Department of Electrical Engineering

LAB MANUAL

UJJAIN ENGINEERING
COLLEGE
UJJAIN, 456010

Electrical Engineering Department

Semester: III
Electronic Devices and Circuits
(EE 3004)
Department of Electrical Engineering

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS FOR ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND

CIRCUITS

Sl Page
Name of Experiment Date Signature Remark
No No
a) VI Characteristics of Silicon Diode 1
1 b) VI Characteristics of Germanium
5
Diode
a) Zener Diode Characteristics 9
2
b) Zener Regulator 13

3 Clipper and Clamper Circuits 17

4 Diode Rectifier 22

BJT Characteristics (Common Emitter

5 26
configuration)
Frequency Response of Common Emiter
6 Amplifier 31

7 Schmitt Trigger 35

Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifier

8 38
Using Op-Amp

9 Summing and Differential Amplifier 41

Integrator and Differentiator using Op-

10 45
Amp

11 555 IC Timer 49
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Expt No: 1.a Date:

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SILICON DIODE

AIM

To study the V-I characteristics of Silicon diode by experimentation and to find cut-in
voltage, static and dynamic resistances.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number

1 Variable DC power supply 0-32V 1
2 Diode 1N4007 1
3 Circuit Board ---- 1
4 Voltmeter 0-50V, 0-2V 1,1
5 Ammeter 0-1A, 0-100μA 1,1
6 Load Resistance 33Ω, 1k Ω 1,1
7 Connecting Leads ---- ----

THEORY
When a device is connected in an electrical circuit, then the response of that device
can be obtained by its V-I characteristics. This is the graph between the voltage applied
across the terminals of the device and the current that is passing through it. Diodes have two
V-I characteristics.
Forward Bias Characteristics: Figure 1.1 shows the circuit arrangement for the forward
characteristics of a diode. The positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the
anode of a diode and the negative terminal is connected to the cathode. Hence the diode is
forward biased. Gradually voltage is increased in steps and the corresponding values of diode
current are obtained. The voltage at which the diode starts conducting is called its knee
voltage. It’s theoretically 0.7V for Si diode.
Reverse Bias Characteristics: The circuit arrangement is shown in figure 1.2. Here the
negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode of the diode and the positive
terminal to the cathode. Hence the diode is reverse biased. The applied voltage is gradually
increased and the corresponding values of diode current are noted in each step. The voltage at
which the diode conducts is called the breakdown voltage.
PROCEDURE
For obtaining forward bias characteristics
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 1.1

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2. Diode is connected to the DC source.

3. A voltmeter is connected across the diode to measure the diode voltage Vd and an
ammeter is connected in series with diode to measure the diode current Id.
4. Gradually increase the voltage in small steps and record the values of Vd and Id till Id
reaches 1A.
5. Draw the graph between Id and Vd
For obtaining reverse bias characteristics

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 1.2. A microammeter is used instead of

milliammeter
2. Gradually increase the applied reverse voltage, and measure the values of Vd and Id
3. Draw the graph between Id and Vd

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 1.1. Forward Bias Characteristics Fig 1.2. Reverse Bias Characteristics
OBSERVATIONS
Forward Bias:
Sl. No. Diode Voltage, VD (V) Diode Current, ID (mA)

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Reverse Bias:
Sl. No. Diode Voltage, VD (V) Diode Current, ID (μA)

MODEL GRAPHS

ID(mA)

VD(V) VT VD(V)

CALCULATIONS

1. Cut-in voltage of the diode = ____________________

2. Forward Bias:
a) Static forward resistance(Rdc) = _____________
b) Dynamic forward resistance (rac) = _____________
3. Reverse Bias:
a) Static reverse resistance(Rdc) = _____________
b) Dynamic reverse resistance (rac) = _____________

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RESULT

INFERENCE

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Expt No: 1.b Date:

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF GERMANIUM DIODE

AIM

To study the V-I characteristics of Germanium diode by experimentation and to find

cut-in voltage, static and dynamic resistances.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number

1 Variable DC power supply 0-32V 1
2 Diode 1
3 Circuit Board ---- 1
4 Voltmeter 0-50V, 0-2V 1,1
5 Ammeter 0-1A, 0-100μA 1,1
6 Load Resistances 33Ω, 1kΩ 1
7 Connecting Leads ---- ----

THEORY
When a device is connected in an electrical circuit, then the response of that device
can be obtained by its V-I characteristics. This is the graph between the voltage applied
across the terminals of the device and the current that is passing through it. Diodes have two
V-I characteristics.
Forward Bias Characteristics: Figure 1.1 shows the circuit arrangement for the forward
characteristics of a diode. The positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the
anode of a diode and the negative terminal is connected to the cathode. Hence the diode is
forward biased. Gradually voltage is increased in steps and the corresponding values of diode
current are obtained. The voltage at which the diode starts conducting is called its knee
voltage. It’s theoretically 0.7V for Si diode.
Reverse Bias Characteristics: The circuit arrangement is shown in figure 1.2. Here the
negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode of the diode and the positive
terminal to the cathode. Hence the diode is reverse biased. The applied voltage is gradually
increased and the corresponding values of diode current are noted in each step. The voltage at
which the diode conducts is called the breakdown voltage.
PROCEDURE
For obtaining forward bias characteristics
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 1.1

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2. Diode is connected to the DC source.

3. A voltmeter is connected across the diode to measure the diode voltage Vd and an
ammeter is connected in series with diode to measure the diode current Id.
4. Gradually increase the voltage in small steps and record the values of Vd and Id till Id
reaches 1A.
5. Draw the graph between Id and Vd.
For obtaining reverse bias characteristics

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 1.2. A microammeter is used instead of

milliammeter.
2. Gradually increase the applied reverse voltage, and measure the values of Vd and Id
3. Draw the graph between Id and Vd.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 1.1. Forward Bias Characteristics Fig 1.2. Reverse Bias Characteristics

OBSERVATIONS
Forward Bias:
Sl. No. Diode Voltage, VD (V) Diode Current, ID (mA)

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Reverse Bias:
Sl. No. Diode Voltage, VD (V) Diode Current, ID (μA)

MODEL GRAPH

ID(mA)

VD(V) VT VD(V)

CALCULATIONS
1. Cut-in voltage of the diode = ____________________

2. Forward Bias:

Static forward resistance(Rdc) = _____________

Dynamic forward resistance (rac) = _____________

3. Reverse Bias:

Static reverse resistance(Rdc) = _____________

Dynamic reverse resistance (rac) = _____________

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RESULT

INFERENCE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Define depletion region of a diode? Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the
values for Si diode.
2. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
3. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
4. What is the break down voltage? What is PIV?
5. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?
6. Define Static forward resistance(Rdc), Dynamic forward resistance (rac), Static reverse
resistance(Rdc), Dynamic reverse resistance (rac)

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Expt No: 2.a Date:

ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM
To observe and draw the V-I characteristics of a Zener diode. Also to find the Zener
Break down voltage in reverse biased condition and the Static and Dynamic resistances of
Zener diode in both forward and reverse biased conditions.
APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number

1 Variable DC power supply 0-32V 1
2 Zener Diode 1
3 Circuit Board ---- 1
4 Voltmeter 0-50V, 0-2V 1,1
5 Ammeter 0-1A, 0-200mA 1,1
6 Load Resistances 1kΩ, 10kΩ 1,1
7 Connecting Leads ---- As required

THEORY
A Zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the
break down region. The Zener diode operates just like the normal p-n junction diode when in
the forward-bias mode, and has a turn-on voltage of between 0.3 and 0.7 V. A p-n junction
diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is increased, at a
particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage.
High current through the diode can permanently damage the device. To avoid high
current, we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode starts conducting it
maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current through it,
i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance.

PROCEDURE
For obtaining forward bias characteristics
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 2.1
2. Diode is connected to the DC source.
3. A voltmeter is connected across the diode to measure the diode voltage VZ and an
ammeter is connected in series with diode to measure the diode current IZ.
4. Gradually increase the voltage in small steps and record the values of VZ and IZ .
5. Draw the graph between IZ and VZ.

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For obtaining reverse bias characteristics

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 2.2. Gradually increase the applied reverse
voltage till IZ reaches the rated current of Zener diode, and measure the values of VZ
and IZ.
2. Draw the graph between IZ and VZ.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 2.1. Forward Bias Characteristics Fig 2.2.Reverse Bias Characteristics

OBSERVATIONS
Forward Bias:
Sl. No. Diode Voltage, VD (V) Diode Current, ID (mA)

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Reverse Bias:
Sl. No. Diode Voltage, VD (V) Diode Current, ID (μA)

MODEL GRAPH

CALCULATIONS

1. Cut-in voltage of the diode = ____________________

2. Forward Bias:

Static forward resistance(Rdc) = _____________

Dynamic forward resistance (rac) = _____________

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3. Reverse Bias:

Static reverse resistance(Rdc) = _____________

Dynamic reverse resistance (rac) = _____________

RESULT

INFERENCE

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Expt No: 2.b Date:

ZENER VOLTAGE REGULATOR

AIM
To design a Zener voltage regulator and to plot the regulation curves.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number

1 Variable DC power supply 0-32V 1
2 Zener Diode 1
3 Circuit Board ---- 1
4 Voltmeter 0-50V, 0-2V 1,1
5 Ammeter 0-1A, 0-200mA 1,1
6 Resistance 470Ω 1
7 Variable Resistance (0-10k)Ω 1
8 Connecting Leads ---- As required

THEORY
A Zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the
break down region. The Zener diode operates just like the normal p-n junction diode when in
the forward-bias mode, and has a turn-on voltage of between 0.3 and 0.7 V. A p-n junction
diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is increased, at a
particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage.
High current through the diode can permanently damage the device. To avoid high
current, we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode starts conducting it
maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current through it,
i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. This means that Zener diode can be used as a shunt
voltage regulator.

PROCEDURE
To plot the load regulation characteristics of the Zener voltage regulator.

1. Connect the Zener diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to negative of the power
supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply as in circuit.

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2. In finding load regulation , input voltage (VS) is kept constant i.e source voltage is
chosen as a voltage at which Zener voltage VZ is remaining constant while the current is
increasing(VS from 1st circuit characteristics).

3. Measure VNL (No load voltage) by opening the load resistance.

4. Connect the load resistance, and vary the load resistance from 1100Ω to 100Ω in steps
of 100Ω and note down the readings of VL and IZ.

5. Calculate % Regulation by using the formula given below

VNL  VL
% Regulation   100 , VL is the load voltage
VL

To plot the line regulation characteristics of the Zener voltage regulator.

1. Connect the Zener diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to negative of the power
supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply as in circuit.

2. In finding line regulation, load resistance is kept constant i.e load current remaining
constant while the source current is increasing.

3. Vary the source voltage in steps and note down the readings of VL and IZ.

4. Calculate % line regulation by using the formula given below

VO
% Regulation   100
VIN

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 2.3. Load Regulation Fig 2.4. Line Regulation

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OBSERVATIONS
VNL = …………………….
Load Regulation:
Sl. No. Source Current, Is (mA) Output Voltage, VL (V) % Regulation

Line Regulation:
Sl. No. Source Current, Is (mA) Output Voltage, VL (V) % Regulation

RESULT

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INFERENCE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between Zener and Avalanche breakdown.

2. What is the difference between Zener and ordinary diode?

3. Draw equivalent circuit for Zener diode.

4. What are the applications of Zener diode?

5. How Zener acts as a regulator?

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Expt No: 3 Date:

CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS

AIM

To design and implement different diode circuits and to observe and plot the output
waveform of the same.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number

1 AC power supply 230 V ----
2 DC power supply 0-15V 1
3 Diode 1N4007 1
4 Circuit Board ---- 1
5 Transformer 230V/9-0-9V, 1A 1
6 Resistors 1kΩ,10MΩ 1
7 Capacitors 0.1μF
8 CRO ---- 1

THEORY
Clipping Circuits:
The circuit with which the waveform is shaped by removing a certain portion of the
input signal voltage above or below a certain level is called as a clipping circuit or simply a
clipper. Such circuits are used in digital computers, radars, radio, and television receivers, etc.
A clipping circuit may also be used to limit the amplitude of the input signal voltage as
required in several applications. In that case, a clipping circuit is also known as an amplitude
limiter or supply limiter. A clipper circuit is of the following types.
1. Positive clipper (Fig 3.1)
2. Negative clipper (Fig 3.2)
In positive clipper, during the positive half cycle of supply voltage the anode of the
diode is positive w.r.t. the cathode, and therefore the diode is forward biased. Hence it acts as
a closed switch. As a result the voltage drop across the diode appears across the load resistor.
During the negative half cycle of supply voltage, anode is negative w.r.t. the cathode.
Therefore the diode is reverse biased and acts as an open switch. Thus the entire input voltage

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appears across the load resistor. Thus in positive clipper, positive half cycle of input voltage
is clipped and negative half is allowed to pass through.
In negative clipper, during the positive half cycle of supply voltage the anode of the
diode is positive w.r.t. the cathode, and therefore the diode is forward biased. Hence it acts as
a closed switch. Thus the entire input voltage appears across the load resistor. During the
negative half cycle of supply voltage, anode is negative w.r.t. the cathode. Therefore the
diode is reverse biased and acts as an open switch. As a result the voltage drop across the
diode appears across the load resistor. Thus in negative clipper, negative half cycle of input
voltage is clipped and positive half is allowed to pass through.
In biased clipper circuits, a DC bias is connected in the circuit to change the level at
which the clipping occurs.
Clamping Circuits:
A clamper is a circuit that changes the DC level of a given signal without changing
the shape of the signal. A DC component is simply added to the input signal by such a circuit.
There are two types of clamper with respect to the DC level that is being added. If the DC
level added is positive, then that clamper is called positive clamper, and otherwise a negative
clamper. A positive clamper is shown in Fig 3.3 (a) and a negative clamper is shown in Fig
3.3 (b).
In a positive clamper, during the negative half cycle the capacitor is charged to the
peak value of the input AC signal. The resistor is selected such that the capacitor doesn’t
discharge while the amplitude of AC signal is dropping. During the positive half cycle, the
capacitor voltage (DC) is added to the input signal. Similar working occurs in the negative
clamper also.

PROCEDURE
Positive Clipper:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram in Fig 3.1.
2. Turn on the supply.
3. Observe the waveform on the CRO for zero DC bias.
4. Change the DC bias level and observe the waveform on the CRO.
Negative Clipper:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram in Fig 3.2.
2. Turn on the supply.
3. Observe the waveform on the CRO for zero DC bias.

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4. Change the DC bias level and observe the waveform on the CRO.
Positive Clamper:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram in Fig 3.3 (a).
2. Turn on the supply.
3. Observe the waveform on the CRO for zero DC bias.
Negative Clamper:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram in Fig 3.3 (b).
2. Turn on the supply.
3. Observe the waveform on the CRO for zero DC bias.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

(a) (b)

Fig 3.1 Positive Clipper (a) Series Clipper (b) Shunt Clipper

(a) (b)

Fig 3.2 Negative Clipper (a) Series Clipper (b) Shunt Clipper

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(a) (b)

Fig 3.3 Clamper Circuit (a) Positive Clamper (b) Negative Clamper

MODEL GRAPHS

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RESULT

INFERENCE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. What are the applications of clippers?

2. What is the difference between slicing and clipping of a voltage waveform?

3. Why are capacitors used in clampers?

4. What are the applications of clampers?

5. Why Clippers are called as diode Clippers?

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Expt No: 4 Date:

DIODE RECTIFIERS
AIM

To plot the input and output waveforms of the halfwave and fullwave rectifiers with
and without filters and find out the ripple factor in each case.
APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number

1 AC power supply 230 V ----
2 Diode 1N4007 4
3 Circuit Board ---- 1
4 Transformer 230V/9-0-9V, 1A 1
5 Resistors 1kΩ,10MΩ 1
6 Capacitors 4.7μF
7 CRO ---- 1

THEORY

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current into direct current by allowing
current to flow in one direction only. A halfwave rectifier circuit with resistive load is shown
in Fig. 4.1 (a). During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased, it starts conducting
and current flows through the load. The output voltage is equal to the input voltage subtracted
by the diode on-state voltage. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and
does not conduct. During this time there is no current flowing through the load and the output
voltage is zero.

A fullwave rectifier with resistive load is shown in Fig. 4.2 (a). During the positive
half cycle, the diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and the diode D3 and D4 are reverse
biased. So D1 and D2 conducts and there is current flowing through the load. The current
flow direction is source - D1 - load - D2- source. The output voltage will be supply voltage
subtracted by two times the diode on-state voltage. During the negative half cycle, the diodes
D3 and D4 are forward biased and the diode D1 and D2 are reverse biased. So D3 and D4
conducts and there is current flowing through the load. The current flow direction is source -

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D4 - load - D3- source. The current direction in the load will be same as in the previous case.
So the output voltage is positive in this case also.

If a shunt capacitor filter is connected across the output terminals (Fig 4.1 (b) and Fig
4.2 (b)), the output voltage level variation becomes less. In other words, the output voltage
ripple reduces. During a half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to the peak value of output
voltage and then discharges through the load resistance. The discharge time depends on the
load resistance. If the resistance value is high, then the time constant of the RC circuit is more
and thus it takes more time for the capacitor to get discharged. This will reduce the output
voltage ripple. If the load resistance is less, then the time constant of the RC circuit is less and
thus it takes less time for the capacitor to get discharged. This will increase the output voltage
ripple.

PROCEDURE
Halfwave Rectifier:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram in Fig 4.1 (a).
2. Turn on the supply.
3. Observe the waveform on the CRO.
4. Connect a capacitor across the output terminals as shown in Fig 4.1 (b).
5. Vary the output resistance and observe the waveforms on the CRO.
Fullwave Rectifier:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram in Fig 4.2 (a).
2. Turn on the supply.
3. Observe the waveform on the CRO.
4. Connect a capacitor across the output terminals as shown in Fig 4.2 (b).
5. Vary the output resistance and observe the waveforms on the CRO.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

To
To
CRO
CRO

(a) (b)

Fig 4.1 Halfwave Rectifier (a) Without Filter (b) With Filter

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To
To CRO
CRO

(a) (b)

Fig 4.2 Fullwave Rectifier (a) Without Filter (b) With Filter

MODEL GRAPHS

(a) (b)
Fig 4.3 Halfwave Rectifier (a) Without Filter (b) With Filter

(a) (b)
Fig 4.4 Fullwave Rectifier (a) Without Filter (b) With Filter

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CALCULATIONS
Halfwave Rectifier:

1. Ripple factor without filter =

2. Ripple factor with filter =

Halfwave Rectifier:

1. Ripple factor without filter =

2. Ripple factor with filter =

RESULT

INFERENCE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. Which are the different types of rectifiers? Which is the best among these?

2. What is PIV? How does it affect the design of rectifiers?

3. Define ripple factor, efficiency, transformer utilization factor, form factor, and peak factor.

4. What is the use of capacitive filter?

5. Why half-wave rectifiers are generally not used in dc power supply?

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Expt No: 5 Date:

BJT CHARACTERISTICS ( COMMON EMITER CONFIGURATION)

AIM
To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor connected in common
emitter configuration. Also to find input resistance, output resistance, and current
amplification factor of the given transistor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number

1 Transistor - BC107 1
2 Resistors 1kΩ, 470Ω 1,1
3 Regulated Power Supply (0-32)V DC 2
4 Breadboard 1
5 Digital Ammeters (0-200)μA/(0-200)mA 1, 1
6 Digital Voltmeters (0-20)V DC 2
7 Connecting Wires As required

THEORY

A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. In
common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals
and out put is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore the emitter terminal
is common to both input and output.

The input characteristics resembles that of a forward biased diode. This is expected
since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. The input characteristics
describe the relationship between input current or base current (IB) and input voltage or base-
emitter voltage (VBE) at constant collector emitter voltage (VCE). The input current in CE
configuration is measured in micro-amperes (μA).

The output characteristics are drawn between IC and VCE at constant IB. the collector
current varies with VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector current becomes almost
constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the collector current changes
with VCE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always operated in the region above Knee

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voltage, IC is always constant and is approximately equal to IB. The current amplification
factor of CE configuration is given by β = ΔIC/ΔIB.

PROCEDURE

Input Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig 5.1.
2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 1V
and for different values of VBE, note down the values of IB.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 3V.
4. Tabulate all the readings.
5. Plot the graph between VBE on x-axis and IB on y-axis for constant VCE.
Output Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig 5.1.
2. For plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at 50μA
and for different values of VCE, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75μA and 100μA.
4. Tabulate the all the readings.
5. Plot the graph between VCE on x-axis and IC on y-axis for constant IB
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 5.1 Common Emitter Characteristic

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OBSERVATIONS
Input Characteristics:
VCE = VCE = VCE =
Sl No
VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA)

Output Characteristics:
IB = IB = IB =
Sl No
VCE (V) Ic (mA) VCE (V) Ic (mA) VCE (V) Ic (mA)

MODEL GRAPHS

Input Characteristics:
IB

VBE(V)

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Output Characteristics:
IC(mA)

VCE(V)

CALCULATIONS

1. Input resistance: To obtain input resistance find ΔVBE and ΔIB at constant VCE on one of
the input characteristics. Then
Ri = ΔVBE / ΔIB (VCE constant) = ………………….
2. Output resistance: To obtain output resistance, find ΔIC and ΔVCE at constant IB.
Ro = ΔVCE / ΔIC (IB constant) = …………………….
3. The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by
β = ΔIC/ΔIB = …………………………
RESULT:

INFERENCE

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What is the relation between α & β? What is the range of β for the transistor?
2. Define current gain in CE configuration.
3. What is the phase relation between input and output?
4. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
5. What are the uses of CE configuration?

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Expt No: 6 Date:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF COMMON EMITER AMPLIFIER

AIM
To obtain the frequency response characteristics of transistor connected in common
emitter configuration. Also to determine bandwidth.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number
1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Resistors 1,1
3 Regulated Power Supply (0-32)V DC 1
4 Breadboard 1
5 Capacitors 1, 1
6 Function Generator 1
7 CRO
8 Connecting Wires As required

THEORY

The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic amplifier as it has both
voltage and current amplification. Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider across the base
of the transistor. The function of this network is to provide necessary bias condition and
ensure that emitter-base junction is operating in the proper region.
In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, biasing is done in such a way that the
operating point is in the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed so that the load
line is bisected. Therefore, in practical design VCE is always set to VCC/2. This will confirm
that the Q-point always swings within the active region. This limitation can be explained by
maximum signal handling capacity. For the maximum input signal, output is produced
without any distortion and clipping.
The Bypass Capacitor:
The emitter resistor RE is required to obtain the DC quiescent point stability. However the
inclusion of RE in the circuit causes a decrease in amplification at higher frequencies. In order
to avoid such a condition, it is bypassed by a capacitor so that it acts as a short circuit for AC
and contributes stability for DC quiescent condition. Hence capacitor is connected in parallel
with emitter resistance.

X CE  RE

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1 1
 RE  C E 
2fC E 2fRE

The Input/ Output Coupling (or Blocking) Capacitor: An amplifier amplifies the given
AC signal. In order to have noiseless transmission of a signal (without DC), it is necessary to
block DC i.e. the direct current should not enter the amplifier or load. This is usually
accomplished by inserting a coupling capacitor between two stages.

X CC  ( Ri hie )

1 1
 Ri hie  CC 
2fCC 2fRi hie

CC - Output Coupling Capacitor

CE - Input Coupling Capacitor
Frequency response of Common Emitter Amplifier:
Emitter bypass capacitors are used to short circuit the emitter resistor and thus
increases the gain at high frequency. The coupling and bypass capacitors cause the fall of the
signal in the low frequency response of the amplifier because their impedance becomes large
at low frequencies. The stray capacitances are effectively open circuits.
In the mid frequency range large capacitors are effectively short circuits and the stray
capacitors are open circuits, so that no capacitance appears in the mid frequency range. Hence
the mid band frequency gain is maximum.
At the high frequencies, the bypass and coupling capacitors are replaced by short
circuits. The stray capacitors and the transistor determine the response.
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram in Fig 6.1.
2. Set source voltage VS = 50mV (say) at 1 KHz frequency using the function
generator. Observe the phase difference between input and output by giving these two
signals to the dual channels of CRO.
3. Keeping input voltage constant, vary the frequency from 20 Hz to 1 MHz in regular
steps and note down the corresponding output voltage. Calculate gain in dB as shown
in the tabular column.
4. Plot the graph: gain (dB) verses Frequency on a semi log graph sheet.
5. Calculate the 3-dB bandwidth from the frequency response.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig. 6.1. Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

OBSERVATIONS
VS =

Frequency(Hz) Output Voltage, VO (V) VO VO

Gain = Gain (dB) = 20log( )
VS VS

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MODEL GRAPHS

Fig. 6.2. Input and output signals Fig. 6.3. Frequency response curve

RESULT:

INFERENCE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What is the equation for voltage gain?

2. What is active region?

3. What is cut off frequency? What is lower 3dB and upper 3dB cut off frequency?

4. What is Bandwidth of an amplifier?

5. What is the importance of emitter by pass capacitor?

6. What type of feedback is used in CE amplifier?

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Expt No: 7 Date:

SCHMITT TRIGGER
AIM
To obtain the input - output characteristics of Schmitt trigger.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number
1 Variable DC Supply 1
2 Regulated Power Supply (0-32)V DC 1
3 Circuit board 1
4 CRO 1
5 Connecting Wires As required

THEORY
The Schmitt trigger is used for wave-shaping circuits. It can be used for generation of
a square wave from a sine wave input. Basically the circuit has two opposite operating states,
however the trigger signal is not a pulse waveform but a slowly varying DC voltage. The
Schmitt trigger is level sensitive and switches the output state at two distinct trigger levels.

PROCEDURE

1. Connect +5V to VCC supply and variable d.c supply to the input of the circuit (base of
transistor T1)

2. Set Vin = 0 and observe VO at the output.

3. Now increase Vin slowly and observe the output. The output VO change its level from
low value to some high value. Note this value of Vin and VO.

4. Now decrease the input voltage Vin slowly. VO suddenly change its value to low level.
Note again the values of Vin and VO.

5. Vary the emitter resistance Re and repeat the procedure from step 1 to 4.

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CIRCUT DIAGRAM

Fig. 7.1. Schmitt Trigger

OBSERVATION

Re = 0 Re = max Re = max/2
Sl No.
Vin VO Vin VO Vin VO

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MODEL GRAPHS

RESULT

INFERENCE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Why Schmitt trigger is used?

2. What is UTP and LTP in Schmitt trigger?

3. What is hysteresis width in Schmitt trigger?

4. Why is Schmitt trigger called a squaring circuit?

5. What happens if the threshold voltages are made longer than the noise voltages in schmitt
trigger?

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Expt No: 8 Date:

INVERTING AND NONINVERTING AMPLIFIERS USING OP-AMP

AIM
To design and study the following circuits of op-amp
1. Inverting amplifier
2. Non – inverting amplifier
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number
1 Function Generator 1
2 Regulated Power Supply (-15-0-+15)V DC 1
3 Circuit board 1
4 Resistors 1,1
5 CRO 1
6 Connecting Wires As required

THEORY
Inverting Amplifier:
This is the most widely used of all the Op-amp circuits. The output V0 is fed back to
the inverting input through the Rf – Rin network as shown in Fig 8.1, where Rf is the feedback
resistor. The input signal Vi is applied to the inverting input terminal through Rin and non-
inverting input terminal of Op-amp is grounded.The output V0 is given by
V0 = Vi (-Rf / Rin)
where, the gain of amplifier is - Rf / Rin The negative sign indicates a phase-shift of
1800 between Vi and V0. The effective input impedance is Ri. An inverting amplifier uses
negative feedback to invert and amplify a voltage. The Rin,Rf resistor network allows some of
the output signal to be returned to the input. Since the output is 180° out of phase, this
amount is effectively subtracted from the input, thereby reducing the input into the
operational amplifier. This reduces the overall gain of the amplifier and is dubbed negative
feedback.
Non – inverting amplifier:
The circuit diagram of the non - inverting amplifier is shown in Fig. 8.2. Herer the
input signal is applied to the non - inverting terminal of the op-amp. The circuit amplifies the
input signal without inverting it. The output voltage(VO) is given by the equation

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 R 
VO  Vin 1  2 
 R1 

The voltage gain is given by

VO R
ACL   1 2
Vin R1

PROCEDURE
Inverting Amplifier
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 8.1.

2. Apply an input voltage and observe the output voltage.

3. Calculate the value of voltage gain.

4. Repeat steps 2 & 3.

Non - inverting Amplifier

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 8.2.

2. Apply an input voltage and observe the output voltage.

3. Calculate the value of voltage gain.

4. Repeat steps 2 & 3.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Fig 8.1 Inverting Amplifier Fig 8.2 Non - inverting Amplifier

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MODEL GRAPHS

Fig 8.3 Inverting Amplifier Fig 8.4 Non - inverting Amplifier

RESULT

INFERENCE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What is the input impedance of a non inverting op-amp amplifier?
2. If the open loop gain of an op-amp is very large, does the closed loop gain depend upon the
external components or the op-amp?
3. Define common mode rejection ratio
4. Explain the meaning of open loop and closed loop operation of an op- amp?
5. What is a practical op-amp? Draw its equivalent circuit.

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Expt No: 9 Date:

SUMMING AND DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS USING OP-AMP

AIM
To design and study the following op-amp circuits
1. Summing amplifier
2. Differential amplifier
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number
1 Function Generator 2
2 Regulated Power Supply (-15-0-+15)V DC 1
3 Circuit board 1
4 Resistors 1,1
5 CRO 1
6 Connecting Wires As required

THEORY
Summing Amplifier:
The summing Amplifier is one variation of inverting amplifier. In inverting amplifier
there is only one voltage signal applied to the inverting input. This simple inverting amplifier
can easily be modified to summing amplifier, if we connect several input terminals in parallel
to the existing input terminals as shown in Fig 9.1. Here, in the circuit, the non-inverting
terminal of the op amp is grounded, hence potential at that terminal is zero. As the op amp is
considered as ideal op amp, the potential of the inverting terminal is also zero. The output
voltage VO is given by the equation,

 Rf Rf 
VO   V1  V2 
 R1 R2 

where V1 and V2 are the input voltages.

Differential Amplifier:
All operational amplifiers (op-amps) are differential amplifiers because of their input
configuration. When the first voltage signal is connected to the input terminal and another
voltage signal is connected onto the opposite input terminal then the resultant output voltage
are proportional to the difference between the two input voltage signals of V1 and V2. An op-
amp is a differential amplifier which has a high i/p impedance, high differential-mode gain,

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and low o/p impedance. When the negative feedback is applied to this circuit, expected and
stable gain can be built. Such a circuit is shown in Fig 9.2. The output voltage VO is given by
the equation,

 R2  R4  R 
VO  V1  1    V2  4 
 R1  R2  R3   R3 

where V1 and V2 are the input voltages.

PROCEDURE
Summing Amplifier
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 9.1.

2. Apply the input voltages and observe the output voltage.

3. Calculate the value of output voltage theoretically.

4. Repeat steps 2 & 3.

Differntial Amplifier
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 9.2.

2. Apply the input voltages and observe the output voltage.

3. Calculate the value of output voltage theoretically.

4. Repeat steps 2 & 3.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Fig 9.1 Summing Amplifier Fig 9.2 Differential Amplifier

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MODEL GRAPHS

VO
V1
V2

Summing Amplifier Input and Output Curves

V1

V2
VO

Differential Amplifier Input and Output Curves

RESULT

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INFERENCE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. What is a summing amplifier?

2. What are the applications of summing amplifier?

3. Why differential amplifiers are preferred for instrumentation and industrial applications?

4. What is the gain of a summing amplifier?

5. What is the advantage of differential amplifier?

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Expt No: 10 Date:

INTEGRATOR AND DIFFERENTIATOR USING OP-AMP

AIM
To design and study the following op-amp circuits
1. Integrator
2. Differentiator
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number
1 Function Generator 1
2 Regulated Power Supply (-15-0-+15)V DC 1
3 Circuit board 1
4 Resistors 1,1
5 Capacitors 1,1
6 CRO 1
7 Connecting Wires As required

THEORY
Integrator:
The Op-amp integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the
mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause the output to respond to changes
in the input voltage over time as the op-amp integrator produces an output voltage which is
proportional to the integral of the input voltage. In other words, the magnitude of the output
signal is determined by the length of time a voltage is present at its input as the current
through the feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor as the required negative
feedback occurs through the capacitor. The input output relation of the integrator is given by,
t
1
vO t    vi  d  vO 0 
RC 0
where vi(t) is the time varying input signal and vO(0) is the initial voltage of capacitor.
If we apply a constantly changing input signal such as a square wave to the input of
an Integrator Amplifier then the capacitor will charge and discharge in response to changes in
the input signal. This results in the output signal being that of a saw-tooth waveform whose
output is affected by the RC time constant of the resistor/capacitor combination because at
higher frequencies, the capacitor has less time to fully charge.

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Differentiator:
A differentiator circuit is one in which the voltage output is directly proportional to
the rate of change of the input voltage with respect to time. This means that a fast change to
the input voltage signal, the greater the output voltage change in response. As a differentiator
circuit has an output that is proportional to the input change, some of the standard waveform
such as sine waves, square waves and triangular waves give very different waveform at the
output of the differentiator circuit. The input output relation of the differentiator is given by,

dvi t 
vO t    RC
dt
where vi(t) is the input signal.

For the square wave input, only very short spikes should be seen. The spikes will be
limited by the slope of the edges of the input waveform and also the maximum output of the
circuit. The spikes should also decay swiftly. Again this may be limited by the circuit. On the
diagram, the decay is not infinitely fast. The triangular wave input transforms to a square
wave in line with the rising and falling levels of the input waveform. The sine wave is
converted to a cosine waveform giving 90° of phase shift of the signal. This can be useful in
some circumstances.

PROCEDURE
Integrator
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 10.1.

2. Apply sine wave at the input and observe the output voltage.

3. Repeat steps 2 for step and triangular waves.

Differentiator
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 10.2.

2. Apply sine wave at the input and observe the output voltage.

3. Repeat steps 2 for step and triangular waves.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Fig 10.2 Differentiator

MODEL GRAPHS

Integrator; Square Wave Input and Output Curves

Differentiator; Triangular Wave Input and Output Curves

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RESULT

INFERENCE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. What are the applications of integrator and differentiator circuits?

2. What is the difference between integrator and differentiator?

3. What are the limitations of basic integrator and differentiator circuits?

4. Why a resistor is shunted across the feedback capacitor in the practical integrator?

5. Why integrator are preferred over differentiator?

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Expt No: 11 Date:

555 IC TIMER
AIM
To design and study monostable multivibrator using IC 555 Timer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Sl No. Apparatus Rating/ Part Name Number
1 Function Generator 1
2 Regulated Power Supply (-15-0-+15)V DC 1
3 Circuit board 1
4 Resistors 1,1
5 Capacitors 1,1
6 CRO 1
7 Connecting Wires As required

THEORY
In monostable multivibrator using 555 timer circuit, the term monostable indicates
that it has only one stable state. The unstable state is called “Quasi stable state”. The period
of stable state is determined by the charging time constant of the C network. The transition of
o/p from a stable state to quasi stable state accomplished by using the trigger switch. The
circuit diagram of monostable multivibrator using 555 timer is shown below. By using this
circuit we can find the duration of the pulse easily.
The required components of monostable multivibrator using 555 timer mainly involve
IC 555 timer, resistors, capacitors and trigger switch. The output of the monostable
multivibrator using 555 timer remains in its stable state until it gets a trigger. In monostable
555 multivibrator, when both the transistor and capacitor are shorted then this state is called
as a stable state. When the voltage goes below 1/3 VCC at the second pin of the 555 IC, the
o/p becomes high. This high state is called quasi stable state. When the circuit activates then
the transition from a stable state to quasi stable state. Then the discharge transistor is cut off
and capacitor starts charging to VCC. Charging of the capacitor is done via the resistor R1
with a time constant R1C1. Hence, the voltage of the capacitor increases and finally exceeds
2/3 VCC, it will change the internal control flip flop, thereby turning off the 555 timer IC.
Thus the o/p goes back to its stable state from an unstable state.Finally we can conclude that,
in the monostable multivibrator using 555 timer, the o/p stays in a low state until it gets a

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trigger i/p. This type of operation is used in push to operate systems. When the input is
triggered, then the o/p will go to high state & comes back to its original state.
PROCEDURE
1. Configure the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig 11.1.
2. Using the power supply set VCC = 10 V, apply a square wave input of frequency 1 kHz at
terminal 2 of the circuit diagram.
3. Connect the output terminal (pin 3) to the oscilloscope. Also feed the voltage across
capacitor to channel 2.
4. Power on your circuit and observe the output.
5. Determine the value of pulse duration from your observations and compare with the
theoretical values.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 11.1 555 IC Timer

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MODEL GRAPH

RESULT

INFERENCE

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the use of monostable multivibrator?
2. Why monostable multivibrator is called delay circuit?
3. What is the difference between monostable and astable?
4. What is retriggerable monostable multivibrator?
5. How does a monostable multivibrator used as frequency divider?

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