Traffic and Transportation – II Mid Sem Notes

Unit 1: Urban Structure and Transport System

1.1 Types of Urban Form and Structure
Urban form refers to the physical layout and organization of a city, which includes land
use, transport networks, and built-up areas. The structure of a city determines how
people and goods move within it, influencing the efficiency of transport systems.
A. Types of Urban Form
Urban forms can be classified into different categories based on density, transport
reliance, and spatial organization.
1. Monocentric Urban Form
• Cities are organized around a single central business district (CBD).
• High employment and commercial activities are concentrated in the core, with
residential and industrial areas in the periphery.
• Example: New York City (Manhattan as the core).
Impacts on Transport:
• Heavy reliance on radial transport networks.
• High congestion in the city center.
• Dependence on public transit for commuting.
2. Polycentric Urban Form
• Development occurs around multiple centers or sub-centers instead of a
single CBD.
• Sub-centers reduce congestion in the main CBD by distributing economic
activities.
• Example: London, where different boroughs serve as economic hubs.
Impacts on Transport:
• Requires a well-connected transit system linking sub-centers.
• Encourages multi-directional travel instead of radial movement.
• Promotes transit-oriented development (TOD).
3. Linear Urban Form
• Cities develop along major transportation corridors, such as roads, railways, or
rivers.
 • Industries, commercial hubs, and residential areas follow the transport route.
• Example: Chandigarh’s urban design, which follows a grid-based linear model.
Impacts on Transport:
• Encourages the development of high-speed public transport corridors.
• Efficient movement of goods and services along the axis.
• Susceptible to bottlenecks along the primary corridor.
4. Grid Urban Form
• Cities are organized in a grid-like pattern with roads intersecting at right angles.
• Facilitates better connectivity and efficient traffic distribution.
• Example: Barcelona’s Eixample district.
Impacts on Transport:
• Allows multiple route choices, reducing congestion.
• Facilitates mixed land use and pedestrian-friendly design.
• Requires strict zoning policies to maintain walkability.
5. Organic Urban Form
• Cities grow in an unplanned manner, leading to irregular road networks.
• Common in older cities with historical cores.
• Example: Varanasi, India, with its maze-like streets.
Impacts on Transport:
• Poor accessibility and limited space for transport expansion.
• High congestion due to narrow roads.
• High reliance on non-motorized transport (NMT) like bicycles and walking.

1.2 Impact of Urban Form and Structure on Transport System Development

The way cities are structured directly influences transport systems in terms of
accessibility, efficiency, and sustainability.
A. Urban Density and Transport Demand
• High-Density Areas: More public transport use, higher walkability.
• Low-Density Areas: Increased car dependency, longer travel distances.
 • Example: Tokyo (high density, excellent metro network) vs. Los Angeles (low
density, high car usage).
B. Land Use and Trip Generation
• Mixed-use areas reduce travel demand by integrating residential, commercial,
and recreational activities.
• Zoning policies that separate land uses increase travel distances and car
dependency.
• Example: Singapore's land use planning integrates housing and employment
zones to minimize commuting.
C. Transport Infrastructure Development
• Cities with grid or polycentric structures allow efficient public transit networks.
• Monocentric cities require strong radial connectivity (metro, highways).
• Example: Delhi Metro expansion follows a polycentric model to integrate new
business hubs.

1.3 Urban Structure and Mobility Levels

Mobility levels are influenced by how urban areas are planned and structured.
A. High-Mobility Cities
• Efficient public transport, pedestrian, and cycling infrastructure.
• Example: Amsterdam, where cycling accounts for 38% of trips.
B. Low-Mobility Cities
• Poor public transit, reliance on private vehicles, long travel times.
• Example: Los Angeles, with high car dependency and congestion.
C. Factors Influencing Urban Mobility
1. Transport Infrastructure: Roads, metro, BRTS, NMT facilities.
2. Urban Density: Compact cities enable better mobility.
3. Socioeconomic Factors: Affordability of transport options.
4. Policy and Regulations: Zoning laws, transit-oriented development (TOD).

1.4 Concept of Accessibility and Mobility

A. Accessibility
 • The ability of people to reach desired destinations (work, shopping, education)
with ease.
• Measured in terms of time, cost, and convenience.
• Example: A metro station within 500m walking distance improves accessibility.
Types of Accessibility:
1. Physical Accessibility: Infrastructure supporting all users (e.g., disabled-
friendly transport).
2. Economic Accessibility: Affordability of public transport.
3. Spatial Accessibility: Proximity of housing to jobs and services.
B. Mobility
• The ability to move freely across urban space.
• Depends on transport modes, infrastructure, and policies.
• Example: High-speed rail improves inter-city mobility.
Key Differences Between Accessibility and Mobility:

Aspect Accessibility Mobility

Definition Ease of reaching destinations Ease of movement within urban areas

Focus Land use and connectivity Transport modes and speed

Example TOD policies increasing metro reach Highways improving vehicle flow

C. Relationship Between Accessibility and Mobility

• High mobility without accessibility = Traffic congestion (e.g., highways
increasing car movement but not reducing travel times).
• High accessibility with low mobility = Efficient urban planning (e.g., compact
cities with short travel distances).
• Balanced approach: Integrated land use and transport planning to reduce
travel needs and improve transit options.

1.5 Case Studies

1. Curitiba, Brazil – A Model of Urban Transport Planning
• Implemented Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system with dedicated lanes.
• High accessibility due to transit-oriented development (TOD) policies.
 • Integrated land use and transport planning, reducing car dependency.
2. Singapore – Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Success
• Mixed-use high-density development around MRT stations.
• Policies such as Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) reduce congestion.
• Efficient public transport with a 67% modal share.
3. Delhi Metro – Improving Urban Mobility
• Expanded to connect multiple business districts (polycentric model).
• Reduced travel times and increased public transport modal share.
• Integrated with feeder services, last-mile connectivity.

Conclusion
• Urban form dictates transport systems, influencing congestion, efficiency, and
sustainability.
• Compact, mixed-use, high-density development promotes public transport
and walkability.
• Integrated land use and transport planning (like TOD) ensures accessibility
and sustainable mobility.
• Global examples (Singapore, Curitiba, Delhi Metro) show how planned urban
forms improve transport systems.
Unit 2: Land Use-Transport Model
2.1 Overview of Land Use-Transportation Modeling
A. Introduction to Land Use-Transport Interaction
• Land use and transportation are deeply interlinked; changes in one affect the
other.
• Transportation networks determine accessibility, influencing land value,
economic activity, and urban expansion.
• Land use decisions (residential, commercial, industrial zones) shape transport
demand and infrastructure needs.
• Example: Expanding metro networks in suburban areas leads to increased
residential and commercial development (e.g., Delhi Metro’s effect on Noida &
Gurgaon).
B. What is Land Use-Transport Modeling?
A Land Use-Transport Model (LUTM) is a tool used to:
• Simulate urban growth and transport demand.
• Predict how changes in infrastructure and policies affect travel behavior and
land development.
• Guide city planners in sustainable urban development.
C. Key Components of Land Use-Transport Models
1. Transport System: Roads, rail, metro, BRT, pedestrian infrastructure.
2. Land Use Patterns: Residential, commercial, industrial zones, open spaces.
3. Travel Demand: Generated by the interaction of land use and transport
accessibility.
4. Socioeconomic Factors: Income levels, employment centers, lifestyle choices.
D. Common Types of LUT Models

Model Type Description Example Cities

Predicts employment, residential, and service

Lowry Model Detroit, USA
sector interactions

Estimates trip distribution based on attraction

Gravity Model New York, Tokyo
factors (e.g., jobs, housing)

Activity-Based Focuses on individual travel behaviors rather

Singapore, London
Model than just trips
Model Type Description Example Cities

Agent-Based Simulates decisions of individual agents Hong Kong,

Model (residents, businesses) Amsterdam

2.2 Principles of Land Use-Transport Interaction

A. The Feedback Loop Between Land Use and Transport
• Land Use → Transport: New housing developments increase road traffic and
transit demand.
• Transport → Land Use: New metro stations increase property values, leading to
denser developments.
Example: The construction of Bangalore Metro’s Purple Line led to rising property
prices and commercial expansion along its corridor.
B. Factors Influencing Land Use-Transport Interaction
1. Accessibility: Areas with good public transport connectivity attract more
housing and businesses.
2. Economic Growth: New commercial zones increase commuting needs.
3. Government Policies: Zoning laws, FAR (FSI) regulations shape land use
patterns.
4. Environmental Constraints: Green spaces, flood zones limit development.
5. Technology: Smart transport solutions (ride-sharing, e-mobility) influence travel
behavior.
C. Sustainable Land Use-Transport Planning
• Compact cities (higher density, mixed land use) reduce travel distances.
• Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) integrates transport and land use
planning.
• Example: Paris’ "15-minute city" concept, where all amenities are within
walking or cycling distance.

2.3 Land Use Modeling

A. Why Model Land Use?
• Predict future urban expansion.
• Assess infrastructure needs (roads, transit, utilities).
 • Analyze policy impacts (zoning changes, TOD incentives).
B. Key Methods of Land Use Modeling

Model Type Function Example Cities

Simulates urban sprawl and density Shanghai,

Cellular Automata (CA)
changes over time Mumbai

Studies feedback loops between land Stockholm,

System Dynamics Models
use, transport, and environment Copenhagen

Integrated Land Use- Combines travel demand forecasting

Toronto, Sydney
Transport Models (ILUTMs) with land use planning

C. Case Study: Integrated Land Use & Transport Planning in Curitiba, Brazil
• Implemented Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) corridors.
• High-density development around BRT stations reduced urban sprawl.
• Resulted in low car dependency, improved air quality, and efficient land use.

2.4 Transit-Oriented Development (TOD): Defining the Concept

A. What is TOD?
• TOD integrates land use and transport planning to create compact, walkable,
mixed-use communities near transit hubs.
• Focuses on reducing car dependency and promoting public transport,
cycling, and walking.
B. Key Features of TOD
1. Mixed Land Use: Housing, offices, retail, and public spaces near transit.
2. High Density: Increased FSI (Floor Space Index) in transit corridors.
3. Multimodal Integration: Metro, BRT, cycling lanes, pedestrian-friendly streets.
4. Affordable Housing: Inclusion of Economically Weaker Sections (EWS)
housing.
5. Parking Management: Reduced private vehicle parking, prioritizing public
transport users.
C. Benefits of TOD
• Reduces traffic congestion and pollution.
• Encourages walkability and healthier lifestyles.
 • Boosts economic growth around transit hubs.
D. Case Study: TOD in Singapore
• Land Use & Transport Integration: MRT stations surrounded by high-density
mixed-use developments.
• Reduced Car Dependency: Strict Vehicle Quota System (VQS) discourages
excessive car ownership.
• Smart Planning: Urban greenery, pedestrian zones, and seamless metro-bus
integration.

2.5 Stakeholder Engagement in Land Use-Transport Planning

A. Key Stakeholders in LUT Planning
1. Government Authorities: Urban local bodies, transport ministries.
2. Real Estate Developers: Influence land use changes, building designs.
3. Public Transport Operators: Metro, BRT, rail authorities.
4. Residents & Civil Society: Community participation for sustainable planning.
5. Private Sector & Investors: Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) in TOD projects.
B. Importance of Public Participation
• Better policy acceptance.
• Enhanced urban livability.
• Reduced conflicts in land acquisition and project implementation.
C. Case Study: London’s Crossrail Project
• Extensive stakeholder consultations ensured community needs were met.
• Land value capture mechanisms helped finance the project.

2.6 Regulatory Support for Land Use-Transport Planning

A. Key Policies Supporting LUT Integration in India
1. National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP, 2006, 2014)
o Promotes sustainable mobility and integrated land use-transport
planning.
2. Metro Rail Policy (2017)
o Encourages TOD around metro corridors.
 3. Smart Cities Mission
o Focuses on compact, walkable neighborhoods with efficient public
transport.
4. UDDCPR (Urban & Regional Development Plans Formulation &
Implementation Guidelines)
o Sets zoning regulations, FSI limits, and land use controls.
B. International Best Practices
• Tokyo’s Railway-Based TOD: Private rail companies integrate transit with real
estate.
• Hong Kong’s Rail + Property Model: MTR Corporation funds metro expansion
through property development profits.

Conclusion
• Land use and transport systems are interdependent, shaping urban growth,
economic activity, and mobility.
• LUT models help predict development patterns and optimize infrastructure
investments.
• Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) is a key strategy for sustainable urban
mobility.
• Stakeholder engagement and strong regulatory frameworks are essential for
successful implementation.
• Global best practices (Singapore, Curitiba, Hong Kong) provide valuable
lessons for Indian cities.
Unit 3: Comprehensive Transport Planning
3.1 Introduction to Comprehensive Transport Planning
• Comprehensive Transport Planning (CTP) is a structured process for
developing efficient and sustainable transport systems in urban and regional
areas.
• It considers land use, socio-economic factors, travel demand, infrastructure
availability, and environmental sustainability.
• It integrates all transport modes (public transit, roads, non-motorized transport,
freight) to ensure mobility for all users.
Objectives of Comprehensive Transport Planning
1. Efficient movement of people and goods.
2. Reduction in congestion and travel time.
3. Improved accessibility and connectivity.
4. Sustainability through environmentally friendly transport.
5. Integration of land use and transport planning.

3.2 Study Area Definition in Transport Planning

A study area refers to the geographical region considered for transport planning. It can
be defined based on:
1. Administrative Boundaries: City limits, metropolitan regions, municipal zones.
2. Economic Influence Zones: Areas with high employment and commercial
activity.
3. Functional Transport Areas: Regions linked through major highways, rail
corridors.
4. Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZs): Smaller sub-zones used for modeling travel
demand.
Example:
• In Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR), transport planning covers the city of
Mumbai along with Navi Mumbai, Thane, and Vasai-Virar due to high
interdependency.

3.3 Surveys and Studies in Transport Planning

A. Types of Transport Surveys
 1. Household Travel Surveys – Collects data on trip purpose, travel mode, and
socio-economic characteristics.
2. Traffic Volume Surveys – Measures traffic flow at intersections, highways,
metro stations.
3. Origin-Destination (O-D) Surveys – Determines trip patterns and key
movement corridors.
4. Public Transport Usage Surveys – Studies ridership, service frequency, and
passenger preferences.
5. Parking Surveys – Assesses demand for parking and congestion impact.
6. Freight Movement Surveys – Evaluates the flow of goods across industrial and
commercial hubs.
B. Common Survey Techniques
• Manual Counts – Used for traffic volume and pedestrian movement studies.
• Automated Data Collection – Includes GPS tracking, video-based traffic
monitoring, and mobile phone data analytics.
• Roadside Interviews & Questionnaires – Conducted at toll plazas, metro
stations, and airports.
• Big Data Analysis – Uses data from ride-sharing apps, public transport smart
cards.
Example:
• Delhi Metro uses automated ticketing data to analyze passenger demand and
optimize train frequency.

3.4 Transport Planning Process (Four-Step Model)

A widely used approach in transport planning is the Four-Step Travel Demand Model:
Step 1: Trip Generation
• Definition: Estimates the number of trips produced and attracted to different
zones.
• Factors Affecting Trip Generation:
o Population and employment density.
o Land use (residential, commercial, industrial).
o Income levels and vehicle ownership.
o Availability of public transport.
Example:
• High-density commercial zones like Connaught Place in Delhi generate high
trip attractions.

Step 2: Trip Distribution

• Definition: Determines where trips start and end by linking trip origins and
destinations.
• Common Models Used:
o Gravity Model: Assumes that trip attraction is proportional to the size of
the destination and inversely proportional to distance/time.
o Growth Factor Model: Uses past data to estimate future trip flows.
Example:
• Mumbai’s local train network serves as a key trip distributor, linking residential
suburbs to business districts.

Step 3: Modal Split (Mode Choice Analysis)

• Definition: Predicts the proportion of trips made by different transport modes
(bus, metro, car, walking, cycling, etc.).
• Factors Affecting Modal Split:
o Travel cost and time.
o Convenience and reliability of public transport.
o Socio-economic status (car ownership, affordability).
o Availability of non-motorized transport (NMT) infrastructure.
Example:
• Singapore’s MRT system maintains high public transport modal share due to
seamless integration with buses and cycling lanes.

Step 4: Trip Assignment

• Definition: Allocates trips to specific routes and transport networks based on
congestion levels and travel time.
• Methods Used:
o All-or-Nothing Assignment: Assumes all travelers use the shortest path.
 o User Equilibrium Model: Accounts for congestion; travelers choose the
least congested route.
o Stochastic Models: Considers variability in route preferences.
Example:
• Google Maps & Uber’s route optimization uses real-time traffic data for
dynamic trip assignment.

3.5 Land Use-Transport Models in Comprehensive Planning

Land use and transport planning models predict how changes in infrastructure,
policy, or land use regulations impact travel patterns.
Types of Models Used
1. Integrated Land Use-Transport Models (ILUTMs) – Simulate urban expansion
and travel behavior.
2. Activity-Based Models – Consider individual travel choices rather than
aggregated trips.
3. Dynamic Traffic Simulation Models – Evaluate real-time congestion impacts.
Case Study: London’s Crossrail Project
• Used land use-transport models to forecast passenger demand and optimize
station locations.

3.6 Comprehensive Mobility Plan (CMP) Components

A. What is a CMP?
• A long-term strategic plan for urban mobility that integrates land use and
transport planning.
• Focuses on public transport, non-motorized transport, environmental
sustainability, and smart mobility solutions.
B. Key Components of a CMP
1. Vision & Goals – Defines the city’s mobility priorities.
2. Existing Transport Assessment – Analyzes road networks, transit systems,
congestion hotspots.
3. Future Travel Demand Forecasting – Uses population growth, economic
activity, and trip generation models.
 4. Multi-Modal Integration – Ensures seamless connectivity between metro,
buses, cycling, and walking networks.
5. Sustainability Strategies – Promotes low-carbon transport, TOD, and electric
mobility.
6. Implementation Roadmap – Phased development plans, funding strategies,
and policy frameworks.
Example:
• Ahmedabad’s CMP (BRTS Plan) successfully improved public transport usage
while reducing congestion.

3.7 Case Studies of Comprehensive Transport Planning

1. Curitiba, Brazil – Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) Success
• Integrated land use and transport planning around BRT corridors.
• High-density development along bus routes reduced car dependency.
• Positive impact: 70% of commuters use public transport.
2. Delhi Metro – Multi-Modal Integration
• Improved mobility by linking metro, buses, and auto-rickshaws.
• Smart ticketing systems (e.g., National Common Mobility Card).
• Impact: Reduced travel time and pollution, increased transit ridership.
3. Singapore – Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)
• Implemented Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) to reduce congestion.
• Autonomous public transport trials for future smart mobility.
• High public transit usage (67%) due to efficient planning.

Conclusion
• Comprehensive Transport Planning (CTP) ensures sustainable urban mobility
by integrating land use, transport networks, and demand forecasting.
• Surveys, travel demand models, and CMP frameworks help cities optimize
transport infrastructure.
• Best practices from Singapore, Curitiba, and Delhi Metro demonstrate the
importance of data-driven planning and multi-modal integration.
Unit 4: Transport and Environment
4.1 Tra ic Noise

A. Definition and Characteristics

Tra ic noise is the unwanted sound produced primarily by motor vehicles such as cars, trucks,
buses, and motorcycles. It is a significant form of environmental pollution in urban areas,
especially along busy corridors and highways.

B. Factors A ecting Tra ic Noise

Factor Description Example

Heavy vehicles (trucks, buses) A diesel truck generates approx.

Vehicle Type generate more noise than light 85 dB compared to 70 dB for a
vehicles. car.

Noise levels increase logarithmically A 10 kmph speed increase may

Speed
with vehicle speed. raise noise by 2–3 dB.

Rough surfaces create higher rolling Concrete pavements are noisier

Road Surface
noise. than asphalt.

Tra ic Volume and Higher volume and % of heavy NH-48 in Mumbai sees high dB
Composition vehicles elevate noise. due to truck tra ic.

Gradient and Acceleration and gear changes on Ghat sections have elevated
Curvature slopes produce higher noise. noise levels.

C. Impacts

 Health: Hearing loss, hypertension, sleep disturbances.

 Environment: Disturbance to wildlife.

 Social: Reduced property values and livability.

4.2 Air Pollution Due to Tra ic

A. Major Pollutants

Pollutant Source E ect

Incomplete Reduces oxygen-carrying capacity of

CO (Carbon Monoxide)
combustion blood

NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) Diesel engines Respiratory issues, smog formation

PM2.5 & PM10 Exhaust, brake wear Penetrate lungs, cause heart disease
Pollutant Source E ect

Diesel, coal
SO2 (Sulfur Dioxide) Eye irritation, lung damage
combustion

VOC (Volatile Organic Fuel evaporation,

Combine with NOx to form ozone
Compounds) exhaust

B. Factors Influencing Emission Levels

1. Vehicle Age & Maintenance – Older, poorly maintained vehicles emit more.

2. Fuel Type – Diesel emits more NOx and PM than petrol.

3. Tra ic Congestion – Idling and slow movement increase emissions.

4. Driving Behavior – Sudden braking and acceleration worsen pollution.

5. Urban Form – Narrow roads and high-rise buildings restrict dispersion.

C. Case Example

 Delhi NCR: Significant spike in PM2.5 during winter due to tra ic + stubble burning +
temperature inversion.

4.3 Abatement Measures for Noise and Air Pollution

A. Tra ic Management

 Bypasses & Ring Roads: Divert heavy vehicles from urban cores.

 Signal Synchronization: Reduces idling at intersections.

 Speed Management: Reduces both emissions and noise.

B. Infrastructure-Based

 Noise Barriers: Concrete walls or vegetation along highways.

 Green Bu ers: Trees absorb pollutants and block sound.

 Low Noise Road Surfaces: Rubberized asphalt reduces rolling noise.

C. Vehicle & Fuel Technology

 Emission Norms (BS-VI): Strict limits on NOx, PM, CO.

 Electric Vehicles (EVs): Zero tailpipe emissions.

 Fuel Quality Improvement: Low-sulfur fuels reduce SO2 and PM.

D. Legislative & Policy Measures

 National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Reduce PM2.5 by 20–30% by 2024.

 Idle Engine Shut-o Policies: Mandated in tra ic hotspots.

4.4 Environmental Standards

A. Noise Standards (MoEF & CC and CPCB)

Area Type Day (dB) Night (dB)

Industrial 75 70

Commercial 65 55

Residential 55 45

Silent Zone 50 40

 Silent zones include areas around hospitals, schools, and courts.

B. Air Quality Standards (NAAQS – CPCB)

Pollutant Annual Limit (µg/m³) 24-hr Limit (µg/m³)

PM10 60 100

PM2.5 40 60

NO₂ 40 80

SO₂ 50 80

CO — 2 (mg/m³, 8-hr avg)

Application Insight

Case of Mumbai Eastern Express Highway:

Due to high tra ic volume and poor air dispersion in the corridor, Mumbai introduced sound
barriers along flyovers and implemented EV bus fleets, showing reduced dB levels and PM2.5
concentrations in ambient air.

4.5 Tra ic Safety

A. Accident Reporting and Recording Systems

1. Importance

Accurate and consistent accident data helps in:

 Identifying blackspots and high-risk areas.

 Planning e ective road safety interventions.

 Monitoring e ectiveness of implemented safety measures.

2. Components of a Good Reporting System

 Police FIR System

  Standardized Accident Reporting Format (like MORTH’s Form 1–5 for Road Accident
Report)

 GPS-enabled Reporting

 Crash Databases: Such as IRAD (Integrated Road Accident Database).

3. Best Practices

 Global Example: Sweden’s STRADA system integrates hospital + police data.

 Indian Initiatives: VAHAN database and "iRAD" portal pilot tested in states.

B. Factors A ecting Road Safety

Factor Description Example

Over-speeding, distraction, alcohol Over 66.5% of accidents due to

Human
use, fatigue speeding (India 2022)

Brake failure, tire blowouts, lack of Lack of ABS in entry-level two-

Vehicle
safety devices wheelers

Poor design, inadequate signage, lack High accident zones on rural

Road Infrastructure
of pedestrian crossings highways

Poor lighting, bad weather, low Night crashes due to poor

Environment
visibility reflectors or lighting

Low helmet compliance in tier-2

Policy/Enforcement Weak penalties, low enforcement
cities

Safe Systems Approach (SSA)

 Promoted as Vision Zero (Sweden) and Sustainable Safety (Netherlands).

 Key principles:

1. Accept human error

2. Limit kinetic energy in crashes

3. Build forgiving road environments

Frameworks Used:

 Haddon Matrix: Classifies interventions at Pre-crash, Crash, Post-crash levels.

 Five Pillars (WHO Global Plan): Road Safety Management, Safer Roads, Safer Vehicles,
Safer Users, Post-Crash Response.

4.6 Transport Planning for Target Groups

A. Children
Needs:

 Short, safe routes to school.

 Tra ic-calmed school zones.

 Pedestrian crossings at midblocks and signals.

Best Practices:

 School Zones with Signage (IRC:67-2012)

 Speed Humps/Chicanes near Schools (IRC:99-2018)

Indian Example:

 Delhi’s school zone audits include textured pavements and 3D markings to reduce
speeds.

B. Women

Issues:

 Lack of safety on footpaths and at bus stops.

 Limited street lighting and surveillance.

Solutions:

 Universal Design in Urban Areas: As per The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act,
2016.

 Well-lit pedestrian pathways (as per IRC:103-2012).

 Design of public transport stops that ensure visibility, comfort, and surveillance.

C. Elderly and Di erently Abled

Needs:

 Ramps, tactile flooring, low kerbs.

 Auditory pedestrian signals.

 Longer signal times.

Standards:

 IRC:103-2012 for pedestrian facilities.

 Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan) emphasizes universal design.

Infrastructure Examples:

 Ramps at bus stops/FoBs

 Auditory push-button signals at intersections

  Mountable medians for mid-block crossing

D. Case Example – Inclusive Planning in Pune

 Pedestrian-first policy adopted in city planning.

 Dedicated NMT lanes, raised crossings near elderly homes.

 User feedback integrated through community planning tools.

4.7 Highway Landscaping – Norms and Guidelines

A. Objectives of Highway Landscaping

 Enhance aesthetic appeal of road corridors.

 Improve driver concentration by reducing monotony.

 Act as natural barriers for glare, noise, and air pollutants.

 Provide ecological balance (carbon sequestration, bird habitat).

B. IRC Guidelines and Principles (As per IRC:SP:21-2009 & IRC:66)

Guideline Key Recommendations

Visibility Trees should not obstruct signage or visibility at curves and intersections.

Trees must be planted at a minimum safe distance from the edge of

Setback Distance
pavement, typically 3–4 m.

Use native, drought-resistant, non-invasive species. Avoid thorny plants

Species Selection
near pedestrian areas.

Maintenance
Landscaping must allow for drainage and utility maintenance.
Access

Shrubs and ground covers are ideal to prevent headlight glare without
Median Planting
blocking sight distance.

C. Functional Landscaping

 Noise Mitigation: Dense plantations (e.g., bamboo, ficus) along highways reduce noise
levels by 5–10 dB.

 Pollution Bu ering: Neem, Ashoka, and Banyan act as dust filters and pollutant
absorbers.

 Windbreaks: In arid zones, trees like Casuarina help reduce sand intrusion.
D. Case Study: Yamuna Expressway

 Uses layered landscaping: shrubs + medium-height trees + high canopy trees for noise +
dust control.

 Aesthetic design with flowering species like Gulmohar and Bougainvillea.

4.8 Street Lighting – Type, Standards and Design Considerations

A. Importance

Street lighting enhances:

 Night-time visibility

 Accident prevention

 Perceived safety for pedestrians and women

 Reduction in crime

B. Lighting Types

Type Use

High Pressure Sodium

Traditional, yellow light, energy-intensive
(HPSV)

Metal Halide Lamps Good color rendering, higher maintenance

Energy-e icient, long life, instant start – preferred in smart

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes)
cities

Solar-powered LEDs Used in rural and peri-urban stretches

C. Design Parameters (as per IRC:SP:90-2010)

Parameter Guideline

Mounting Height 7–12 m for urban roads; 4–6 m for local streets

Based on pole height and luminaire distribution (e.g., 25–50 m

Spacing
spacing)

Uniformity Ratio Should not exceed 3:1 (max:min illuminance)

Lux Levels Arterial Roads: 15–20 lux; Local Streets: 5–10 lux

Color Rendering Index

≥70 for urban areas
(CRI)
Parameter Guideline

Glare Control Use of cut-o luminaires, correct tilt angle, and shielding

D. Intelligent Street Lighting

 Adaptive Lighting: Adjusts brightness based on ambient light and tra ic density.

 Smart Poles: Equipped with CCTV, WiFi, EV charging.

 Control Systems: Centralized lighting control through SCADA.

E. Safety Design Considerations

Feature Relevance

Pole Placement Minimum 1.5 m from curb to avoid crash risk

Breakaway Poles Reduce crash severity in high-speed zones

Underground Cabling Safer and reduces maintenance issues

Redundancy Alternate pole connectivity ensures lighting even if one fails

F. Case Example – Mumbai Coastal Road Project

 Uses LED lighting with centralized energy monitoring.

 Poles designed to blend with the landscape + ensure minimal glare to sea-view tra ic.

Conclusion: Integrated Approach for Sustainable and Safe Transport

 A multi-disciplinary approach is essential: engineers, planners, environmentalists,

enforcement agencies.

 Consideration of vulnerable users, climate impacts, and technological integration is

key to modern transport planning.

 Alignment with national and IRC standards ensures safety, comfort, and
sustainability.
Unit 5: Economic Evaluation of Transport Projects

1. Introduction to Economic Evaluation in Transport Planning

Economic Evaluation involves the systematic assessment of costs and benefits associated
with transportation projects—whether constructing a new facility or rehabilitating an existing
one.

Objective: To determine whether a project yields net positive benefits for society.

Importance:

 Ensures optimal allocation of limited public funds.

 Justifies the economic viability of infrastructure investments.

 Helps prioritize projects within national/state transport plans.

Applications:

 Evaluating a new highway bypass.

 Assessing a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) corridor's cost-e ectiveness.

 Comparing surface vs. elevated metro alignments.

2. Techniques of Economic Appraisal

Technique Description Formula / Basis

Cost-Benefit Compares all project costs and Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) = Total
Analysis (CBA) benefits in monetary terms Benefits / Total Costs

Net Present Value Discounted net benefit of a project

NPV = ∑(Bt - Ct)/(1+r)^t
(NPV) over its lifetime

Internal Rate of
The discount rate at which NPV = 0 Solve NPV = 0
Return (IRR)

Time needed to recover initial

Payback Period Total cost / Annual net benefit
investment from net benefits

Reference: IRC SP:30-2019 Manual on Economic Evaluation of Highway Projects in India

3. Components of Transportation Cost

A. Capital and Maintenance Cost

 Initial Facility Cost: Construction, land acquisition, machinery.

 Maintenance Cost: Periodic resurfacing, repair, and upgrades.

B. Road User Costs (RUC)

RUC is the total cost incurred by users due to operation, time, and accident risks.

1. Vehicle Operating Cost (VOC)

o Fixed Costs: Depreciation, taxes, insurance, crew wages.

o Variable Costs: Fuel, lubricants, tyre wear, spare parts.

2. Time Cost

o Value of time for passengers (wage rate approach).

o Value of goods in transit (inventory holding cost).

3. Accident Cost

o Cost of fatalities, injuries, and property damage.

o Estimation based on accident severity, frequency, and road geometry.

4. Vehicle Operating Cost (VOC) – Breakdown

Component Example Influences

Fuel Consumption Road gradient, surface roughness, congestion.

Lubricant Use Engine condition, mileage between oil changes.

Spare Parts Age of vehicle, frequency of acceleration-deceleration.

Tyre Cost Road roughness, vehicle load.

Crew Cost For commercial transport (e.g., bus drivers, conductors).

Empirical Relationship:
VOC = f (Speed, Road Roughness, Tra ic Volume, Vehicle Type)

Example Application:

 A smoother road surface reduces fuel and tyre costs for trucks.

 Better geometry reduces acceleration/deceleration, saving spare parts cost.

5. Time Cost Estimation

For Passengers:

 Based on wage rates and passenger-hours.

 Example: Metro extension reduces travel time by 20 mins for 10,000 commuters/day. If
hourly wage = ₹100 → savings = ₹33,33,000/year.

For Goods:
  Value of inventory * time in transit * interest rate.

 Example: Perishable goods transported faster → lower holding cost and spoilage.

6. Accident Cost Estimation

Types of Accidents:

 Fatal, Injury, Damage-Only

Parameters:

 Accident rate (accidents/100 million vehicle-km)

 Road length, tra ic volume, vehicle composition

Method:

 Use lookup tables or historical data

 Multiply by unit cost of each type (fatal: ₹1 crore+, injury: ₹10 lakh, etc.)

Case Example:
Adding a divider on a rural highway reduces head-on collisions by 60%, leading to savings of ₹X
per annum.

7. Inclusion of Non-Motorized Transport (NMT)

NMT users (pedestrians, cyclists) also incur operating costs:

 Delays due to poor infrastructure.

 Higher injury risk in mixed tra ic.

 Policies must consider benefits to NMT users (e.g., cycle tracks).

8. Environmental and Indirect Benefits

These are harder to quantify but essential for holistic evaluation.

 Air Quality Improvement: From reduced VOC.

 Noise Reduction: Through smoother flows.

 Greenhouse Gas Reduction: Long-term sustainability goal.

 Urban Quality: Walkability, aesthetics, reduced congestion.

9. Project Feasibility & Case Studies

Feasibility Analysis Includes:

 Technical viability
  Economic viability (CBA, NPV, IRR)

 Social acceptability (displacement, equity)

 Environmental impact

Case Studies (from India):

1. Delhi-Meerut Expressway: Reduced travel time → huge time cost savings; high IRR
justified funding.

2. Ahmedabad BRTS: Cost-e ective solution for mid-size city mobility; reduced VOC and
improved travel time reliability.

10. IRC Guidelines & Standards

IRC:SP:30-2019

 Standard reference for economic evaluation.

 Details methodologies for VOC, accident costs, environmental impact.

Use in Answering: Quote IRC SP:30 when justifying cost components or evaluation methods.

11. Summary: Integrated Approach to Economic Evaluation

 Combine quantitative models (NPV, IRR) with qualitative impacts (environment, social
benefits).

 Sensitivity analysis is critical to account for uncertainties (fuel prices, tra ic growth).

 Economic evaluation enables evidence-based decision-making for sustainable

transport investments.
Unit 6: Transport Policy and Management

1. Introduction: Why Transport Policy Matters

Urban transport systems are integral to city functioning. With rising urbanization:

 Congestion, pollution, and inequity in access are major issues.

 Transport policies guide planning, governance, pricing, funding, and sustainability.

Goal: Ensure mobility for all while minimizing environmental, social, and spatial externalities.

2. Review of National, State, and Local Transport Policies

A. National Level: National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP), 2006

Focus: “People-centric mobility” instead of “vehicle-centric mobility”.

Key Pillars:

 Integration of land use and transport

 Priority to public transport and non-motorized transport (NMT)

 Pollution reduction, energy e iciency

 Institutional capacity building and governance reforms

Example: Cities under JnNURM had to prepare Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs) aligned
with NUTP goals.

B. State-Level Policies

 Varying maturity. Some states like Maharashtra, Karnataka have urban transport cells.

 Emphasis on metro, EVs, TOD (Transit-Oriented Development), and parking policies.

C. Local-Level (City/Municipal) Policies

 Development Control Regulations (DCRs) influence parking, street hierarchy.

 Local transport agencies handle operations of city buses, tra ic police, parking
management.

Issue: Fragmentation leads to weak coordination.

3. Relevance in Spatial and Economic Planning

Transport policies shape the urban form, travel patterns, and economic productivity.

Spatial Integration:

 Encourage Transit-Oriented Development (TOD): Dense, mixed-use growth near transit

stations.
  Example: Delhi Metro’s TOD policy encourages higher FSI near metro corridors.

Economic Benefits:

 Reduced congestion improves worker productivity.

 Access to labor and markets strengthens local economies.

4. Transport Pricing and Funding

A. Pricing Mechanisms

 Fare structures for public transport (e.g., distance-based, flat fare)

 Road pricing/congestion pricing (rare in India)

 High parking fees to discourage car use in CBDs

NUTP Suggestion: Pricing should reflect true economic and opportunity costs, e.g., land
used for parking.

B. Funding Sources

Source Description

Govt Budget Infrastructure and capital funding

Fare Revenue For operational expenses (Buses, Metro)

Public-Private Partnerships
E.g., BRTS, Metro (Hyderabad, Mumbai Line 1)
(PPP)

Land Value Capture, advertising, transit-oriented real

Innovative Mechanisms
estate

IRC Recommendations (indirect): Projects should be appraised for economic viability (BCR,
IRR) before funding.

5. Energy and Environment Implications

The transport sector is the second largest energy consumer and a major emitter of CO₂ and
pollutants.

Policy Tools:

 Promote cleaner fuels and EVs

 Encourage modal shift to public and NMT

 Reduce VKT (Vehicle Kilometers Traveled) through compact city planning

Example: FAME II policy to subsidize EVs; NUTP encourages battery-operated vehicles in feeder
systems.
Environmental Benefits:

 Reduced air pollution, GHG emissions, noise

 Enhanced public health and urban livability

6. Organizational and Legal Framework

Existing Institutions:

 Multiple agencies: Municipal Corporation, Tra ic Police, RTO, Public Transport

Operators, Urban Development Dept.

 Fragmentation hampers coordination.

Suggested Framework (NUTP):

 Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities (UMTAs) in million-plus cities

 3-tier governance:

o Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC) – strategic, inter-sectoral

o UMTA – intra-sectoral coordination

o City Agencies – implementation

Example: Pune, Bengaluru, and Hyderabad have functional UMTAs (to varying degrees of
success).

7. Transport Coordination

 Poor coordination leads to:

o Route duplications

o Ine icient service integration

o User inconvenience

Solutions:

 Integrated Public Transport Systems (one ticket, one timetable)

 Institutional reforms (UMTA)

 Use of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) for real-time info, regulation, and service
reliability

Example: Delhi’s DIMTS manages BRT, e-ticketing, ITS for buses.

8. Transport System Management (TSM) Plans

TSM focuses on improving e iciency of existing infrastructure, low-cost, quick-to-implement
measures.

Components:

 Signal optimization

 One-way schemes

 Parking management

 Pedestrian and cycle facilities

 Public transport priority lanes

Example: Bangalore’s signal-free corridors, Pune’s one-way loops.

Why TSM?

 Cost-e ective

 Immediate impact

 Reduces need for expensive capital projects

9. Inclusive and Sustainable Urban Mobility

Universal Accessibility

 Infrastructure designed for all: elderly, disabled, women, children

 Features: tactile paving, low-floor buses, safe crossings, lighting

First and Last Mile Connectivity

 Feeder services, cycle lanes, footpaths

 Park & Ride facilities

Integrated planning ensures door-to-door access, not just station-to-station.

10. Role of NMT (Non-Motorized Transport)

Walking and cycling are the most environment-friendly and equitable modes.

Policies Must Provide:

 Protected cycle lanes and footpaths

 Public Bicycle Sharing systems

 Exclusive zones for pedestrian movement

Example: Pune Bicycle Plan, Bhopal PBS, Chandigarh Pedestrian-only Sectors

11. Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)

Use of digital technologies to improve safety, e iciency, and user experience.

Applications:

 Adaptive signals

 Real-time bus info systems

 Automatic Fare Collection (AFC)

 CCTV surveillance

12. Parking Policy and Management

 High parking fees to reflect true land value

 No on-street parking in key corridors

 Multi-level parking structures

 Land-use control to reduce parking demand

Pricing Parking = indirect demand management for private vehicle use.

13. Capacity Building and Awareness

Institutional Level

 Transport planning cells in ULBs

 National Urban Transport Institute (proposed)

Individual Level

 Training programs for engineers, planners, and o icers

 Public awareness campaigns (e.g., Clean Air Campaign)

14. Summary: Towards Smarter Urban Mobility

A robust transport policy framework integrates:

 People-first planning

 Integrated land use

 Priority to public transport and NMT

 Sustainability in funding, technology, and equity

 Institutional reforms and capacity building

The future of transport planning is not only in building more roads but in managing demand,
integrating systems, and enabling access for all.
 Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) Policy – Study Notes

1. Introduction
A. Background on TOD
• Urbanization in India is increasing rapidly; urban population rose from 17.29%
in 1951 to 31.6% in 2011 and is projected to reach 600 million by 2030.
• Cities face traffic congestion, pollution, and inefficient transport systems
due to horizontal urban sprawl.
• The Government of India has adopted Mass Rapid Transit Systems (MRTS) like
metro rail and Bus Rapid Transit Systems (BRTS) to improve urban mobility.
• To maximize the benefits of transit systems, cities must integrate land use
and transport planning, leading to the development of Transit-Oriented
Development (TOD) policies.

2. What is Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)?

• TOD is an urban planning approach that promotes compact, mixed-use,
walkable communities centered around public transit stations.
• It aims to reduce car dependency, increase public transport ridership, and
create sustainable, livable cities.
Key Features of TOD:

High-density mixed-use development within 500-800 meters of transit stations.

Encourages walking, cycling, and non-motorized transport (NMT).
Enhances accessibility to jobs, retail, education, and healthcare.
Optimizes transit ridership by ensuring two-way peak-hour traffic.

3. Need for a National TOD Policy

• Cities are expanding rapidly, increasing the need for efficient, well-integrated
public transport.
• Unplanned urban growth leads to traffic congestion, pollution, and high
infrastructure costs.
• A national policy ensures uniform guidelines for TOD implementation across
India.
 • TOD aligns with India’s Smart Cities Mission, encouraging sustainable urban
development.
Example:
• Delhi Metro TOD Policy: Focused on high-density, mixed-use urban
development around metro corridors to reduce car dependency.

4. Vision of the TOD Policy

The TOD policy focuses on three main objectives:
1. Enable Transformation: Shift from private vehicle dependence to a public
transport-oriented urban form.
2. Accessible Public Transport: Promote public transport usage and green
mobility (walking, cycling) to reduce pollution and traffic congestion.
3. Compact Walkable Communities: Develop dense, mixed-use, pedestrian-
friendly urban centers to enhance livability.

5. Objectives of TOD Policy

1. Encourage Public Transport Use: Develop high-density zones to increase
transit ridership and reduce congestion.
2. Reduce Travel Needs: Mixed-use development provides jobs, shopping, and
amenities within walking distance.
3. Improve Non-Motorized Transport (NMT): Enhance pedestrian and cycling
infrastructure.
4. Reduce Private Vehicle Dependency: Encourage public transit use through
reduced parking and improved transit services.
5. Inclusive Urban Growth: Develop affordable housing and Economically
Weaker Section (EWS) housing near transit stations.
6. Provide Public Spaces: Ensure recreational parks, plazas, and green spaces in
TOD zones.
7. Enhance Safety: Improve street lighting, pedestrian pathways, and CCTV
surveillance for safer neighborhoods.
8. Prevent Urban Sprawl: Promote compact urban forms to reduce
infrastructure costs.
9. Lower Carbon Footprints: Shift from private cars to environmentally friendly
transport options.
6. Principles of TOD
1. Densification Around Transit Stations: High Floor Space Index (FSI) (300-
500%) to encourage compact development.
2. Mixed-Use Development: Integration of residential, commercial, and
institutional spaces.
3. Multimodal Connectivity: Seamless connection between metro, bus, NMT, and
feeder transport.
4. Public Realm Enhancement: Walkable streets, pedestrian zones, and active
street frontages.
5. Sustainable Development: Green building norms, renewable energy, rainwater
harvesting, and urban forests.
6. Affordable Housing: 30% or more of the FSI reserved for EWS/LIG housing.
7. Managed Parking: Strict regulations to reduce car parking and encourage
public transport use.
8. Value Capture Financing (VCF): Utilizing land value increment to fund public
infrastructure.

7. TOD Implementation Strategy

A. Defining the Influence Zone
• 500-800 meters around transit stations.
• TOD can be applied to:
o Station Influence Zone (SIZ) – within 500m of a transit hub.
o Corridor-Based TOD – along transit lines (metro, BRTS, etc.).
B. Land Use Planning in TOD Zones
• High-density urban core with mixed-use buildings.
• Pedestrian-friendly street design with public plazas.
• Affordable housing integrated with commercial areas.
C. Regulatory Changes for TOD
• Amend zoning laws and building regulations to allow higher FSI.
• Incentives for private developers to build in TOD zones.
• Parking restrictions and congestion pricing to discourage private vehicle use.
8. TOD and Affordable Housing
• TOD aims to create inclusive communities by ensuring that EWS and LIG
housing is located near transit hubs.
• Policy Measures:
30% of built-up area for affordable housing.
Incentives like extra FSI for developers providing EWS housing.
Ensuring walkability and easy access to transit for low-income groups.

9. TOD and Multimodal Integration

• Seamless connectivity between metro, buses, cycling, and pedestrian
infrastructure.
• Hierarchy of mobility:
1. Pedestrians & Cyclists (NMT).
2. Public Transport (Metro, BRTS, Feeder Buses).
3. Taxis & Shared Mobility.
4. Private Vehicles (Last Priority).
Example:
• Ahmedabad BRTS integrates feeder buses, pedestrian walkways, and cycle
lanes, creating a well-connected transport system.

10. Value Capture Financing (VCF) for TOD

• Principle: Land and property values increase around transit stations due to
improved accessibility.
• VCF Mechanisms:
Betterment Charges – Property owners contribute to public infrastructure.
Transfer of Development Rights (TDRs) – Allows developers to buy/sell
development rights.
Land Value Taxation – Additional tax on landowners benefiting from TOD.
Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) – Collaboration between government and
private developers.

11. Institutional and Regulatory Framework

 • TOD must be integrated into city master plans and development control
regulations (DCRs).
• Key Regulatory Measures:
Amendments in Building Bye-laws to support mixed-use development.
Zoning Relaxations to encourage high-density growth near transit hubs.
Strict parking regulations to discourage private vehicles.

12. Case Studies of TOD Implementation

1. Singapore – Transit-Led Development
• Massive high-density mixed-use development around MRT stations.
• Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) discourages private vehicle use.
• Walkable, cycling-friendly urban design.
2. Delhi Metro TOD Policy
• FSI incentives for developers near metro stations.
• High-density corridors along Blue and Yellow Metro Lines.
• Multi-modal connectivity with buses, autos, and cycle tracks.
3. Hong Kong’s Rail + Property Model
• MTR Corporation funds metro expansion through real estate development.
• High-density residential and commercial zones along metro corridors.

Conclusion
• TOD is a key urban planning strategy to ensure sustainable mobility,
economic development, and environmental sustainability.
• Successful implementation requires strong governance, financing
mechanisms, and citizen participation.
• Case studies from Delhi, Singapore, and Hong Kong demonstrate how TOD
can transform cities.