LEARNING
THEORY AND
BEHAVIOUR
MODIFICATION
Stephen Walker
ROUTLEDGE LIBRARY
EDITIONS:
PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATl ON
1
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
1 Introduction to learning theory
2 Common factors in learning theories
3 Pavlovian conditioning: reflexes, expectancies and involuntary
emotional associations
4 Goals, rewards and reinforcements
5 Punishment, avoidance, conflict and anxiety
6 Pavlov's applications of his conditioned reflex theory
7 Watson's applications of behaviourism to advertising and to
childLen
8 Applications of stimulus-response theories from Thorndike to
Wolpe
9 H.J. Eysenck and behaviour therapy at the Maudsley Hospital
10 B.F. Skinner on language and life
11 Plain behaviour modification: rewards and withdrawal of rewards
12 Behaviour therapy and cognitive behaviour modification
Suggestions for further reading
References and name index
Subject index
Seventh
Edition
Behavior ModificaHon
in Applied SetHngs
Alan E. l(azdin
Yale University
WAVELAND
-
PRESS, INC.
Contents
Preface ix
About the Author xv
I Introduction 1
Behavior Modification and Its Key Characteristics 2
Two Case Illustrations 9
Models of Learning as
Underpinnings of Behavior Modification 14
Development of Behaviorism 22
Extensions to Clinical Work and Applied Settings 23
Contemporary Behavior Modification 30
Applied Behavior Analysis 32
Summary and Conclusions 34
l Principles of Operant Conditioning 39
Contingencies: The ABCs of Behavior 40
Antecedents of Behavior 42
Behaviors 53
Consequences of Behavior 61
Additional Principles and Concepts 71
Summary and Conclusions 77
J How to Identify, Define, and Assess Behavior 81
Identifying the Goals of the Program 82
Defining the Target Behavior 88
Assessment 95
Strategies of Assessment 96
Selection of an Assessment Strategy 112
Summary and Conclusions 115
1g I
ii How to Ensure the Quality of Assessment 119
Conditions of Assessment 120
Interobserver Assessment 126
Measurement Requirements and Options 135
Summary and Conclusions 144
i How to Evaluate Interventions in Applied Settings 147
Key Components of Evaluation 148
Basic Characteristics of Single-Case Designs 151
Single-Case Experimental Designs 156
Group Designs 179
Evaluating the Data 184
Graphic Display of Data for V1Sual Inspection 191
Summary and Conclusions 200
I Functional Behavioral Assessment:
An Evidence-Based Approach
for Identifying Effective Interventions 205
Characteristics and Elements
of Functional Behavioral Assessment 206
Functional Analysis: Further Applications 224
Functional Behavioral Assessment in Educational Settings 228
Evaluation and Special Considerations 230
Summary and Conclusions 236
l Positive and Negative Reinforcement 241
Positive Reinforcement 242
Factors that Influence the
Effectiveness of Positive Reinforcement 260
Reinforcement Techniques
to Reduce Undesirable Responses 272
Negative Reinforcement 284
Summary and Condusions 289
I Punishment 293
Presentation of Aversive Events 295
Withdrawal of Positive Consequences 302
Punishing Consequences Based on Effort 312
Selecting Procedures to Suppress Behaviors 318
Characteristics of the Punishment Process 320
Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Punishment 322
Side Effects of Punishment 330
Punishment in Everyday Life 336
When and How to Use Punishment 343
Summary and Conclusions 346
s 2111H2t1aH 551
Extinction of Positively Reinforced Behavior 352
Applications of Extinction 353
Characteristics of the Extinction Process 359
Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Extinction 363
Extinction of Negatively Reinforced Behavior 367
Anxiety Treatment and Outpatient Therapy 370
Summary and Conclusions 375
11 Special Technique Variations 379
to Enhance Performance
Rechecking the Contingencies and Their Implementation 381
Bolstering the Use of Antecedents,
Behaviors, and Consequences 383
Contingency Contracts 400
Group-Based Programs 406
Peer-Administered Contingencies 417
Summary and Conclusions 421
ll Generalization: Changes over Time and across
Situations, Settings, and Response Domains 425
Background and Key Concepts 426
Response Maintenance 430
Transfer of Behavior across Situations and Settings 434
Response Generalization 435
Programming Response Maintenance and Transfer 436
Programming Response Generalization 457
Summary and Conclusions 459
1! Self-Control and Self-Administered Interventions 463
Background 464
Self-Administered Interventions
in Educational Applications 468
Self-Administered Interventions
in Physical and Mental Health Applications 478
Strengths and Limitations 490
Summary and Conclusions 492
13 Clinical Applications of Behavioral 495
and Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions
Overview of the Challenges of Psychological Treatment 4%
Behavioral Techniques: Emergence and Evolution 498
Illustrations of Behavioral and
Cognitive-Behavioral Evidence-Based Treatments 505
Challenges in Delivering Evidence-Based Treatments 528
§vwwea ess SersJveiere 532
viii Contents
flt Social, Ethical, and Legal Context s 537
of Interve ntion Researc h
The Social Context of Interventi ons 538
Ethical Guideline s and Protection of Client Rights 548
Ethical Guideline s in Applied Behavior Analysis 562
Summary and Conclusio ns 568
16 Summin g Up: Applied Behavio r
Analysi s Interve ntions in Perspec tive 573
Salient Character istics of Applied Behavior Analysis 574
Myths and Red Herrings 578
Special Challenge s:
Extending Intervent ions to Have Broad Impact 584
Closing Commen ts 593
Append ix: Behavio r-Chang e Project 597
Beginning the Project: The First Steps 597
Write-Up of the Project 601
Occasiona lly Asked Question s 604
Glossary 609
Referenc es 633
Name Index 663
Subject Index 670
APPLIED BEHAVIOR
ANALYSIS
Principles and Procedures
for Modifying Behavior
Edward P. Sarafino
The College of New Jersey
~
WILEY
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
CUN I EN IS
.eA8.IJ Introducing Applied Behavior Ana lysis 1
~hapter 1 Whal ls Appl ied Behavior Ana lysis?
What Does Beha11/or Mean? 2
External an_d lnte1nal Behaviors 2
What IS Not BehaviQ[.? _ 3
How Behavior Develops 4
How We _!4.cqulre and Chan_ge Be~avlor 5
Respondent Conditioning 5
Operant Conditioning 6
Rela ting Respondent and Operant Conditionini..__Z
Model ing 9
Are Cognitive Processes Involved? 11
DeHnlng Applied Behavior Analysis 11
Rela ted Terms and Fields 12
Characte rist ics of Applied Behavior Analysis 13
How Behavior Analysis Developed 14
Behavio rism· The Origin of Behavior An~sis 14
Emergence and Growth of Applied Behavior Analysis L6
Study and Review 17
Chapter 2 Identi fying and Assessing Target Behaviors 19
Goals and Target Behaviors 20
Identifyi ng and Defining Behavioral Goals 21
Defining Operant Target Behaviors 22
Defining Respondent Target Behaviors 24
Prioritizing: Which Behavior to Address First 24
How to Assess Target Behaviors 25
Types of Data 26
Strat~gies for!,ssessinj Behavior _29
Timing and Accuracy of Behavioral Assessments 30
Tips on Identifying and Assessing Behavior 34
Study and Review 34
Chapter 3 Usi.!!.S_ Data and Research M ethods in Behavior Anal ysis 37
Using Data to Measure Changes 38
How We Use Data 38
Orianizing Data 39
Grae_!,ing Data 40
Using Graphs and Basic Research Methods 42
Graphic Analysis 42
Basic Research Desi_SDs 46
xv
Advanced Research Designs In Behavior Analysis 49
Mu.!!_!ple-Baseline Designs 49
Changing-Criterion and Alternating-Trea tment Designs 55
Evaluating the Resulting Chan~s In Behavior 57
Dimensions of Evaluation 57
Prer2aring a Report 59
Tips ~n Using Graphs and Research Met~~ds _ _19
Study and Review 60
Chapter 4 Some Areas of Effective Applicat ion 63
Parenting i!nd Parent-Child Relatlonshlps 64
Train ing in General Parenling Skills 64
Correcting a Child's Existing Difficulties 64
Ed uca ti o n___fil
Enhancing Instru ctiona l Methods 67
Improving Classroom Conduct 68
Instruction for People With Developmental Disabilities 68
Training People With Mental Retardation 69
Trainill&._Children With Autiilll 69
Health and Sports 72
Health Psychology 72
Sport Psychology 73
Employment and Community Settings 74
Self-Managemen~ Changing One's Own Behavior 75
Benefits of Sel f-Management 75
Self-Mana@ement for Children With Developmental Disabili ti es 75
Study and Review 76
f.ABIJJ Basic Operant Princi1>les 78
Chapter 5 Reinforcement : Positive and Negative 78
Defining Reinforcement 79
Natural and Programmed Reinforcement 79
Positive and Negative Reinforcement 80
Unconditioned and Condi ti oned Reinforcemen t 81
Types of Positive Reinforcers 8 1
Tangible and Consumable Reinforcers 81
Activity Reinforcers 83
Social Rein forcers 84
Feedback 86
To.kens -86.
F ~ That lnfluence_the Effectlv_eness of Reinforcement 87
Reward Va lue and Timing 87
Motivation~
Negative Reinforcement In Escape and Avoidance 89
Escape and Avoidance 89
Problems Usi!lg_ Escape and Avoidance Conditioning 90
Stu~ and Re~~91
Chapter 6 Extinction 93
What Is Operant Extinction? 94
Extinction for Positive Reinforcement 94
Extinction for Negative Reinforcement 95
The Pro_c~~and Characteristics of Extinction 95
Extinction Burst and Aggression 96
Gradual Decline and Reappearance of the Behavior 98
What Factors Affect Extinction Effectiveness? 99
Knowing and Controlling All Relevan t Reinforcers 99
Past Pattern of Reinforcement 100
Combining Extinction With Rein forcing Other Actions 100
Instruction in the New Contingencies I 02
Study and Review 102
Chapter 7 Punishment 104
Deflning Punishment 105
Natural and Programmed Punishment I 06
Posit ive and Negative Punishment I 07
Unconditioned anclConditioned Pun ishment 101
Types of Punishing Events I 07
Physically Aversive Stimuli I07
~primands 108
Aversive Activities I 09
Time-Out 110
Response Cost I J2
Advantages and Disadvanta__ges In Using Punishment 114
Advantages of Puni shment 114
Di sadvantages of Pun ishment 115
Study and Review I I 7
Chapter 8 Antecedents: Stimulus Control 119
Setting the Occasion for Behavior 120
Types of Antecedents 120
Antecedent Functions 122
Learning Antecedents 123
Stimu lus Discrim ination 124
Stimu lus Generalization and Equivalence 125
Concept Formatio~8
Stimulus Control 128
What Js Stimulus Control? J28
Promoting Stimulus Control 129
Study and Review 130
Chapter 9 Motivation 132
Deflning Motivation 133
Traditional Views 133
A Behavior Ana lytic View 134
Motivating Operations 135
Establishing and Abolishing Operations for Rei nforcement 136
~sJ~ligi ing filld Abolishin_R O~_!!ons for Punish~nt 137
Unconditioned and Conditioned Motivating Operations 137
Applying M~tivati~~ Operations I 38
Deprivation and Satiation 138
Altering the Consequence Itself 139
Chemical Methods 140
Stud y and Review 140
PART Ill Methods to Establish New Operant Behaviors 143
Chapter 10 Shaping 143
What Is Shaping? 14~
Successive Approximations 145
Qualitative 'Topograph ic" Shaping L46
Quantitative Shaping 146
Shaping in Real Life ill
~haping Everyday Behaviors 148
Shaping Problem Behaviors 149
Aspects of Shaping Methods 149
Shaping "Steps" 149
Shortcuts to Shaping 151
Computer-Aided Shaping 15 I
Tips on Using Shaping 15 1
Study and Review 152
Chapter I I Shortcut Stimulus Conlrol M ethods 154
Prompting 155
Response Prompts 155
Stimulus Prompts 158
Transferrlnf Stlmui;;-Control 160
Response Prompt Fading 16 1
Stimu lus Prompt Fading 162
Sizes or Fading Steps 162
Increasing Assistance and Delay Approaches 163
Tips on Using Prompting and Fading 163
Study and Review 164
Chapter 12 Chaining Behaviors 166
Forming and Analyzing Behavioral Cha ins 167
What Is a Behavioral Chain? 167
Doing a Task Analysis 168
How to Teach Behavioral Chains 162
Forward Chaining 170
Backward Chaini!lfL 170
Total-Task Presen tation 17L
Is One Training Method Best? 173
T ips on Chaini ng Behaviors 173
Study and Review 175
Cautions and Ethics in Usin g Posi tive P(lnishment 279
How to Use Positive Punishment ~ffectlvely 282
Select ing the Best Punishers 282
Administering Pun ishers 282
Tips on Using Positive Punishment 284
Study and Review 285
Chapter 20 Maximizing and l\1aintaining Operant Behavior Changes 28 7
Co_mbinlng Methods In Designing a Pr~gram 288
ldenlifying Possible Methods and Deciding Which To Use 288
Examples of Multidimension al Programs 290
Checking an~ Adjusting the Program Design 29 1
Assessing a Program's Progress 29 1
Improving a Program 292
Will the Improved Behavior Last? 295
Regression of Behavior. and Why It Happens 295
Examples of Relapses 296
Ways to Maintain Behavior Changes 297
Promoting General izat ion of the Behavior 297
Fading Prompts and Thinning Reinforcement 300
Assuring Antecedents and Natural Reinforcement for the Behavior 300
Booster Programs 302
Tips on Maximizing and Maintaining Behavior Changes 302
Study and Review 304
eARLY Respondent Behaviors and Ways lo Change Them 306
Cllapter 21 Respondent Conditioning 306
Respondent Conditioning In Everyday Life 307
Condi11oned Emolional Responses 307
Physiological Reactions 309
Substance Use and Abuse 309
Cancer Trea tment Reactions 310
Learning Posi tive Reactions 31 1
Factors and Phenomena in Respondent Conditioning 312
CS-US Timing and Intensity 312
Relevance of the cs to the US 31 2
Overshadowing . Blocki ng. and Latent Inhibition 312
Second-Order Conditioning 3 14
Discrimination. Generalization. and Exti nction 315
Preparing to Change a Respondent Behavior 315
Assessing Respondent Behaviors 315
Functional Assess ment of Respondent Behaviors 316
Study and Review 317
Chapt,•r 22 ( h d ~ Respondent Behavior~ 20
Extinction and Counterconditlonlng 321
Respo ndent Extinction 321
Counterconditio ning 322
A.JUI contents
Relaxation Technlque~ 3
Progressive Muscle Relaxation 323
Other Relaxation Procedures 326
Systematic DesensltJzatlon 327
Developing a Stimulus Hierarchy 328
The Systematic Desensitization Procedure 329
How Ertective Is Systematic Desensitization? 330
Other Methods for Treating Fear 332
In Vivo Exposure Therapies 332
Modeling and Virtual Reality Exposure 334
T ips on Changing Respondent Behaviors 335
Stud}'_!!ld Review 337
PART VI Specialized Topics in Behavior Analysis 339
Chapter 23 Biofeedba ck 339
What Is Biofeedback? 340
Instrumen tation and Measurement 340
The Importance of Train ing and Developmental Level 341
Certification in Biofeedback Treatment 34 1
Biofeedba ck Applications 341
Treating Hypertension 342
Treating Seizure Disorders· Epilepsy 343
Treating Chronic Headache 343
Treating Anxiety 344
Treating Asthma 344
Treating Neu ro muscu lar Disorders 345
Study and Review 346
Chapter 24 Behaviora l Co ntracts and Self-Ma nagement 348
Using Behavioral Contracts 34.9
Components of Behavioral Contracts 349
Negotiating the Terms of a Behaviora l Contract 349
Settings for Applying Behavioral Contracts 351
Benefits of Using Behaviora l Contracts 351
Using Self-Man~ ement Methods 352
Goals in Self-\1anagement 352
Self-Monitoring and Behavioral Contracts 353
Managing Anteceden ts in Self-Manag_ement 353
Managing Consequences in Self-Management ~56
Respondent Methods in Self-Management 357
Study and Review 357
Chapter 25 Token Economics 360
The Token Economy Approach 361
Usual Settings for Token Economies 361
What's Needed to Start a Token Economy 362
Setting Up and Implementing a Token Economy 362
An Example Token Economy: Achievement Place 365
Contents
...
XXIII
The Purpose and Structure of Achievement Place 365
A Day in One's Lire at Achievement Place 367
How Effective Is the Achievement Place Approach? 367
Other Settings for Token Economies 368
Token Economies in Classrooms 368
Token Economies in Wo rksites 369
Token Economies in Institution al Settings 369
Benefits and Problems of Token Economies 370
Study and Review 371
Chapter 26 Rule- Governed and Verbal Behavior 374
Rule-Governed Behavior 375
How Rules Govern Behavior 375
When Are Rules Especially Useful? 375
Verbal Behavior 376
Types or Verbal Behavior 377
Training Mands and Tacts 379
Study and Review 38 1
PART VII current Concerns and Future Issues 383
Chapter 27 Dilemmas and Ethics 383
Dilemmas In Efforts to Change Behavior 384
Are the Behavior Change Coals Acceptable? 384
Are the Behavior Change Methods Acceptable ? 38 7
Ethical and Legal Issues in Therapy and Research 388
General Princip les ror Psychologists 389
Competence and Training of Professiona ls in Applied Behavior Ana lysis 390
Ethical Safeguards in Treatment Settings 390
Ethical Sa~uards in Research _121..
Study and Review 393
Chapter 28 Future Challenges for the Field and You 395
Challenges for Behavior Analysis 395
Improving the Field or Applied Behavior Analysis 396
Integrating Therapy Approaches 397
Enhancing the Image of Applied Behavior Ana lys is 397
Careers and Training In Behavior Anal ysls 398
Careers tn Applied Behavior Analysis 198
Training in Applied Behavior Analysi ~9
Study and Review 400
Glossary 403
References 41 I
Author Index 451
Su~ect Index 46 I
