ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING - UNIT-4

SYLLABUS: Crash Reconstruction: Describe the basic information that can be obtained from the
roadway surface, Understand basic physics related to crash reconstruction, speed for various skid,
friction, drag, and acceleration scenarios, variables involved in jump and flip crashes, variables
involved in pedestrian crashes, Case Studies.
CRASH RECONSTRUCTION
Crash reconstruction is the process of analyzing the events leading up to and during a vehicular
accident. It involves the use of scientific and engineering principles, along with physical evidence
and data analysis, to recreate and understand the events that led to the accident. The goal of crash
reconstruction is to determine the cause of the accident, the speed and movements of the vehicles
involved, and the factors that contributed to the accident. The information gathered during the
reconstruction process can be used to provide a comprehensive understanding of the accident and
can be used for a variety of purposes, including insurance claims, court cases, and road safety
improvements.
Crash reconstruction is a systematic process that involves several steps to analyze and recreate the
events leading up to and during a vehicular accident. The steps involved in crash reconstruction
are as follows:
Scene documentation: The first step in crash reconstruction is to document the scene of the
accident, including the location of the vehicles and any physical evidence, such as skid marks,
debris, and damage to the vehicles and surrounding objects.
Data collection: Data collection involves gathering information from various sources, including
police reports, witness statements, and any available data from sensors or cameras. This
information can include the position and orientation of the vehicles, the speed and direction of
travel, and the physical conditions at the time of the accident.
Physical evidence analysis: Physical evidence, such as tire marks, can be analyzed to determine
the speed and direction of the vehicles at the time of the impact. This information can be used to
create a timeline of events leading up to the accident.
Simulation and modeling: Computer simulations and mathematical models can be used to
recreate the events of the accident. These simulations can take into account various factors, such
as vehicle specifications, road conditions, and weather conditions, to provide a more complete
understanding of the accident.
Experimental validation: To validate the results of the simulation, physical experiments may be
conducted to confirm the accuracy of the findings. These experiments can involve testing physical
models of the vehicles or conducting tests on similar vehicles.
Report preparation: The final step in crash reconstruction is to prepare a report summarizing the
findings and recommendations for improving road safety. The report can be used for a variety of
purposes, including insurance claims, court cases, and road safety improvements.
These steps are designed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the events leading up to
and during a vehicular accident and can help to improve road safety and prevent future accidents.
BASIC INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM THE ROADWAY SURFACE
Crash reconstruction is the process of analyzing the physical and forensic evidence from a road
accident to determine the cause, sequence of events, and contributing factors. One of the key
pieces of information that can be obtained from the roadway surface during crash reconstruction
is:

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Skid marks: Skid marks on the road surface can provide information on the speed and direction
of travel of the vehicles involved in the crash, as well as the conditions of the road and the tires of
the vehicles. Skid marks can provide valuable information about the circumstances surrounding an
accident, such as:
Vehicle speed: The length of the skid marks can be used to estimate the speed at which the vehicle
was traveling before the accident.
Braking distance: The length and depth of the skid marks can provide an estimate of the distance
the vehicle traveled while braking.
Direction of travel: The direction and shape of the skid marks can indicate the direction of travel
of the vehicle.
Tire condition: The depth and pattern of the skid marks can provide information about the
condition of the vehicle's tires, such as whether they were underinflated or had worn treads.
Vehicle debris: Debris from the vehicles involved in the crash, such as pieces of glass, plastic,
and metal, can provide information on the location and severity of the impact, as well as the speed
of the vehicles. Vehicle debris can provide valuable information about the circumstances
surrounding an incident, such as:
Type of vehicles involved: The type of vehicle debris can provide information about the type of
vehicles involved in the incident.
Severity of the impact: The size and distribution of the vehicle debris can provide an estimate of
the severity of the impact.
Direction of travel: The location and distribution of the vehicle debris can indicate the direction
of travel of the vehicles involved in the incident.
Cause of the incident: The type and location of the vehicle debris can provide information about
the cause of the incident, such as a tire blowout, engine failure, or collision.
Injury severity: The location and distribution of the vehicle debris can provide information about
the likelihood and severity of injuries sustained by the occupants of the vehicles involved.
Tire marks: Tire marks are a type of physical evidence that can be obtained from the roadway
surface after a vehicle has been involved in an accident or has had to come to a sudden stop. Tire
marks on the road surface can provide information on the speed, direction of travel, and braking
behavior of the vehicles involved in the crash.
Tire marks can be measured and analyzed by accident reconstruction specialists to help determine
the cause of an incident and to provide evidence for legal proceedings. However, it's important to
note that tire marks alone are not always enough to determine the cause of an incident, and other
factors such as road conditions and driver behavior must also be taken into account.
Road surface damage: The damage to the road surface, such as gouges, scrapes, and abrasions,
can provide information on the location and direction of travel of the vehicles involved in the
crash, as well as the force of the impact. Road surface damage can provide valuable information
about the circumstances surrounding an incident, such as:
Type and severity of incident: The type and severity of the incident can be inferred from the type
and extent of the road surface damage. For example, a large pothole may indicate a vehicle
impact, while a long crack may indicate a natural disaster such as an earthquake.

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Vehicle speed: The extent and direction of the road surface damage can be used to estimate the
speed at which a vehicle was traveling before an incident.
Direction of travel: The direction of the road surface damage can indicate the direction of travel
of the vehicle(s) involved in the incident.
Road maintenance: The extent and location of the road surface damage can provide information
about the level of road maintenance and the frequency of inspections.
Contributing factors: The type and extent of the road surface damage can provide clues about
contributing factors to the incident, such as poor road conditions, road design issues, or
environmental factors.
Road markings: Road markings, such as lane lines, crosswalks, and road signs, can provide
information on the location and alignment of the vehicles involved in the crash, as well as the
visibility and conditions of the road. Road markings can be used to investigate incidents and
provide evidence for legal proceedings. For example, the location and orientation of tire marks in
relation to road markings can help determine the cause of an incident. Similarly, the condition and
visibility of road markings can provide information about road maintenance and help identify
contributing factors to an incident.
This information can be used by crash reconstruction specialists to create a comprehensive picture
of the events leading up to the crash, and to identify potential contributing factors such as driver
behavior, road design, vehicle performance, and environmental conditions.

BASIC PHYSICS RELATED TO CRASH RECONSTRUCTION

Basic physics plays a crucial role in crash reconstruction, as it provides the scientific principles
and concepts needed to analyze the physical evidence from a road accident. Some of the key areas
of physics that are relevant to crash reconstruction include.
Newton's laws of motion: Newton's laws of motion are fundamental principles that describe the
relationship between force, mass, and acceleration. These laws are used to analyze the movement
and behavior of vehicles involved in a crash, such as their speed, direction of travel, and force of
impact.
Conservation of energy: The conservation of energy principle states that the total energy in a
closed system remains constant. This principle is used to calculate the energy transfer between
vehicles involved in a crash, which can provide information on the severity of the impact and the
resulting damage.
Momentum: Momentum is a measure of an object's mass and velocity. In crash reconstruction,
momentum is used to calculate the force of impact between vehicles, and to determine the
likelihood of injury to occupants.
Friction: Friction is a force that opposes motion between two objects in contact. Friction between
a vehicle's tires and the road surface affects the vehicle's ability to brake and steer, and can play a
role in the outcome of a crash.
Trajectory analysis: Trajectory analysis involves calculating the path and movement of vehicles
involved in a crash based on their initial velocity and other physical parameters. This analysis can
provide information on the speed and direction of travel of the vehicles, and help to reconstruct
the sequence of events leading up to the crash.
By understanding the basic physics principles related to crash reconstruction, specialists are able
to accurately analyze the physical evidence from a road accident, determine the cause and

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contributing factors, and identify opportunities for improvement in road design, vehicle
performance, and driver behaviour.
SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS SKID, FRICTION, DRAG, AND ACCELERATION
SCENARIOS
In crash reconstruction, the speed of a vehicle at the time of an accident can provide critical
information about the events leading up to and during the crash. Speed can be determined through
various techniques, such as analyzing skid marks, calculating drag and friction, and using
acceleration data.
Skid marks are one of the most common ways to determine speed in crash reconstruction. The
length and angle of skid marks can provide information on the vehicle's speed and direction of
travel, and can be used to calculate the distance and time it took for the vehicle to come to a stop.
The following are approximate speeds for various skid mark lengths, assuming a level road
surface and typical vehicle conditions:
20 feet (6 meters) = 10-15 mph (16-24 km/h)
40 feet (12 meters) = 20-30 mph (32-48 km/h)
60 feet (18 meters) = 30-45 mph (48-72 km/h)
80 feet (24 meters) = 45-60 mph (72-96 km/h)
100 feet (30 meters) = 60-75 mph (96-120 km/h)

Friction and drag can also play a role in determining speed in crash reconstruction. Friction
between a vehicle's tires and the road surface affects the vehicle's ability to brake and steer. The
level of friction can change based on the road conditions and the type of tire being used. Drag is a
force that opposes a vehicle's forward motion and is determined by the vehicle's aerodynamics and
speed. In crash reconstruction, these forces can be analyzed to estimate the speed of the vehicle
and the conditions that contributed to the accident.
The following are some general considerations for friction and drag and their impact on vehicle
speeds:
Road surface: The coefficient of friction between the vehicle tires and the road surface is affected
by the type and condition of the road surface. Wet or icy roads have lower coefficients of friction,
reducing the speed at which a vehicle can safely travel.
Tire condition: The condition of the tires, including tread depth and inflation pressure, can affect
the coefficient of friction between the tires and the road surface. Worn or underinflated tires have
reduced traction and may cause the vehicle to skid at lower speeds.
Vehicle weight: Heavier vehicles have greater momentum and require more force to slow down or
stop, which can increase stopping distances and reduce the safe speed of travel.
Aerodynamics: The aerodynamic design of the vehicle can affect the amount of air resistance, or
drag, acting on the vehicle. Vehicles with higher drag coefficients require more force to maintain
speed, reducing the safe speed of travel.
Braking system: The effectiveness of the braking system is crucial to maintaining safe vehicle
speeds. Vehicles with worn or poorly maintained brakes may not be able to slow down or stop in
time to avoid an incident.

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Acceleration data can also be used to determine speed in crash reconstruction. Acceleration is the
rate of change of velocity, and the acceleration of a vehicle at the time of an accident can provide
information about the speed of the vehicle and the forces acting on it. This information can be
obtained from sensors on the vehicle or from calculations based on the physical evidence at the
scene of the accident.
Here are some general considerations for acceleration data:
Engine power: The power of the engine determines the rate at which the vehicle can accelerate.
Vehicles with more powerful engines can achieve higher speeds more quickly.
Weight: The weight of the vehicle affects its acceleration capabilities. Heavier vehicles require
more power to accelerate and may take longer to reach higher speeds.
Transmission: Vehicles with manual transmissions may take longer to accelerate than those with
automatic transmissions, as shifting gears can slow down acceleration.
Road surface conditions: The condition of the road surface can affect a vehicle's acceleration
capabilities. Wet or icy roads may reduce traction, making it more difficult for the vehicle to
accelerate quickly.
Driver behavior: The driver's behavior, including the use of the accelerator pedal and adherence
to traffic laws and speed limits, can affect the acceleration capabilities of the vehicle.
Overall, the determination of speed in crash reconstruction is a complex and technical process that
requires a comprehensive understanding of the forces and conditions that contribute to vehicular
accidents. By combining information from various sources, such as skid marks, friction, drag, and
acceleration, a more complete picture of the events leading up to and during the accident can be
obtained, which can help to improve road safety and prevent future accidents.
VARIABLES INVOLVED IN JUMP AND FLIP CRASHES
Jump and flip crashes are often complex events that involve many variables that must be analyzed
to understand what led to the crash and the outcome. Some of the key variables involved in jump
and flip crashes include.
Vehicle speed: The speed at which the vehicle is traveling is the most critical variable in jump
and flip crashes. The faster the vehicle is traveling, the more likely it is to become airborne and
lose control.
Roadway design: The design of the roadway, including the presence of steep inclines, ramps, and
obstacles, can contribute to the likelihood of jump and flip crashes. Roads with steep grades or
curves may cause the vehicle to become airborne if the driver is traveling too fast.
Vehicle type and condition: The type and condition of the vehicle can also contribute to the
likelihood of jump and flip crashes. Vehicles with high centers of gravity, such as SUVs and
trucks, are more prone to flipping over when airborne. Additionally, poorly maintained vehicles
with worn or damaged suspension and steering systems may be more likely to lose control during
high-speed impacts.
Driver behavior: Driver behavior, including speeding, reckless driving, and driving under the
influence of drugs or alcohol, can also contribute to the likelihood of jump and flip crashes.

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Environmental factors: Environmental factors, such as wind and weather conditions, can also
contribute to the likelihood of jump and flip crashes. Crosswinds or gusts of wind can cause the
vehicle to become airborne and lose control, while rain or snow can reduce visibility and traction.
By analyzing these variables and their interactions, crash reconstruction specialists are able to
determine the cause of a jump and flip crash, the trajectory of the vehicle, and the outcome of the
crash. This information can be used to identify opportunities for improvement in road design,
vehicle performance, and driver behavior to prevent similar incidents in the future.
VARIABLES INVOLVED IN PEDESTRIAN CRASHES
Pedestrian crashes are complex events that involve many variables that must be analyzed to
understand the cause of the crash and the outcome. Some of the key variables involved in
pedestrian crashes include.
Speed: The speed of the vehicle at the time of the crash is a critical factor that affects the outcome
of the crash. A higher vehicle speed increases the likelihood of serious injury or death for the
pedestrian.
Visibility: The visibility of the pedestrian and the vehicle at the time of the crash is another
important factor. For example, if the pedestrian is wearing dark clothing or if the vehicle's view of
the pedestrian is obscured by objects such as trees or buildings, the likelihood of a crash increases.
Road design: The design of the road and the presence of crosswalks, pedestrian signals, and other
safety features can also play a role in the outcome of a pedestrian crash. For example, a pedestrian
crossing a road without a crosswalk or crossing against a red light is more likely to be involved in
a crash.
Driver behavior: Driver behavior is another critical factor in pedestrian crashes. For example, if
a driver is distracted, under the influence of drugs or alcohol, or failing to obey traffic laws, the
likelihood of a crash increases.
Pedestrian behavior: The behaviour of the pedestrian also plays a role in pedestrian crashes. For
example, if a pedestrian is jaywalking, walking while using a phone or headphones, or not paying
attention to their surroundings, the likelihood of a crash increases.
By analyzing these variables and their interactions, crash reconstruction specialists are able to
determine the cause of a pedestrian crash and the outcome. This information can be used to
identify opportunities for improvement in road design, vehicle and pedestrian behavior, and driver
education to prevent similar incidents in the future.

VEHICLE INSPECTION

Vehicle inspection is the process of examining a vehicle to assess its condition, performance, and
compliance with safety regulations. The purpose of vehicle inspection is to ensure that vehicles on
the road are safe and fit for use, and to prevent accidents caused by vehicle malfunctions.
Vehicle inspections typically include a visual examination of the exterior and interior of the
vehicle, as well as a mechanical inspection of the vehicle's systems and components. Some of the
areas that are typically inspected during a vehicle inspection include
Brakes: The inspector will check the condition of the brake pads, rotors, and calipers, as well as
the operation of the brake system. The inspection will typically involve the following steps:
Brake pedal check: The mechanic will check the brake pedal for any signs of wear and tear or
damage. They will also check the pedal's responsiveness, firmness, and travel distance.

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Brake fluid check: The mechanic will check the brake fluid level and condition. Brake fluid that
appears dirty or discolored may need to be flushed and replaced.
Brake pad and rotor check: The mechanic will inspect the brake pads and rotors for wear and
damage. They will also check for signs of uneven wear or warping, which could indicate a
problem with the brake calipers or rotors.
Brake hose and line check: The mechanic will inspect the brake hoses and lines for any signs of
leaks, cracks, or damage. Any issues with the hoses or lines can cause a loss of brake pressure or
fluid.
Brake caliper check: The mechanic will inspect the brake calipers for any signs of damage or
corrosion. Damaged calipers can cause uneven braking or decreased stopping power.
Brake drum and shoe check: If your vehicle has drum brakes, the mechanic will inspect the brake
drums and shoes for wear and damage. They will also check for proper adjustment of the drum
brakes.
Parking brake check: The mechanic will inspect the parking brake for proper function and
adjustment. The parking brake should hold the vehicle securely in place when engaged.

Tires: The inspector will check the condition of the tires, including the tread depth, air pressure,
and overall condition of the tires. Here are the steps involved in a tire inspection:
Tire Pressure check: The mechanic will check the inflation pressure of each tire to ensure they
are inflated to the manufacturer's recommended level. Overinflated or underinflated tires can lead
to uneven tread wear, decreased handling, and increased fuel consumption.
Tire Tread depth check: The mechanic will measure the tread depth of each tire using a tread
depth gauge. Tires with low tread depth are more likely to lose traction, leading to skids and
reduced handling.
Tire Wear Patterns check: The mechanic will check for any signs of uneven wear or damage to
the tire, including bulges, cracks, cuts, or punctures. Uneven wear can indicate alignment or
suspension issues that may need to be addressed.
Tire Rotation check: The mechanic will check the rotation of the tires to ensure they are rotated
regularly to promote even tread wear and extend the life of the tires.
Tire Age check: The mechanic will check the age of the tires by examining the DOT number on
the sidewall. Tires that are over six years old, regardless of their condition, should be replaced.
Suspension: The inspector will examine the condition of the shocks, struts, and other components
of the suspension system to ensure that the vehicle is stable and handles well. A trained mechanic
will inspect the following components during a suspension inspection:
Shock absorbers/struts: The mechanic will inspect the shock absorbers or struts for any leaks,
damage, or wear. Faulty shocks or struts can affect handling and cause a rough ride.
Springs: The mechanic will inspect the springs for damage, wear, or sagging. Damaged or worn
springs can affect the ride height and cause handling problems.
Control arms: The mechanic will inspect the control arms for damage or wear. Faulty control
arms can cause poor handling, steering, and alignment issues.

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Ball joints: The mechanic will inspect the ball joints for wear, damage, or play. Worn ball joints
can cause alignment and steering problems.
Bushings: The mechanic will inspect the bushings for wear, damage, or deterioration. Worn
bushings can cause noise, vibration, and poor handling.
Steering linkage: The mechanic will inspect the steering linkage for wear, looseness, or damage.
Damaged or worn steering linkage can cause steering problems and affect vehicle stability.
Wheel bearings: The mechanic will inspect the wheel bearings for play or damage. Faulty wheel
bearings can cause noise, vibration, and poor handling.
Engine and Transmission: The inspector will check the condition of the engine and
transmission, including the oil level, oil pressure, and the operation of the engine and
transmission. Here are the steps involved in an engine and transmission inspection:
Fluid check: The mechanic will check the engine oil, transmission fluid, and coolant levels and
condition. Dirty or low fluid levels can lead to engine or transmission failure.
Belts and hoses check: The mechanic will inspect the belts and hoses for wear, cracks, or leaks.
Damaged belts and hoses can cause engine overheating and failure.
Battery and charging system check: The mechanic will inspect the battery and charging system
for proper function. A faulty battery or charging system can cause starting problems and electrical
system issues.
Ignition system check: The mechanic will inspect the ignition system for proper function,
including the spark plugs, wires, and distributor. Faulty ignition components can cause engine
misfires and poor performance.
Fuel system check: The mechanic will inspect the fuel system for leaks and proper function,
including the fuel pump, filter, and injectors. A faulty fuel system can cause poor engine
performance and fuel efficiency.
Transmission check: The mechanic will inspect the transmission for proper function, including
checking the fluid level, condition, and the operation of the gears. A faulty transmission can cause
shifting problems and lead to transmission failure.
Electrical System: The inspector will check the condition of the electrical system, including the
battery, alternator, and other electrical components, to ensure that the vehicle is safe and reliable.
Here are the steps involved in an electrical system inspection:
Battery check: The mechanic will inspect the battery for proper function and check the voltage
and charging system. A faulty battery or charging system can cause starting problems and
electrical system issues.
Alternator check: The mechanic will inspect the alternator for proper function and check the
voltage output. A faulty alternator can cause electrical system issues and battery failure.
Starter check: The mechanic will inspect the starter for proper function and check the voltage
output. A faulty starter can cause starting problems.
Wiring and fuses check: The mechanic will inspect the wiring and fuses for wear, damage, or
corrosion. Damaged or corroded wiring or fuses can cause electrical system issues.
Lights and signals check: The mechanic will check all the lights and signals for proper function,
including the headlights, taillights, brake lights, turn signals, and hazard lights. Faulty lights and
signals can cause safety issues while driving.

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Computer diagnostics check: The mechanic will perform a computer diagnostics check to
identify any electrical system issues that may not be visible during a physical inspection.
Body and Chassis: The inspector will check the condition of the body and chassis of the vehicle,
including the doors, windows, and other structural components. Here are the steps involved in a
body and chassis inspection:
Frame and body check: The mechanic will inspect the frame and body for damage, corrosion, or
signs of wear. Damaged or corroded frames and bodies can cause structural issues and safety
hazards.
Exhaust system check: The mechanic will inspect the exhaust system for leaks, damage, or rust.
Leaking exhaust systems can cause health hazards due to carbon monoxide poisoning.
Doors, windows, and locks check: The mechanic will inspect the doors, windows, and locks for
proper function and signs of wear or damage. Faulty doors, windows, and locks can cause safety
and security issues.
Vehicle inspections can be performed by a variety of organizations, including government
agencies, independent inspection companies, and vehicle dealerships. The frequency and scope of
vehicle inspections vary depending on the jurisdiction, type of vehicle, and other factors
Overall, vehicle inspection is an important step in ensuring road safety and preventing accidents.
By regularly inspecting vehicles, owners can identify and address any potential issues before they
become a safety hazard

INFORMATION SOURCES IN CRASH RECONSTRUCTION

Crash reconstruction is the process of analyzing and piecing together the events that occurred
during a vehicular collision to determine the cause of the accident and provide a comprehensive
understanding of the circumstances surrounding it.
The various information sources in crash reconstruction include:
Physical evidence: This includes tire marks, vehicle damage, and skid marks on the road. These
physical indicators can provide important information about the speed, direction, and actions of
the vehicles involved in the crash.
Eyewitness accounts: Eyewitnesses can provide valuable information about the events leading up
to the crash, as well as details about the actions and movements of the drivers and vehicles
involved.
Vehicle data: Data from onboard systems such as airbag control modules, event data recorders,
and GPS systems can provide detailed information about the speed, acceleration, and other actions
of a vehicle before and during a crash.
Medical records: Medical records can provide important information about the injuries sustained
by the drivers and passengers involved in the crash, which can help to reconstruct the severity of
the impact and determine the cause of injury.
Roadway and environmental conditions: Information about the road surface, weather
conditions, and lighting at the time of the crash can be used to determine if road or environmental
factors played a role in the accident.
Police reports: Police reports can provide information about the responding officers'
observations, as well as the results of any investigations that were conducted at the scene of the
crash.

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Technical analysis and simulation: Computer software can be used to simulate the crash and
determine the speed, trajectory, and other details of the vehicles involved. This information can be
used to recreate the crash and gain a better understanding of what occurred.

PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS OF FORCES, YAW AND RESTITUTION IN CRASH

RECONSTRUCTION

In accident reconstruction, the principal directions of forces, yaw, and restitution play important
roles in understanding and analyzing the events leading up to and during a vehicular accident.
Principal Directions of Forces (PDoF) refer to the main forces acting on a vehicle during an
impact. When two vehicles come in contact, they begin to deform at some force level. The
surfaces of each vehicle in contact change over time, because of vehicle deformation, and they
continue to change throughout the collision phase. These forces can be calculated using various
techniques such as computer simulations or data collected from sensors on the vehicle.
Understanding the principal directions of forces can provide insight into the type of impact, the
direction of impact, and the severity of the impact. The direction of the PDoF is often given in
terms of degrees or hours of a clock dial. For example, a force directed toward the front of a
vehicle along its centerline would have a 0 degree or 12 o’clock PDoF. A force from the right
would have a 90 degree or 3 o’clock PDoF. Furthermore, a force directed toward the rear of a
vehicle along its centerline would have a 180 degree or 6 o’clock PDoF.
Yaw refers to the rotation of a vehicle around its vertical axis and can provide information about
the orientation of the vehicle at the time of impact. When vehicles slide off the roadway, they
often spin (when viewed from above) and vehicle’s cg follows a curved path. This curved path is
indicative of a vehicle in yaw. In accident reconstruction, yaw information can be used to
understand the trajectory of the vehicle and the forces that caused it to rotate. This information can
be used to understand the cause of the accident and determine who, if anyone, was at fault.
Restitution is a term used in physics to describe the elasticity of an object. It is a value between 0
and 1 that represents the amount of energy lost when an object collides with another object and
bounces off. A value of 0 means that the object loses all its energy in the collision and doesn't
bounce, while a value of 1 means that the object retains all its energy and bounces with the same
initial velocity. Restitution is a term used to describe the elasticity of a material and how it
behaves during an impact. In accident reconstruction, restitution coefficients can be used to model
the behavior of a vehicle during an impact and determine the severity of the impact. This
information can be used to estimate the likelihood of injury to occupants of the vehicle and help
determine the cause of the accident.
In summary, the understanding of principal directions of forces, yaw, and restitution can provide
crucial information in accident reconstruction and help determine the cause of an accident, which
can have important implications for insurance claims, court cases, and road safety improvements

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