of roots of
characteristic equation in the right half of the S-plane.
8 Explain limitedly stable system? K2 CO5
For a bounded input signal if the output has
constant amplitude oscillations, then the system may be
stable or unstable under some limited constraints such a
system is called limitedly stable system.
9 In routh array what conclusion you can make when K2 CO5
there is a row of all zeros?
All zero rows in the routh array indicate the
existence of an even polynomial as a factor of the given
characteristic equation. The even polynomial may have
roots on imaginary axis.
10 Discuss the main significances of root locus? K2 CO5
i) The root locus technique is used for stability
analysis.
ii) Using root locus technique the range of
values of K, for as stable system can be determined.
11 Interpret a characteristic equation? K2 CO5
The denominator polynomial of C(S)/R(S) is the
characteristic equation of the system.

12 How the roots of characteristic are related to K2 CO5

stability?
If the root of characteristic equation has positive
real part then the impulse response of the system is not
bounded. Hence the system will be unstable. If the root
has negative real parts then the impulse response is
bounded. Hence the system will be stable.
S.NO QUESTION K CO
LEVEL

13 Explain root loci? K2 CO5

The path taken by the roots of the open loop
transfer function when the loop gain is varied from 0 to
infinity are called root loci.
14 Describe a dominant pole? K2 CO5
The dominant pole is a pair of complex
conjugate pole which decides the transient response of the
system. In higher order systems the dominant poles are
very close to origin and all other poles of the system are
widely separated and so they have less effect on transient
response of the system.
15 Distinguish between break away and break in K2 CO5
points?
At break away point the root locus breaks from
the real axis to enter into the complex plane.
At break in point the root locus enters the real
axis from the complex plane. To find the break away or
break in points, form a equation for K from the
characteristic equation and differentiate the equation of K
with respect to s. Then find the roots of the equation
dK/dS = 0. The roots of dK/dS = 0 are break away or
break in points provided for this value of root the gain K
should be positive and real.
16 Discuss about centroid? K2 CO5
The meeting point of the asymptotes with the
real axis is called centroid. The centroid is given by
Centroid = (sum of poles – sum of zeros) / (n-m)
n-number of poles.
m-number of zeros.
17 Explain the term asymptotes? How will you find K2 CO5
angle of asymptotes?
Asymptotes are the straight lines which are
parallel to root locus going to infinity and meet the root
locus at infinity.
Angles of asymptotes = ±180°(2q + 1)/(n-m) q=
0,1,2, …….(n-m)
n-number of poles. m-number of zeros.
S. QUESTION K CO
NO LEVEL

18 Explain the magnitude criterion? K2 CO5

The magnitude criterion states that s=sa will be a
point on root locus if for that value of S, magnitude of
G(S)H(S) is equal to 1.
|G(S)H(S)| = 1
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠=𝑠𝑎
K = =
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠=𝑠𝑎
1.

19 Explain the angle criterion? K2 CO5

The angle criterion states that s=sa will be the point
on the root locus if for that value of S the argument or phase
of G(S)H(S) is equal to an odd multiple of 180°.
(Sum of the angles of vectors from zeros to the point s=sa)-
(Sum of the angles of vectors from poles to the point s=sa) =
±180°(2q + 1)

20 How will you find the root locus on real axis? K2 CO5
To find the root loci on real axis, choose the test
point on real axis. If the total number of poles and zeros on
the real axis to the right of this test point is odd number then
the test point lie on the root locus. If it is even then the test
point does not lie on the root locus.

21 Describe an auxiliary polynomial? K2 CO5

In the construction of routh array a row of all zero
indicates the existence of an even polynomial as a factor of
given characteristic equation. In an even polynomial the
exponents of S are even integers or zero only. This even
polynomial factor is called auxiliary polynomial. The
coefficients of auxiliary polynomial are given by the elements
of the row just above the row of all zeros.
22 How to find the crossing paints of root focus in K2 CO5
imaginary axis.
Method (i) : By Routh hurwitz criterion.
Method (ii): By letting s = jω in the characteristic
equation and separate the real and imaginary parts. These
two equations are equated to zero. Solve the two equations
far ω and K. The value of ω gives the point where the root
locus crosses imaginary axis and the value of K is the gain
corresponding to the Crossing point.
6.6 PART B
UNIT IV
S. Question K CO
No. Level
1 (i) Construct the Routh array for the system whose characteristic K3 CO5
polynomial equation is s6 + 2s5 +8s4 + 12s3 +20s2 +16s + 16 =0.
Check the stability.
(ii) Determine the stability of the system corresponding to the
characteristic equation s5 + s4 + 2s3 +2s2 + 3s + 5 =0. Comment on
the location of roots using Routh Array.

2 Construct the Routh array and determine the stability of the system K3 CO5
represented by the characteristic equation and comment on the
location of roots.
(i) s7 + 5s6 +9s5 +4s3 + 20s2 + 36s + 36 =0
(ii) s5 + s4 + 4s3 + 24s2 + 3s +63 =0

3 The OLTF of unity feedback Control system is given by K3 CO5

𝐾
G(s)= (𝑠+2)(𝑠+4)(𝑠2 +6𝑠+25). By applying the Routh criterion, compute
the stability of the closed loop system as a function K. This Produce
sustained oscillation. Calculate the frequency of oscillation.
4 (i) Using Routh criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback K3 CO5
control system whose open-loop transfer function is given by G(s) =
𝐾𝑒 −𝑠
𝑠(𝑠+2)
(ii) Using Routh criterion, check the stability of a closed
loop control system which has the characteristic equation s3 + 4.5s2
+ 3.5s +1.5 =0 .
5 (i) A unity feedback system has the open loop transfer function is K3 CO5
𝐾 𝑒 −𝑠
G(s) = .
𝑠(𝑠2 +5𝑠+9)
Calculate the minimum value of K for which the closed loop system
is stable.
(ii) Obtain Routh array for the system whose characteristic
polynomial equation is 4s6 + 4s5 + 2s4 – 32s3 + 102s2 +3s+ 30
=0 Check the stability.
6 K3 CO5
Sketch the root locus of the system whose open loop tra.sfer
function is
𝐾
G(s) = 𝑠(𝑠+2)(𝑠+4)
Calculate the value of K, so that the damping ratio of the closed loop
system is 0.5
7 K3 CO5
A unity feedback control system has an open loop transfer function
𝐾
G(s) = 𝑠(𝑠2 +4𝑠+13)Sketch the root locus.

114 114
6.6 PART B
UNIT IV
S. Question K CO
No. Level
8 10 K3
A unity feedback control system has G(s) = .Sketch the CO5
𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)
Nyquist plot and comment on closed loop stability.
9 K3
Sketch the root locus of the system having G(s) =
𝐾 (𝑠+13)
. CO5
𝑠(𝑠+3)(𝑠+13)
Comment on the Stability

10 Sketch the approximate root locus diagram for a closed loop system K3 CO5
𝐾
whose loop transfer function is given by G(s) = .
𝑠(𝑠+5)(𝑠+10)
Comment on the stability.
11 A unity feedback system is characterized by the open-loop transfer K3 CO5
function
𝐾
G(s) = . Using Routh- Stability criterion,
(𝑠+2)(𝑠 3 +10𝑠 2 +49𝑠+100)
calculate the range of values of K for system to be stable.
Determined the value of K, which will cause sustained oscillations in
the closed loop system. Also compute the frequency sustained
oscillations
12 Compute the range of K for which the system is stable. K3 CO5

13 K3 CO5
A unity feedback control system has an open loop transfer function
𝐾 (𝑠+9)
G(s) = Sketch the root locus
𝑠(𝑠 2 +𝑠+11)

115 115
 6.7 Supportive Online Certification courses (NPTEL, Swayam,
Coursera, Udemy,etc.,)

❖ Swayam - Control Systems

❖ Udemy - Introduction to Control System for Engineers

❖ Udemy - Applied Control System for Engineers – Autonomous Vehicles

❖ NPTEL - Control System Engineering.

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6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life and to industry

HUMAN CONTROL SYSTEMS (CS)

The relation between the behavior of living creatures and the functioning of CS
has recently gained wide attention. Wiener implied that all systems, living and
mechanical are both information and CS.
Wiener suggested that the most promising techniques for studying both systems
are Information theory and CS theory. Several characteristics of CS can be linked
to human behavior.
CS can "think" in the sense that they can replace to some extent, human
operation. These devices do not have the privilege of freedom in their thinking
process and are constrained by the designer to some predetermined function.
Adaptive CS, which is capable of modifying their functioning in order to archive
optimum performance in a varying environment, have recently gained wide
attention. These systems are a step closer to the adaptive capability of human
behavior.
The human body is, indeed, a very complex and highly perfected adaptive CS.
Consider, for example, the human actions required to steer an automobile. The
driver's object is to keep the automobile traveling in the center of a chosen lane
on the road.
Changes in the direction of the road are compensated for by the driver turning
the steering wheel. The driver’s object is to keep the input (the car's desired
position on the road) and the input (the car's desired position on the road) as
close to zero as possible.

Figure illustrates the block diagram of the CS involved in steering an automobile.

The error detector in this case is the brain of the driver. This in turn activates the
driver's muscles, which control the steering wheel. Power amplification is provided
by the automobile's steering mechanism, which controls the position of the
wheels.

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The feedback element represents the human's sensors (visual and tactile). Of
course, this description in very crude, any attempt to construct a mathematical
model of the process should somehow account for the adaptability of the human
being and the effects of learning, fatigue, motivation, and familiarity with the
road.
CS process as that found in physical, biological, and social systems. Many systems
control themselves through information feedback, which shows deviations from
standards and initiates changes.
In other words, systems use some of their energy to feedback information that
compares performance with a standards and initiates corrective action.
The house thermostat is a system of feedback and information control. When the
house temperature falls below the preset level, an electric message is sent to the
heating system, which is then activated.
When the temperature increases and reaches the set level, another message shut
off the heater. This continual measurement and turning on and off the heater
keeps the house at the desired temperature. A similar process activates the air-
conditioning system. As soon as the temperature exceeds the preset level, the air
conditioning system cools the house to the desired temperature. Likewise, in the
human body, a number of CS control temperature, blood pressure, motor
reactions, and other conditions.
Another example of feedback is the grade a student receives on a midterm test.
This is intended, of course, to give the student information about how he or she is
doing and, if performance is less than desirable, to send a signal suggesting
improvement.
6.9. CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS

Write a MATLAB program to draw the root locus plot of the unity feedback
governed by the following open loop transfer function.
1
G(s) =
𝑠(𝑠+4)(𝑠 2 +4𝑠+20)
Program:

Clear a11;
Clc;
S = tf(‘s’);
disp (‘The given transfer function is ,’);
Gs = 1 / (s * (s +4)(s ^ 2 + 4*s +20));
rlocus (Gs, ‘k’);
axis ( [ -8 4 -6 6] );
sgrid;
 Write a MATLAB program to draw the root locus plot of the unity feedback
governed by the following open loop transfer function.
(𝑠 2 +6𝑠+25)
G(s) =
𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+2)
Program:

Clear a11;
Clc;
S = tf(‘s’);
disp (‘The given transfer function is ,’);
Gs = (s ^ 2 + 6*s +25) / (s * (s +1)(s +2));
rlocus (Gs, ‘k’);
axis ( [ -6 2 -6 6] );
sgrid;
7.Assessment Schedule

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment 1-9-2021

Assessment
Unit Test 1

Unit 2 Assignment 16-9-2021

Assessment
Internal Assessment 1 20-9-2021 to 25-9-2021

Retest for IA 1

Unit 3 Assignment 4-10-2021

Assessment
Unit Test 2

Unit 4 Assignment 18-10-2021

Assessment
Internal Assessment 2 22-10-2021 to 28-10-
2021
Retest for IA 2

Unit 5 Assignment 11-11-2021

Assessment
Revision Test 1 13-11-2021 to 16-11-
2021
Revision Test 2

Model Exam 18-11-2021 to 29-11-

2021
Remodel Exam

University Exam 13-12-2021

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 8.Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOK:
❖ M.Gopal, - “Control System – Principles and Design”, Tata McGraw Hil, 4th
Edition, 2012.
REFERENCES:
❖ J.Nagrath and M.Gopal, - “Control System Engineering”, New Age International
Publishers,5th Edition, 2007.
❖ K. Ogata, - “Modern Control Engineering”, 5th edition, PHI, 2012.
❖ S.K.Bhattacharya, Control System Engineering, 3rd Edition, Pearson, 2013.
❖ Benjamin.C.Kuo, “Automatic control systems”, Prentice Ha l of India, 7th
Edition,1995

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 9.Mini Project suggestions

Automatic sliding gate controller circuit

https://www.homemade-circuits.com/automatic-sliding-gate-controller/

Automatic street light control system Circuit

https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2013/04/automatic-street-light-
control.html

Automatic Battery Charger Circuit

https://circuitspedia.com/how-to-make-a-12v-battery-charger/

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Automatic sliding gate controller Circuit

In this, the motor is used to control the opening and closing of gate. can be
divided into three stages: the set-reset latch using T1/T2, the monostable timer
using IC 4060 and the IR interceptor using T3/T5. Assume the gate to be in the
"closed" position with Reed#2 actuated by the relevant gate magnet. This
ensures pin#12 of the IC 4060 to be rendered high and the IC stays inactive
(pin#3 switched OFF).
In the above scenario, the relay#1 is already OFF, with its N/C position closed
(because T1/T2 are OFF), and T4 is also OFF due to the absence of a base drive,
which implies relay#2 is OFF and in the N/C position. With relay#2 in N/C, the
motor is switched off due to the absence of a positive link via the relay#2 N/O
contact. The entire circuit is thus in a switched OFF condition. Now, as requested,
the opening of the gate is initiated by pressing SW1 momentarily. Pressing SW1
instantly latches T1/T2 via R4, toggling relay#1 such that its N/O contacts close,
which in turn forces the motor to slide the gate towards the "open" direction.
As soon the gate slides away from its "close" position, reed#2 is released, which
instantly enables the IC 4060 and it starts counting, with its pin#3 now with
a logic zero. The gate rolls on until it reaches the extreme end when the other
relevant magnet fixed on the gate activates reed#1. On activation, reed#1 pulls
the base of T1 to ground via C1, breaking the latch, which in turn deactivates
relay#1 and its contacts return to their N/C points. However relay#2 still being in
a switched OFF condition causes the motor to halt due to the absence of power
through relay#2 (N/O) points. In the meantime, IC 4060 completes its counting
allowing a high to appear at its pin#3. (the IC now latches in this position via D2)
This immediately activates relay#2, enabling a reverse activation of the motor.
The motor starts sliding the gate towards the "close "position, and the moment it
reaches the "close" end, reed#2 is activated yet again. At this position, the IC is
again reset causing a no signal at its pin#3, deactivating relay#2 and shutting off
the motor. The circuit reverts to its original standby state.
N/C---Normally Closed, N/O---Normally Open
https://www.homemade-circuits.com/automatic-sliding-gate-controller/

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Automatic street light control system Circuit

It is a simple and powerful concept, which uses transistor (BC 547 NPN) as a switch to
switch ON and OFF the street light system automatically.
It automatically switches ON lights when the sunlight goes below the visible region of our
eyes. (e.g in evening after Sunset).
It automatically switches OFF lights when Sunlight fall on it ( i.e on LDR ) e.g in
morning, by using a sensor called LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) which senses the light
just like our eyes.

Advantages:
By using this Automatic system for street light controlling, we can reduce energy
consumption because the manually operated street lights are not switched off
properly even the sunlight comes and also not switched on earlier before sunset.
In sunny and rainy days, ON and OFF time differ noticeably which is one of the
major disadvantage of using timer circuits or manual operation for switching the
street light system.
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2013/04/automatic-street-light-
control.html

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Automatic Battery Charger Circuit

This 12 battery charger circuit provides the Automatic cut-off facility when the
battery gets fully charged. Before the use of this circuit, you need to adjust the
Cut off voltage range for the auto cut. This adjustment is done by the moving 10k
preset, and for testing of output voltage auto cut range a multimeter connected
with the output terminals that go to the battery. This voltage range can be set by
using any 13v or 14v DC supply which connects the terminals which go to the
battery. And move the preset till the green led ON. Once the auto cut voltage is
set, the circuit is ready to use.
One terminal of Input AC power to Transformer connected through 12 V Relay.
When Battery needs charge then Red Led glow, When the Charge level goes to
about above 12v or 13v then the Red LED will OFF and the Green LED will Glow.
And Input Power to the Transformer of charger is also Disconnected by Relay.
Connect positive output wire on NC through Common pin of Relay and The
requirement of step-down transformer is of higher than 12v, can use 14v or 15 v
transformer.
https://circuitspedia.com/how-to-make-a-12v-battery-charger/

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 Thank you

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