unit -I

BASIC
CONCEPTS
CHARACTERISTI
- Behavior is what people do and
CS OF say.
If you identify what the person says or does when angry,
BEHAVIOR then you have identified behavior. For example, “Jennifer
screamed at her mother, ran upstairs, and slammed the
door to her room.” This is a description of be havior that
might be labeled as anger.
Behaviors have one or more
dimensions.
Frequency, duration, and intensity are key aspects of behavior
analysis:

• Frequency: how often a behavior occurs

• Duration: the length of time a behavior lasts
Intensity: the level of force or energy involved in a behavior
Behaviors can be observed,
described, and recorded.
Because behavior is an action, it can be seen or detected
through the senses. This allows the behavior to be
described and recorded by others or the person
performing it.
CHARACTERISTI Behaviors have an impact on the
CS OF environment.
Behavior impacts the physical, social, and personal
BEHAVIOR environment:
• Turning a light switch affects the physical environment.
• Raising a hand in class influences the social
environment.
Behavior
Reciting is number
a phone lawful. aids memory (personal impact).
Behavior systematically depends on environmental events.
Behavioral principles explain the functional relationships
between behavior and these events. By understanding these
relationships, one can alter environmental events to change
behavior.

Behaviors may be overt and covert

• Overt behaviors are observable actions that can be
seen and recorded by others.
• Covert behaviors (or private events), such as thinking,
are not observable by others and can only be observed
by the person engaging in them. While behavior
modification mainly focuses on overt behaviors, it also
considers covert behaviors in specific contexts.
BEHAVIOR
MODIFICATION
1.Analyzing: Understanding why a person
behaves a certain way by identifying the
relationship between environmental events and
the behavior.
2.Modifying: Developing and implementing
strategies to change behavior by altering
environmental factors.
 Characteristic of Behavior modification
PRECISE
PROCEDURES EMPHASIS ON TREATMENT
DESCRIPTION
FOCUS ON BASED ON CURRENT IMPLEMENTED
OF BEHAVIOR
BEHAVIOR BEHAVIORAL ENVIRONMENT BY PEOPLE IN
MODIFICATION
PRINCIPLES AL EVENTS EVERYDAY LIFE
PROCEDURES

• behavior
modification is • Behavior • Behavior • behavior
not used to modification modification modification
• For behavior
change autism (a uses principles focuses on the procedures
modification
label); rather, derived from current often are
behavior environment that to be
research, imple?mented
modification is influences effective, the
particularly by people such
used to change behavior, rather procedures
problem
from the field than past events. as teachers,
of applied must be parents, job
behaviors • Example: If a
exhibited by behavior child with autism
clearly supervisors, or
children with analysis (ABA). engages in defined and others to help
autism These problem replicable. people change
• A behavioral behaviors, This ensures their behavior.
principles help
excess is an behavior People who
in consistency
undesirable modification
understanding and implement
target behavior would look at
effectiveness behavior
the person wants and current triggers
modification
to decrease influencing and each time the
procedures
 Characteristic of Behavior modification
REJECTION OF
DE-EMPHASIS ON PAST
MEASUREMENT OF HYPOTHETICAL
EVENTS AS CAUSES OF
BEHAVIOR CHANGE UNDERLYING CAUSES OF
BEHAVIOR
BEHAVIOR

• Behavior modification
relies on measuring
behavior before and after
Behavior modification avoids
the intervention to track
untestable and non-measurable
changes and effectiveness. While past experiences can explanations for behavior.
Continuous assessment provide context, behavior Instead, it focuses on observable
helps in maintaining and modification emphasizes and measurable factors.
adjusting the behavior changing current • Example: Rather than
change over time. environmental factors that attributing behavior to an
• Example: A supervisor influence behavior. This focus unresolved Oedipus complex,
might track workers’ ensures that interventions behavior modification would
look at current environmental
productivity before and are relevant and actionable.
triggers and reinforcements.
after implementing a
behavior modification
strategy to see if there is
an improvement.
reinforcement
• Reinforcement refers to a
process where behavior is
strengthened or increased by
the presentation or removal
of a stimulus.
• Behavior-favarable outcome-
repeated in future
1.occurence of particular
2.followed by an immediate
consequences
3.results- strengthening
behavior
A behavior that is strengthened through the
process of reinforcement is called an
operant behavior. An operant behavior acts
on the environment to produce a
consequence
and, in turn, is controlled by, or occurs again
in the future as a result of, its immediate
consequence. The consequence that
strengthens an operant behavior is called
a reinforcer.
positive reinforcement

In positive reinforcement, the stimulus that

is presented or that appears after the
behavior is called a positive reinforcert
 Negative reinforcement

In negative reinforcement, the stimulus that is

removed or avoided after the behavior is called an aversive stimulus
 1.what is behavior?
2.what happened immediately after
the behavior? (stimulus +/-)
3.what happened behavior in future?
(strength)
 social vs automatic reinforcement

When a behavior
produces a reinforcing consequence through the actions of
another person, the process
is social reinforcement.

When the behavior produces a reinforcing consequence through

direct
contact with the physical environment, the process is automatic
reinforcement.
 premack principle

positive reinforcement involves the opportunity to

engage in a highprobability
behavior (a preferred behavior) as a consequence for
a low-probability behavior
(a less-preferred behavior), to increase the low-
probability behavior. This is called the Premack
principle
Escape and avoidance behavior
 Escape and avoidance behavior

• Escape Behavior: The unpleasant stimulus is already present, and the behavior stops it.
• Avoidance Behavior: The unpleasant stimulus is anticipated, and the behavior prevents it from
occurring.
unconditioned and conditioned
 unconditioned and conditioned
• A baby cries (behavior) and receives milk (unconditioned reinforcer).
The crying is reinforced because the baby learns that crying will
result in receiving milk, which satisfies hunger.
• A student studies hard (behavior) and receives high grades
(conditioned reinforcer). The grades are reinforcing because they
have been associated with praise, scholarships, and future job
opportunities, all of which are valued.
• Parenting:
• Unconditioned Reinforcers: Offering food or comfort to reinforce
positive behavior.
• Conditioned Reinforcers: Using praise or a reward system to
encourage desired behavior.
• Education:
• Unconditioned Reinforcers: Breaks and snacks during long study
sessions.
• Conditioned Reinforcers: Grades, stickers, or extra playtime as
rewards for good performance.
factor influencing reinforcement
immediacy contingency
The time between the If a response is consistently
occurrence of a behavior and followed by an immediate
the reinforcing consequence is consequence, that
important. consequence
For a consequence to be most is more likely to reinforce the
effective as a reinforcer response

Establishing operations Individual differences & Magnitude

Deprivation and other Reinforcers vary from person to

events make a stimulus person
more effective as a Generally, a more intense
reinforcer at a particular stimulus is a more effective
time reinforcer
concurrent schedule reinforcemrnt

• Behaviors or response options are known as concurrent

operants. The probability a person will engage in a
particular behavior depends on the reinforcement
schedule, magnitude, immediacy, and effort for each
option
• Research into concurrent schedules of reinforcement
has found that people are more likely to perform a
behavior if it results in more frequent, greater
magnitude, more immediate, or less effortful
reinforcement. This information can be used to
understand how people choose between two behaviors
PUNISHMENTS
• 1. A particular
behavior occurs.
• 2. A consequence
immediately follows
the behavior.
• 3. As a result, the
behavior is less
likely to occur again
in the future. (The
behavior is
weakened.)
TYPES OF PUNISHMENT
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
• Positive punishment • Negative punishment
involves presenting an involves removing a
aversive stimulus after a pleasant stimulus following
behavior, thereby reducing a behavior, which decreases
the likelihood of the the likelihood of the
behavior occurring again. behavior happening again.
 Classroom Discipline
• Behavior: A student talks out of
turn in class.
• Consequence: The teacher

positive reprimands the student in front

of the class.
• Result: The student is less likely

punishme to talk out of turn.

Workplace Infraction
• Behavior: An employee

nt repeatedly comes late to work.

• Consequence: The manager
gives a formal warning.
• Result: The employee starts
coming to work on time.
 School Detention
• Behavior: A student disrupts the
class.
• Consequence: The student loses

Negative
recess time (a pleasant activity).
• Result: The student is less likely to
disrupt the class.
Reduction of Responsibilities

punishme • Behavior: An employee consistently

fails to meet deadlines.
• Consequence: The manager removes

nt the employee from a prestigious

project or reduces their
responsibilities.
• Result: The employee is more likely to
meet future deadlines to avoid losing
important responsibilities.
factor influencing punishment
contingency
immediacy
Contingency refers to how consistently a
Immediacy in punishment refers to how soon
punishing consequence follows a behavior. For
after a behavior the punishing consequence is
punishment to be most effective, the punisher
applied. For punishment to be most effective,
should occur every time the behavior occurs and
the consequence must follow the behavior
not at other times. If the punisher is applied
immediately. Delays between the behavior and
inconsistently, the behavior may still be
the punishment reduce the effectiveness of the
reinforced intermittently, reducing the
punishment.
effectiveness of the punishment.

Establishing operations Individual differences & Magnitude

Establishing operations (EOs) are events
The effectiveness of a punishing
or conditions that influence the
consequence varies depending on
effectiveness of a consequence
individual differences and the
(punisher or reinforcer). They alter the
value of a consequence, making it more intensity of the punisher.
or less effective.
 RESPONDENT
CONDITIONING
DEFINITION
Respondent conditioning, also
known as classical conditioning, is
a learning process in which a
previously neutral stimulus
becomes associated with an
unconditioned stimulus to elicit a
conditioned response. This concept
was first described by Ivan Pavlov
in his experiments with dogs.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus
that naturally and automatically triggers a
response without prior learning (e.g., food).
• Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural,
automatic response to the unconditioned
stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to
food).
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously
neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned
stimulus, eventually triggers a conditioned
response (e.g., a bell).
• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned
response to the previously neutral stimulus
(e.g., salivation in response to the bell).
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): The act of
being evaluated or judged by an audience.
• Unconditioned Response (UR): Feeling of
anxiety or nervousness.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The classroom
environment where public speaking takes
place.
• Conditioned Response (CR): Feeling of
anxiety when entering the classroom, even
before speaking.
• Through the process of respondent
conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus
(the classroom) becomes associated with
an unconditioned stimulus (being
evaluated) and begins to elicit a
conditioned response (anxiety). This
example illustrates how environmental
cues can trigger emotional responses
through classical conditioning.
 TIMING OF THE NEUTRAL STIMULUS AND
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS

The timing of the neutral stimulus

(NS) and the unconditioned
stimulus (US) is crucial in
respondent conditioning (classical
conditioning). The effectiveness of
the conditioning depends
significantly on how the NS and US
are paired in time. Here are the key
types of temporal arrangements
and their effects on conditioning
 FOUR TYPES OF RESPONDENT CONDITIONING

Delayed Conditioning:
• Definition: The NS is presented before the
US and remains present until the US is
presented.
• Example: A bell (NS) rings, and while it is
still ringing, food (US) is presented to a
dog.
• Effectiveness: This is usually the most
effective form of conditioning because the
NS predicts the imminent arrival of the US.
Trace Conditioning:
• Definition: The NS is presented and then
terminated before the US is presented.
• Example: A bell (NS) rings and stops, and
shortly afterward, food (US) is presented to
a dog.
• Effectiveness: This can be effective if the
time interval between the NS and the US is
short. The longer the interval, the less
effective the conditioning.
 FOUR TYPES OF RESPONDENT CONDITIONING

Simultaneous Conditioning:
• Definition: The NS and the US are
presented at the same time.
• Example: A bell (NS) rings at the same time
that food (US) is presented to a dog.
• Effectiveness: This is generally less
effective because the NS does not predict
the US; they occur together, so the NS is
not a good predictor of the US.
Backward Conditioning:
• Definition: The US is presented before the
NS.
• Example: Food (US) is presented to a dog,
and while the dog is eating, a bell (NS)
rings.
• Effectiveness: This is usually the least
effective form of conditioning because the
NS does not predict the US; instead, the US
predicts the NS, which is not useful for
establishing a conditioned response.
 FOUR TYPES OF RESPONDENT CONDITIONING
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Deep breathing exercises that naturally elicit a relaxation response (Unconditioned Response, UR)
from students.
• Neutral Stimulus (NS): The classroom podium and audience, which initially might cause anxiety.
Delayed Conditioning:
• Procedure: Before students practice their
speeches, they engage in deep breathing Simultaneous Conditioning:
exercises (US) while standing at the podium • Procedure: Students perform deep breathing
(NS). exercises (US) exactly as they begin speaking
• Effect: Students begin to associate standing at at the podium (NS).
the podium with the feeling of relaxation • Effect: This can help create an association, but
induced by the breathing exercises. Over time, it might be less strong since the calming
the sight of the podium and the presence of an stimulus is not used as a preparatory signal.
audience alone can elicit a relaxation response Backward Conditioning:
(Conditioned Response, CR), reducing public • Procedure: Students start speaking at the
speaking anxiety. podium (NS) and then perform deep breathing
Trace Conditioning: exercises (US) after a few minutes.
• Procedure: Students perform deep breathing • Effect: This is typically the least effective
exercises (US) for a few minutes before because the relaxation does not precede the
stepping up to the podium (NS). speaking, and the calming effect might not be
• Effect: If the gap between the breathing associated with the initial anxiety-inducing
exercises and stepping up to the podium is stimuli.
short, students can still form a positive
association between the exercises and public
speaking, though the conditioning might be
 HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING
1.First-Order Conditioning:
⚬ Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Difficult
exam questions.
⚬ Unconditioned Response (UR): Anxiety
or stress.
Higher-order conditioning, also known as ⚬ Neutral Stimulus (NS): The exam room.
second-order conditioning, occurs when a ⚬ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The exam
neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned room, after repeated associations with
stimulus (CS) through its association with an difficult exams.
already established conditioned stimulus, ⚬ Conditioned Response (CR): Anxiety or
rather than with an unconditioned stimulus stress when entering the exam room.
(US). 2.Second-Order Conditioning:
⚬ New Neutral Stimulus (NS2): The smell
of the library.
⚬ Second-Order Conditioned Stimulus
(CS2): The smell of the library, after
being associated with the exam room
(CS).
⚬ Conditioned Response (CR2): Anxiety or
stress when smelling the library, even
CONDITIONED
EMOTIONAL
RESPONSES
 Introduction to
Conditioned Emotional
Responses (CER)
Definition: Emotional reactions
developed through classical
conditioning.
Key Researchers: Watson and
Rayner.
Experiment: "Little Albert" study.
 Little Albert Experiment
• Setup: Albert was not initially
afraid of the white rat (NS).
• Procedure: Paired the white rat
with a loud noise (US).
• Result: The rat became a CS that
elicited fear (CR).
• Significance: Demonstrated the
development of a CER.
Negative CERs & positive
Negative CER Example:

CERs
• Scenario: Child develops a fear of dogs after being bitten.
• US: Dog bite.
• UR: Pain and fear.
• NS: Presence of a dog.
• CS: Dog presence after conditioning.
• CR: Fear of dogs.
Positive CER Example:
• Scenario: Young man feels happy when smelling his girlfriend’s
perfume.
• US: Positive interactions with the girlfriend.
• UR: Happiness and affection.
• NS: Smell of the girlfriend’s perfume.
• CS: Perfume smell after conditioning.
• CR: Happiness when smelling the perfume.
 Measuring and
Angry
Understanding
Frustrated
CERs
Measuring Emotional Responses:
• Observable Responses: Crying,
smiling, facial expressions,
posture.
Worried
• Physiological Measures: EMG,
GSR, Skin Temperature.
Tired or Sad Challenges:
• Subjective Emotions:
Happiness, love, etc., not
Calm directly observable.
• Complexity: Emotional
responses are influenced by
Ready to multiple factors, including
Learn! context and interpretation.
 Respondent Extinction
of Conditioned
Responses

• Definition: Respondent extinction occurs when

a conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly
Electromagnetic
presented without the unconditioned stimulus
(US), leading to a decrease and eventual

Waves and its

cessation of the conditioned response (CR).

• Example: Pavlov’s dogs stopped salivating (CR)

Behavior
to the metronome (CS) when the metronome
was no longer paired with meat powder (US).
 The Case of Little
Albert
1.Background: Little Albert developed a fear
response (CR) to a white rat (CS) after it was
paired with a loud noise (US).
2.Respondent Extinction: If the white rat was
presented without the loud noise multiple times,
Albert's fear response would eventually
decrease and stop.

Illustration
• Initial Conditioning: Rat (CS) +
Loud Noise (US) = Fear (CR)
• Extinction Process: Rat (CS)
presented alone repeatedly →
Decrease in Fear (CR)
 Spontaneous
Recovery
1.Definition:Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, the
conditioned response (CR) can reappear when the
conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented again after
some time.
2.Example:Pavlov’s Dogs: After extinction of salivation to
the metronome (CS), the dog salivated again (CR)
when the metronome was presented later, though the
response was weaker.

Illustration
• Initial Extinction: Metronome (CS) without
meat powder (US) → Salivation (CR) stops
• Spontaneous Recovery: Metronome (CS)
presented later → Salivation (CR) reappears,
weaker
Discrimination and Generalization of Respondent
Behavior
• Discrimination: The CR is elicited
by a specific CS or a narrow range
of CSs.
• Generalization: The CR is elicited
by a broader range of CSs or
similar stimuli.

• Discrimination: Fear of a specific

breed of dog.
• Generalization: Fear of all types of
dogs.
Discrimination in Respondent
Behavior
• Process: A particular stimulus (S1)
is paired with the US, while similar
stimuli (S2, S3, S4, etc.) are not
paired with the US.
• Example: Madeline was attacked
by a German shepherd, leading to
fear (CR) when she sees the
German shepherd (CS).

• Attack (US) + German shepherd

(S1) → Fear (CR)
• Other dogs (S2, S3, S4) not paired
with attack (US) → No fear (CR)
Generalization in Respondent
Behavior
• Process: The CR occurs in the
presence of stimuli similar to
the CS that was initially paired
with the US.
• Example: Madeline was
attacked by a German shepherd
and has no encounters with
friendly dogs.

• Attack (US) + German shepherd

(S1) → Fear (CR)
• Other similar dogs (S2, S3, S4) not
presented without attack (US) →
Fear (CR)
 Factors Influencing Respondent
Conditioning
Nature of the US
and CS
• Nature of the US and CS • Intensity: The effectiveness of a
• Temporal Relationship stimulus as a US or CS is influenced
between CS and US by its intensity. A more intense
• Contingency between CS stimulus generally leads to stronger
and US conditioning.
• Number of Pairings • Example: A strong puff of air (US) to
• Previous Exposure to the
the eye is more effective at eliciting
CS
an eyeblink (UR) than a weak puff.
Similarly, a loud sound (US) is more
effective at inducing a startle
response (UR) compared to a soft
sound.
Temporal Relationship and Contingency between CS
and US
Optimal Timing: The CS
Consistency: Conditioning
should precede the US for 2
is more likely when the CS
effective conditioning. The
1 and US are presented
interval between the CS
together consistently on
and US should be short,
every trial.
typically less than one
• Example: If a doorbell
second, except in cases
(CS) consistently rings
like taste aversion.
before someone enters
• Example: If a dog hears
the house (US), a dog
a bell (CS) just before it
will start to associate
receives food (US), it
the doorbell with the
will learn to associate
arrival of a person and
the bell with food and
exhibit excitement (CR)
start salivating (CR) at
when it hears the
the sound of the
doorbell.
bell.____________.
_________.
Number of Pairings and Previous Exposure
to the CS
Number of Previous Exposure
Pairings
• Familiarity Reduces Conditioning:
Prior exposure to the CS without
• More Pairings, Stronger
the US makes conditioning less
Conditioning: Although a
likely.
single pairing can
• Example: Grace, a 2-year-old, has
sometimes establish a NS
spent a lot of time around her
as a CS, multiple pairings
family dog, Knute, without any
generally lead to stronger
negative experiences. If Knute
conditioning.
• Example: If a buzzer (CS) accidentally knocks Grace down,
is paired with an electric she is unlikely to develop a fear
shock (US) to the arm response (CR) to Knute because of
multiple times, the her previous positive exposure.
autonomic arousal (CR) in However, if Grace’s friend Paula,
response to the buzzer who has never met Knute, gets
will be stronger, and the knocked down by him, Paula is
response will persist more likely to develop a fear