Nervous System

The nervous system is a complex network of cells, including neurons and glial
cells. It coordinates actions, transmits sensory information, and manage
responses throughout the body.
The nervous system is divided into two main parts: the Central Nervous System
(CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

Central Nervous System

The CNS composed of the brain and spinal cord, acts as the central processing
unit. It receives and processes sensory information and sends out motor commands.

Brain
Brain is the central hub of the nervous system. This organ governs all functions
including thoughts, emotions, memories, movements, sensations, breathing, heart
rate, and body temperature
Brain is the mass of nerve tissue in the anterior end of an organism. The brain
integrates sensory information and directs motor responses; in higher
vertebrates it is also the center of learning.
It is protected by the skull, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
The Brain is categorsied into 4 major parts: Cerebrum, Diencephalon, Brainstem
and Cerebellum
1. Cerebrum
This is the largest part of the brain, responsible for voluntary functions, reasoning,
memory, and sensory processing.
Lobe Function
Frontal lobe Thinking, planning, decision-
making, voluntary movement
Parietal lobe Processing sensory
information (touch,
temperature, spatial awareness)
Temporal Hearing, language
lobe comprehension, memory
Occipital Visual processing
lobe
Insula lobe Emotions, taste perception,
autonomic (involuntary)
functions

The Cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres; left and right Hemisphere, which
is connected by a structure called Corpus Callosum, which also allows
communication between them.
Hemisphere Functions
Left Hemisphere  Controls right side of the body
 Language, logic, analytical thinking
Right Hemisphere  Controls left side of the body
 Creativity, spatial ability, intuition
2. Diencephalon
This lies beneath the cerebrum and is involved in hormone regulation, sensory relay,
and homeostasis.
Region Functions
Thalamus  Receives all sensory
information (except smell)
 Directs sensory signals to
appropriate areas of the
cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus  Maintains homeostasis
 Regulates body temperature,
hunger, thirst, and circadian
rhythms
 Controls autonomic nervous
system (heart rate, digestion)
 Regulates the pituitary gland
(endocrine hormones)
Epithalamus  Contains the pineal gland
(secretes melatonin for sleep-
wake regulation)

3. Brainstem
Connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls involuntary functions such as
breathing and heart rate. It consists of 3 regions: Midbrain. Pons and Medulla
Oblongata.

MIDBRAIN
Superior colliculi Controls visual reflexes
Inferior colliculi Controls auditory reflexes
Red nucleus Coordinates motor
movements, especially limb
control
Substantia nigra Produces dopamine; involved
in movement regulation
Cerebral Canal that connects the 3rd
aqueduct and 4th ventricles; contains
CSF
Cerebral Link cerebral cortex to
peduncles brainstem/spinal cord

PONS
Basilar Part Contains motor pathways
(Ventral Pons) and pontine nuclei for motor
coordination
Pontine Nuclei Relay signals from cerebral
cortex to cerebellum
Middle Cerebellar Connect pons to cerebellum;
Peduncles motor coordination
Tegmentum Contains sensory pathways
(Dorsal Pons) and cranial nerve nuclei
Cranial Nerve Control facial sensation, eye
Nuclei (V–VIII) movement, hearing, balance,
and facial expressions

MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Pyramids Carry motor signals from
cerebral cortex to spinal cord for
voluntary movement
Olives Relay information to
cerebellum
Cranial Nerve Regulate parasympathetic
(IX–XII) control of heart, lungs, and GI
tract
Gracile & Process fine touch, vibration,
Cuneate Nuclei and proprioception from lower
(gracile) and upper (cuneate)
body
4. Cerebellum
Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordination, balance, and
fine motor control.
Component Function
Cerebellar Outer gray matter layer which
Cortex processes input
Arbor Vitae Inner white matter connecting
cortex with cerebellar nuclei
Cerebellar Gray matter embedded in white
Nuclei matter; send output from
cerebellum
Cerebellar Right and left sides; control
Hemispheres coordination of limbs

Vermis Structure connecting

hemispheres; maintains posture
and axial muscle control
Lobes Anterior lobe (limb movement)
Posterior lobe (fine motor
coordination)

The cerebellar peduncles are three paired bundles of nerve fibers that connect the
cerebellum to different parts of the brainstem. They serve as communication
pathways, carrying motor and sensory information to and from the cerebellum
Cerebellar Connects Function
Peduncle Cerebellum
To
Superior Midbrain Sends output signals
Peduncle from cerebellum to
cerebral cortex
Middle Pons Receives input from
Peduncle cerebral cortex (via
pontine nuclei)
Inferior Medulla Receives sensory
Peduncle oblongata & input from body
spinal cord (proprioception)

Limbic System
The limbic system is a group of interconnected structures in the brain responsible
for emotions, motivation, olfaction, behavior, and the formation of long-term
memory

Structure Function
Thalamus Acts as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to the
cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus Regulates homeostasis: controls hunger, thirst, body
temperature, circadian rhythms, and autonomic functions
Basal Ganglia Involved in movement regulation, habit formation, and
procedural learning
Cingulate Gyrus Processes and regulates emotions and pain; involved in
emotional response to pain and behavioral regulatio
Hippocampus Essential for forming new memories and spatial navigation;
converts short-term memory into long-term memory
Amygdala Mediates emotional learning, particularly fear, aggression, and
threat detection

Protection of brain
Meninges Bone
Duramater: Tough outer layer Skulls: The skull is made up of cranial
Arachnoidmater: Web-like middle layer bones (bones that surround and protect
Piamater: Delicate inner layer the brain) and facial bones
Spinal Cord
Spinal cord is a long, tube- like structure made of nerve tissue that extends from
the medulla oblongata, running through a canal formed by the vertebrae. It has a
crucial role in the communication between the brain and the rest of the body.
The spinal cord is protected by three layers of membranes called meninges, and
further shielded by the bony vertebral column

Internal Anatomy
The Spinal cord contains grey matter & white matter, Spinal nerves, and central
canal
Grey Matter White Matter
Present in the center of the cord Surrounds the grey matter
Made up of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, Made up of myelinated axons
glial cells and unmyelinated axons

Dorsal horn: Recieves sensory input Dorsal Colum: Carries sensory

Ventral Horn: Sends motor output to information from body to brain
muscles Ventral colum: Carries motor signals
Lateral Horn: Controls visceral organs via from brain to body
sympathetic output Lateral colum: Controls both sensory and
motor tracts

A central canal runs through the center of the gray matter, connected to the brain's
ventricular system and filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Peripheral Nervous system

Peripheral Nervous system connects the Central nervous system to the rest of the
body. It delivers sensory information to the CNS and carries motor commands
from the CNS to body.

Somatic Nervous System

SNS is responsible for the voluntary control of body via skeletal muscles. It
transmits sensory information from the body to the central nervous system.
Component of SNS: Sensory (Afferent) Nerves and Motor (Efferent) Nerves
Sensory Nerves: Nerves that carries sensory signals from the body to the CNS.
These nerves will detect senses like touch, pains, temperature, pressure, or
Proprioception (sense of body position). Receptors are present to detect external
stimuli.
Motor Nerves: Nerves that carries motor commands from the CNS to the
skeletal muscle, causing voluntary movements like contracting muscles, lifting
object, or smiling

Autonomic Nervous System

ANS controls involuntary body functions like Heart rate, blood pressure,
Breathing, digestion, Sweating, or pupil size which helps keeping the body in
balance (Homeostasis). It is further classified into two; Sympathetic Nervous
System and Parasympathetic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous System

It is also called as “Fight or Flight” which prepares the body to act quickly in
emergency. This nervous system activates during stress, danger, or activity which
will lead to Increased heart rate, dilates bronchi (increased air flow), dilates pupils,
slow digestion, stimulates sweating, or adrenaline release.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Also Known as “Rest and Digest” which helps in conservation of energy and
supports healing and recovery. The nervous system activates during rest,
relaxation, and after meals which will slow heart rate, constricts bronchi, constricts
pupils, stimulates digestion, or promotes urination and defecation
Spinal Nerves
The spinal nerves are 31 pairs of nerves connecting the spinal cord to the body,
carrying sensory information in and motor commands out. These nerves
emerge from the spinal cord and supply the skin, muscles, and organs
31 pairs of spinal nerves are classified into five groups
Region Number of Nerve Naming
Pairs
Cervical 8 pairs (C1–C8) Neck, shoulders, arms
Thoracic 12 pairs (T1–T12) Chest, abdominal
muscles
Lumbar 5 pairs (L1–L5) Lower back, legs
Sacral 5 pairs (S1–S5) Pelvis, legs, bladder
Coccygeal 1 pair (Co1) Tailbone area
The Spinal nerves leaves the vertebral column through intervertebral foramina,
and forms into branch
Branch Function
Dorsal Ramus Supplies muscles or skin of the back
Ventral Ramus Supplies limbs and front of the body
Rami Connect to autonomic nervous system
Communicans
The Ventral spinal nerve branch joins to form plexuses (nerve fibers rearrange and
form new branches)
Plexus Spinal Supplies
Nerves
Cervical C1–C4 Neck muscles, diaphragm
Plexus
Brachial C5–T1 Shoulders, arms, hands
Plexus
Lumbar Plexus L1–L4 Abdominal wall, anterior thigh
Sacral Plexus L4–S4 Posterior thigh, leg, foot

Cranial Nerves
The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that arise directly from the brain and
brainstem. They are crucial for sensory functions like vision, smell, taste, and
hearing, as well as motor control of facial muscles, eye movements, and swallowing.
No. Name Type Origin Main Function
I Olfactory Sensory Cerebrum Smell
(olfactory bulb)
II Optic Sensory Diencephalon Vision
(optic chiasm)
III Oculomotor Motor Midbrain Eye movement, pupil
constriction
IV Trochlear Motor Midbrain Eye movement
V Trigeminal Both Pons Facial sensation,
chewing muscles
VI Abducens Motor Pons Eye movement (lateral
rectus muscle)
VII Facial Both Pons Facial expressions,
taste (2/3 tongue),
salivation
VIII Vestibulocochlear Sensory Pons-Medulla Hearing and balance
junction
IX Glossopharyngeal Both Medulla Taste (1/3 tongue),
swallowing, salivation
X Vagus Both Medulla Parasympathetic
control of heart, lungs,
GI tract; swallowing,
speech
XI Accessory (Spinal) Motor Medulla (spinal Head and shoulder
cord) movement
XII Hypoglossal Motor Medulla Tongue movement
 Perspective and Behavior
of the Nervous System
As the nervous system is the master control system of the body; it regulates both
voluntary and involuntary action of the body. It processes sensory information from
the environment and body. It is the central unit that governs how we act, feel,
perceive, and think.
Perspective and behaviors of nervous system explores how the nervous system;
particularly the brain—regulates behavior, emotions, perception, decision-
making, and mental health.
Behavior refers to all observable actions and response of an individual
(voluntary or involuntary)
the CNS; especially prefrontal cortex, plays a crucial role in planning and
initiating actions, inhibiting inappropriate behavior and social interaction and
ethics. The limbic system; amygdala and hippocampus contribute to emotionally
driven behaviors such as aggression, fear, or affection. The frontal lobe will
influence the emotional regulation which allows individuals to evaluate and
control their emotional expression and reactions.
Perception is how the brain interprets sensory information to make sense of the
world. This involves Occipital lobe, Temporal lobe and Parietal lobe which will
contribute the visual, auditiry and tactile processing. Our behavior often depends
on how we perceive our environment; even slight alternation can drastically affect
behavior as in hallucinations, sensing disorders, etc.
Decision making involves evaluating options and choosing a course of action, It is
governed mainly by the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for logical
reasoning, anticipating consequences, etc.
Dysfunction in these regions can result in impulsive or risky behavior, poor
judgment, or inability to plan effectively

Brain Region Key Functions Behavioral Role Clinical Relevance

Prefrontal Decision-making Damage may lead to
Controls judgment,
Cortex Planning and impulsivity, poor
personality, and
(Front part of the organization judgment, mood
social interaction
frontal lobe) Impulse control disorders, and
Regulates emotions
Reasoning Social personality changes
and future planning
behavior
Limbic System Emotion regulation Controls emotional Dysfunction linked to
(amygdala, Memory formation expression (fear, anxiety, depression,
hippocampus, Motivation love, anger) PTSD, and emotional
hypothalamus) Stress response Links memory with instability
emotions
Basal Ganglia Motor control Regulates Disorders include
(Deep within the Habit learning movement initiation Parkinsons, Huntingtons,
cerebral Action selection and procedural Tourettes, and OCD
hemispheres) Reward processing memory
Affects motivation
and habit-based
behavior
Hypothalamus Maintains Drives survival Dysfunctions may lead
(Below the thalamus homeostasis behaviors like to eating disorders, sleep
in the diencephalon) Controls hunger, eating and sleeping disturbances, hormonal
thirst, body temp Triggers emotional imbalances
Hormonal control and hormonal
via pituitary responses
Circadian rhythm

Neuroplasticity is the ability to change and adapt in response to learning,

experience, or injury.

Neurotransmitters and their behavioral impact

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit signals across synapses between
neurons. It is the chemical messengers that transmit signals between neuron (nerve
cells) in the brain and body. Any imbalance in neurotransmitter, whether due to
genetic, stress- related or disease- induced, can result in mental and behavioral
disorder
 Neuro- Function Behavioral Imbalance Drugs That
transmitter Impact Effects Affect It
Dopamine Reward, Promotes ↑ Psychosis, Antipsychotics
motivation, motivation, schizophrenia (↓)
pleasure, learning through ↓ Parkinson’s Stimulants (↑;
attention, motor rewards, and (tremors, motor ADHD
control energy issues) treatment)
Serotonin Mood Emotional ↓ Depression, SSRIs like
regulation, stability, anxiety, OCD, fluoxetine (↑
appetite, sleep, calmness, good insomnia serotonin
memory, sexual sleep availability)
desire
GABA Inhibitory Promotes ↓ Anxiety, panic Benzodiazepines
neurotransmitte relaxation, attacks, seizures (enhance GABA
r, calms brain reduces stress, activity)
activity aids sleep
Glutamate Main excitatory Boosts alertness, ↑ Excitotoxicity Under research
neurotransmitte cognition, brain which leads to for Alzheimer’s
r; vital for plasticity neuron damage and
memory and (stroke, ALS, schizophrenia
learning Alzheimer’s)
↓ Poor learning/
cognition
Norepinephri Arousal, Maintains ↑ Anxiety, panic, Some
ne attention, energy, focus, hypertension antidepressants
alertness, fight- quick stress ↓ Fatigue, and ADHD
or-flight responses inattention, low medications
response mood
Acetylcholine Learning, Supports ↓ Alzheimer’s, Cholinesterase
memory, cognitive which leads to inhibitors (eg.
attention, function, memory loss donepezil for
muscle control, arousal, memory Alzheimer’s)
REM sleep consolidation