EXPERIMENT No.

- 01

Aim : To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator.

• Dilute hydrochloric acid solution (HCl)
• Dilute sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH)
• Dilute ethanoic acid solution (CH3COOH)
• Lemon juice
• Water (H2O)
• Dilute sodium bicarbonate solution (NaHCO3)
Materials required : Dilute HCl, Dilute NaOH, Dilute CH3COOH, Lemon juice, Distilled water,
Dilute NaHCO3 solution, pH paper, Standard colour chart, Dropper or Glass rod, Glazed tile etc.

Theory :
• The nature of a solution (acidity or basicity) is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions
[H+] or hydroxide ions [OH-] in aqueous solutions.
• If a solution has more hydrogen ions in it, it is said to be acidic and if a solution has more
hydroxide ions in it, it is said to be basic.
• The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion
concentration in moles per litre.
pH = - log10[H+]
• A neutral solution has pH value 7, an acidic solution has pH less than 7 and a basic solution has
pH more than 7.
• The pH of a solution increases as the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] decreases and the pH of
a solution decreases as the concentration of the [H+] increases.
• pH scale is a scale used to determine the pH of a solution. It has a range from 0 to 14.
• The pH of a solution can be determined by using a pH paper or an indicator called universal
indicator.
Procedure :
• Take six strips of pH paper and place them on a glazed tile.
• Take the test solutions in separate test tubes and label the test tubes.
• Put a drop of the test solution with a fine dropper or a glass rod on one strip of the pH paper and
note the colour produced.
• Compare the colour produced and match it with the colour in the standard colour chart and note
its pH value.
• Similarly determine the pH value of the other solutions.

Observations and inference :

Sl. Sample solution Colour produced on Approximate pH Inference
No. pH paper
1 Dilute HCl
2 Dilute NaOH
3 Dilute ethanoic acid
4 Lemon juice
5 Distilled water
6 Dilute NaHCO3
Result :
Samples which are acidic in nature are -
Samples which are basic in nature are -
Sample which is neutral is –
Precautions :
• Match the colours carefully with the standard colour chart.
• pH paper should be handled with clean dry hands.
• Wash the fine dropper or glass rod every time after use.
pH scale
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

pH
Neutral
Increasing acidic nature Increasing basic nature

Increase in [H+] ion concentration Decrease in [H+] ion concentration

Decrease in [OH-] ion concentration Increase in [OH-] ion concentration

Colours of pH paper/universal indicator at different pH Values

pH Colour
3.0 Red
5.0 Orange red
5.5 Orange
6.0 Orange yellow
7.0 – 7.5 Greenish yellow
8.0 Green
9.5 Blue
10.0 Violet
10.5 Reddish violet
11.0 Deep reddish violet
Approximate pH of some common substances
Substance pH
Hydrochloric acid 1.0
Sulphuric acid 1.2
Lemon juice 2.2
Vinegar (dil. Acetic acid) 3.0
Orange juice 3.5
Tomato juice 4.2
Human urine 5.5 – 7.5
Milk 6.6
Pure water 7.0
Human blood 7.4
Sodium bicarbonate 8.5
Milk of magnesia 10.0
Sodium hydroxide 13.0
 EXPERIMENT No. - 02

Aim : To study the properties of acids and bases (dil. HCl and dil. NaOH) by their reactions with
• Litmus solution (blue and red).
• Zinc metal.
• Solid sodium carbonate.

Materials required : dil. HCl, dil. NaOH, Litmus solutions blue and red, Zinc granules, solid
Sodium carbonate, Lime water, Test tubes, Test tube holder, Test tube stand, Bunsen burner etc.

Theory for properties of dil. HCl :

• Acids are substances which produce hydrogen ions H+ when dissolved in water.
E.g. - HCl → H+ + Cl-
• HCl is an acid and it turns blue litmus to red.
• HCl reacts with zinc metal to form zinc chloride and hydrogen. The hydrogen burns with a pop
sound.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
H2 + O2 → H2O
• HCl reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium chloride, water and carbon dioxide. The
carbon dioxide turns milky lime water into colourless solution.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
Lime water

Procedure :
• Take some dil. HCl in two test tubes. Add a few drops of blue litmus solution in one test tube
and a few drops of red litmus solution in the other test tube and observe the changes.
• Take some Zinc granules in a test tube and some dil. HCl into it and observe the change. Test
the gas with a burning splinter.
• Take some solid sodium carbonate in a test tube. Add some dil. HCl to it. Observe the change.
Pass the gas into some Lime water and observe the change.

Observations and inference :

Sl. Experiment Observations Inference
No.
1 Test with litmus solutions HCl turns blue litmus to HCl is acidic in nature.
blue and red. red.
Gas bubbles are formedand The gas produced is
2 Reaction with Zinc granules. the gas burns with a pop hydrogen.
sound. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Gas bubbles are produced The gas produced is carbon
3 Reaction with solid sodium and the gas turns dioxide. Na2CO3 + 2HCl →
carbonate limewater into milky 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
solution.
Theory for properties of dil. NaOH :
• Bases are substances which produce hydroxide ions OH- when dissolved in water.
Eg- NaOH → Na+ + OH-
• NaOH is a base and it turns red litmus to blue.
• NaOH reacts with Zinc metal to form sodium zincate and hydrogen. The hydrogen burns with
a pop sound. NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2
• NaOH does not react with sodium carbonate because both are basic in nature.

Procedure :
• Take some dil. NaOH in two test tubes. Add a few drops of blue litmus solution in one test tube
and a few drops of red litmus solution in the other test tube and observe the changes.
• Take some Zinc granules in a test tube and some dil. NaOH into it and observe the change. Test
the gas with a burning splinter.
• Take some solid Sodium carbonate in a test tube. Add some dil. NaOH to it. Observe the
change.

Observations and inference :

Sl. Experiment Observations Inference
No.
1 Test with litmus solutions NaOH turns red litmus to NaOH is basic in nature.
blue and red. blue.
Gas bubbles are formed The gas produced is hydrogen.
2 Reaction with zinc granules. and the gas burns with a Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 +
pop sound. H2
Both NaOH and Na2CO3 are
3 Reaction with solid Sodium No reaction. alkali so they do not react but
carbonate. forms an alkaline solution.

Precautions :
• Use test tube holders while adding NaOH and HCl into the test tubes.
• Take small quantities of Zn, HCl and NaOH for their reactions otherwise large amount of
produced H2 may cause explosion.
• NaOH and HCl are injurious and they should be handled carefully.
 EXPERIMENT No. - 03

Aim : To perform and observe the following reactions and classify them into Combination reaction,
Decomposition reaction, Displacement reaction and Double displacement reaction :
* Action of water on Quick lime.
* Action of heat on Ferrous sulphate crystals.
* Iron nails kept in Copper sulphate solution.
* Reaction between Sodium sulphate and Barium chloride solutions.
Materials required : Quick lime, Water, Ferrous sulphate, Iron nails, Copper sulphate solution,
Sodium sulphate solution, Barium chloride solution, Bunsen burner, Test tubes, Test tube holder,
Funnel, Filter paper, Tripod stand, Litmus paper (red and blue), Acidified Potassium dichromate
solution etc.
Theory :
• Combination reaction is a chemical reaction in which two or more substances combine together
to form a single new substance. E.g. - Reaction between Quick lime (CaO) and water to form
calcium hydroxide.
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat
• Decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction in which a single substance decomposes into two
or more new substances. E.g. - when Ferrous sulphate is heated, it forms Ferric oxide, Sulphur
dioxide and Sulphur trioxide.
2FeSO4 → Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
• Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more reactive metal displaces a less
reactive metal from its salt solution. E.g. - Iron displaces Copper from Copper sulphate solution
to form Ferrous sulphate and Copper.
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
• Double displacement is a chemical reaction in which two substances react together to form two
new substances by exchanging their ions in aqueous solution. E.g. - Sodium sulphate solution
reacts with Barium chloride solution to form Sodium chloride and Barium sulphate.
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → 2NaCl + BaSO4
Procedure :
➢ Action of water on Quick lime : Take about 40ml of Quick lime in a beaker and add
some water to it and stir it well with a glass rod.
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat
This is a combination reaction.

Observations and inference :

Sl. Experiment Observation Inference
No.
1 Touch the outer surface of the Outer surface of The reaction is exothermic.
beaker. the beaker is hot.
2 Add a few drops of the solution with The red litmus Ca(OH)2 is basic in nature.
a dropper on a red litmus paper. paper turns blue.
Filter the solution and take 10ml of it The solution Ca(OH)2 is lime water and it turns
3 in a test tube and pass carbon dioxide turns milky. milky due to the formation of
gas through it by blowing air CaCO3 .
from the mouth through a glass tube. Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
Precautions :
• Quick lime should not be touched with hand, it causes burns.
• Lime water in the test tube should be clear.
• CO2 should be passed through lime water only for a short time.

➢ Action of heat on Ferrous sulphate : Take about 5g of Ferrous sulphate crystals in a

test tube, fix a test tube holder to it and heat it over a flame.
2FeSO4 → Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
Observations and inference :
Sl. Experiment Observation Inference
No.
Take about 5g of Colourless gas is formed FeSO4 decomposes to form
1 FeSO4 in a test tube and heat and a brownish yellow Fe2O3 and oxides of sulphur.
it over a flame. solid is left in the test tube. 2FeSO4 → Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
2 Test the smell of the gas. The gas has an irritating The gases are oxides of sulphur.
smell of burning sulphur.
Bring a moist blue litmus The blue litmus paper The oxides of sulphur are acidic
3 paper in contact with the gas. turns red. in nature.
Precautions :
• Use only small amounts of the chemicals.
• Do not touch the chemicals directly with hand.
• Smell the gas only by wafting.

➢ Iron nails kept in Copper sulphate solution : Take an iron nail and rub it with sand
paper. Take some Copper sulphate solution in a test tube. Immerse the nail in the solution and
leave it for about 15 minutes without disturbing it.
Observations and inference :
• A brown coating is formed over the iron nail and the solution turns light green in colour.
• Iron displaces Copper from Copper sulphate solution to form Ferrous sulphate and Copper. This
is because iron is more reactive than copper.
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
Precautions :
• The iron nails should be cleaned by rubbing with sand paper.
• The test tube with the iron nail should not be disturbed.
• Do not touch the brown coated iron nail with the hand.

➢ Reaction between Sodium sulphate solution and Barium chloride solution : Take
10ml of Sodium sulphate solution in one test tube and 10ml of Barium chloride solution in another
test tube. Mix the two solutions in a conical flask. Stir it with a glass rod and then leave it
undisturbed for some time. A white precipitate is formed which settles at the bottom and a clear
solution is seen above it. Sodium sulphate solution reacts with Barium chloride solution to form
sodium chloride and Barium sulphate precipitate by exchanging their ions.
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → 2NaCl + BaSO4
Precautions :
• Use only small amounts of the chemicals.
• Stir the solutions in the flask and leave it undisturbed for a few minutes.
 EXPERIMENT No. - 4

Aim : To observe (a) the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt solutions:
(i) ZnSO4 (aq.) (ii) FeSO4 (aq.) (iii) CuSO4 (aq.) (iv) Al2(SO4)3 (aq.)
(b) Arrange Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals in the decreasing order of reactivity based on the above result.

Materials required : Test tubes, Test tube stand, Zinc, Iron, Copper and Aluminium metals,
Sand paper, ZnSO4, FeSO4, CuSO4 and Al2(SO4)3 solutions.

Theory : A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution. The reactivity
of these four metals is in the order Al > Zn > Fe > Cu.
• Aluminium displaces Zinc, Iron and Copper from its salt solutions.
2Al + 3ZnSO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3Zn
2Al + 3FeSO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3Fe
2Al + 3CuSO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3Cu
• Zinc displaces only Iron and Copper from its salt solutions.
Zn + FeSO4 → ZnSO4 + Fe
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
• Iron displaces only Copper from its salt solution.
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
• Copper does not displace Al, Zn or Fe from its salt solutions.
Procedure :
• Clean the metals with sand paper and cut them into small pieces.
• Take 10ml each of ZnSO4, FeSO4 and CuSO4 solutions in three test tubes and add 1-2 small
pieces of Aluminium metal to each test tube and observe the changes.
• Take 10ml each of Al2(SO4)3, FeSO4 and CuSO4 solutions in three test tubes and add 1-2 small
pieces of Zinc metal to each test tube and observe the changes.
• Take 10ml each of Al2(SO4)3, ZnSO4 and CuSO4 solutions in three test tubes and add 1-2 small
pieces of Iron metal to each test tube and observe the changes.
• Take 10ml each of Al2(SO4)3, ZnSO4 and FeSO4 solutions in three test tubes and add 1-2 small
pieces of Copper metal to each test tube and observe the changes.
Observations and inference :
Metal Salt solution Colour Change in Inference
to which change appearance
added of solution of metal
ZnSO4 No change. Changes Al displaces Zn from
ZnSO4.
Aluminium FeSO4 Green colour Changes Al displaces Fe from
disappears. FeSO4.
CuSO4 Blue colour Changes Al displaces Cu from
disappears. CuSO4.
Al2(SO4)3 No change No change Zn does not displace Al
from Al2(SO4)3.
Zinc FeSO4 Green colour Changes Zn displaces Fe from
disappears. FeSO4.
CuSO4 Blue colour Changes Zn displaces Cu from
disappears. CuSO4.
 Al2(SO4)3 No change No change Fe does not displace Al
from Al2(SO4)3.
ZnSO4 No change No change Fe does not displace Zn
Iron from ZnSO4.
CuSO4 Blue colour Changes Fe displaces Cu from
disappears. CuSO4.
Al2(SO4)3 No change No change Cu does not displace Al
from Al2(SO4)3.
Copper ZnSO4 No change No change Cu does not displace Zn
from ZnSO4.
FeSO4 No change No change Cu does not displace Fe
from FeSO4.

Precautions :
• Clean the metal strips with sand paper before use.
• Use clean and dry test tubes.
• Handle chemicals carefully and do not touch the chemicals.
 EXPERIMENT No. - 05

Aim : To study the physical and chemical properties of Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH).

Materials required : Acetic acid, test tubes, test tube stand, one holed cork, delivery tube, water,
litmus solution, sodium carbonate, limewater etc.
Theory :
➢ Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a pungent smell and sour taste.
➢ It is soluble in water.
➢ It turns blue litmus to red.
➢ A solution of 5% to 8% ethanoic acid in water is called Vinegar.
➢ Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to form the ethyl ethanoate (ester) in the presence of conc.
H2SO4.
conc. H2SO4
CH3COOH + C2H5OH -----------------→ CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
The reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol to form an ester is called esterification.
➢ Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
➢ Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salt, water and carbon
dioxide.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Observations and Inferences :
Sl. Experiment Observation Inference
No
.
1 Odour : Take a small amount of Pungent vinegar Ethanoic acid has pungent
ethanoic acid in a test tube and like smell. vinegar like smell.
smell it carefully.
2 Solubility : Take a small amount of It dissolves in Ethaoic acid is soluble in
ethanoic acid in a test tube and add water. water.
equal amount of water in it.
3 Litmus paper test : Take a small The blue litmus Ethanoic acid is acidic in
amount of ethanoic acid in a test turns red. nature.
tube and dip a strip of blue litmus
paper in it. Next dip a strip of red
litmus paper in it.
4 Sodium carbonate test : Add a A brisk CH3COOH reacts with
pinch of sodium carbonate into a effervescence takes Na2CO3 to form CO2 gas
test tube containing some ethanoic place and the lime which turns lime water
acid and pass the evolved gas water turns milky. milky.
through lime water. CH3COOH + Na2CO3 →
CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Precautions :
• Clean the test tubes thoroughly before the experiments.
• Hold the test tubes using a test tube holder.
• Note the observations carefully.