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Chapter 6
Indefinite and Definite Integrals
6.1. Subdivision

Definition (Regular Subdivision)

6.2. Step functions

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6.2.1. Integral of step function

Example. Evaluate the integral of f over the interval [0,5] such f is defined by
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
𝑓(𝑥) = {
1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2
5
Solution. ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 × 2 + 1 × 3 = 3.

6.3. The Riemann Integral

6.3.1. Definition (Riemann-Intégrable Function)

The set of Riemann-integrable functions on [𝑎, 𝑏] will be denoted by 𝑅([𝑎, 𝑏]).

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6.3.2. Riemann sums

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Definition of Riemann sums

Let 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → 𝑅 be a function defined on a closed internal a , b  of a reel numbers and
𝑃 = {𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 } as a partition of a , b  that is a = x 0  x 1 ... x n = b
A Riemann sums S of 𝑓 on a , b  with partition 𝑃 is defined as

Where x i = x i − x i −1 and 𝜆𝑖 ∈ [𝑥𝑖−1 , 𝑥𝑖 ]

1/ If 𝑓(𝜆𝑖 ) = sup 𝑓(𝑥), S is called the upper Rieman sum
𝑥∈[𝑥𝑖−1 ,𝑥𝑖 ]
2/ If 𝑓(𝜆𝑖 ) = inf 𝑓(𝑥), S is called the lower Rieman sum
𝑥∈[𝑥𝑖−1 ,𝑥𝑖 ]
3) If 𝜆𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖−1 , S is called Left Riemann sum
4) If 𝜆𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 , S is called Right Riemann sum
𝑥 +𝑥
5) If 𝜆𝑖 = 𝑖−12 𝑖, S is called Middle Riemann sum

Regular Subdivision Riemann Sum

𝑏−𝑎
If the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is divided into n subintervals, each of width 𝑛
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
In this case 𝑥0 = 𝑎, 𝑥1 = 𝑎 + , 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑖 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏
𝑛 𝑛
And sums of Riemann are

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6.3.3. Definition (Definite Integral)

𝑏−𝑎
If the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is divided into n subintervals, each of width 𝑛
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
In this case ∆= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥0 = 𝑎, 𝑥1 = 𝑎 + , 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑖 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏. We get
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑏 𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = lim ∑ 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑖 ) = lim ∑ 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑖 )
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎 𝑖=1 𝑖=0

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Example1. Calculate the following limit

Solution. We have
𝑏 𝑛
1 1 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = lim ∑ 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑘 )
𝑏−𝑎 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎 𝑘=1

1 𝑏−𝑎
The idea is to express this limit of the form lim ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑘 ) where 𝑓, 𝑎 and b need
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 𝑛
to be determined
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 1 1
lim ∑ 2 = lim ∑
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 +𝑘 2 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛
𝑘=1 1
𝑘 2
𝑘=1 + (𝑛 )
1 𝑘 1
lim ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓 ( ) with 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥 2
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 𝑛
Thus
1 𝑘 1 𝑏 1 1 1
lim ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑓 ( ) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 1−0 ∫0 𝑑𝑡
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑏−𝑎 𝑎 1+𝑡 2
Finally
𝑛 𝜋
lim ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑛2 +𝑘 2 = [𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡]10 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛1 − 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛0 = 4 .
𝑛→+∞

Exercise. Evaluate the following limit

Example2. Evaluate the integral ∫14 𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑑𝑥 by the definition using regular partitions and right
Riemann sums.

Solution: For the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 + 3𝑥 − 2 on the interval [1; 4], considering regular partition of [1; 4]
into n subintervals with

and choosing intermediate points 𝑥𝑘 to be the right endpoints:

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6.4. Integrability of continuous and monotonic functions

Theorem 1
A continuous function f : a , b  → R on a compact interval is Riemann integrable
Example:
The function f ( x ) = x on  0,1 is integrable
2

Theorem 2
A monotonic function f : a , b  → R is Riemann integrable
Properties of the Riemann integral
The integral has the following basic properties.
Linearity
a/ if f : a , b  → R is integrable and C  R then cf is integrable and
𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑐𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
b/ if 𝑔, f : a , b  → R are integrable functions, then f + g is integrable and
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡.

Definition. (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Theorem. If f : a , b  → R is continuous then there exists 𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] such that

Proof. since f is continuous function on a compact interval, it attains its maximum value M and
its minimum value m.
m  f (x )  M
Such that 𝑚 = inf 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑀 = sup 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥∈[𝑎,𝑏] 𝑥∈[𝑎,𝑏]
So

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m (b − a )   f ( x )  M (b − a )
b

a
1
 ( x )dx
b
m f M
b −a a

By the intermediate value the theorem, f takes value on every value between m and M.

Theorem3. if f : a , b  → R is a bounded function with finitely many discontinuities, then 𝑓 is

Riemann integrable.
Theorem4.If f , g : a, b  → R are integrable then 𝑓 × 𝑔 is intergrable.

is bounded then f / g : a , b  → R is integrable.

1
If in addition g  0 And
g

2) Monotonicity:
Theorem5: suppose that f , g : a, b  → R are integrable and f  g , then

 f  g
b b

a a

for all 𝑓 integrable on a , b  → R : f  0  

b
fdx  0
a

 fdx   f dx
b b
Theorem. If 𝑓 is Rieman integrable then f is Rieman integrable and
a a

Additivity property
Theorem. Suppose that f : a , b  → R and a c b . Then 𝑓 is integrable on a , b  if and only if
it is integrable on a , c  and c , b  . In that case

 f ( x )dx =  f ( x )dx +  f ( x )dx

b c b

a a c
We can extend the additivity property of the integral by defining the following.
Definition: if f : a , b  → R is integrable where a b , and a  c  b then,

 f = − f 
b a c
f =0
a b c
Corollary: for all a, b, c in R

 fdx +  fdx +  fdx = 0 (Charles relation)

b c a

a b c
Integrals of Even and Odd Functions
Theorem.

𝜋
Example. Since, the function is odd and the interval [-𝜋; 𝜋] is symmetric about 0, The integral ∫−𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0

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6.5. Theorem: (fundamental theorem I)

If F : a , b  → R is continuous on a , b  And differentiable in a,b  with F ' = f where
f : a, b  → R is Riemann integrable, then

 f ( x )dx = F (b ) − F (a )
b

a
Example:
f  0,1 → R defined by f ( x ) = x 3
x4
0 f ( x )dx = F (1) − F ( 0) with F ( x ) =
1

4
Theorem (fundamental theorem II)
Suppose that f : a , b  → R is integrable and F : a , b  → R is defined by

F ( x ) =  f (t )dt
x

Then F is continuous on a , b  , moreover if 𝑓 is continuous at c  a, b  then F is differentiable

at 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑓(𝑐).
Exercise. Let f : a , b  → R be continuous function, show that the function
𝑥
ℎ: 𝑥 → ∫𝑎 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 is differentiable and calculate its derivative.

𝑥 𝑥
Solution. ℎ(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑥 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡, since 𝑓 is continuous then the function
𝑥
𝑥 → ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 is differentiable and 𝑥 → 𝑒 𝑥 is differentiable so h is differentiable because its
𝑥
product of two differentiable functions and we have ℎ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥
ℎ′ (𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ′ (𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥).
6.6. Indefinite integral
6.6.1. Antiderivatives functions
Definition. If 𝐼 ⊂ 𝑅 is a nom-empty open interval and 𝑓, 𝐹: 𝐼 ⟶ 𝑅 Are functions satisfying
F ' = f on 𝐼 we call 𝐹 an antiderivative function of 𝑓 on I.
Proposition: According to the first fundamental theorem of calculus for every function F, which
is antiderivative function of f on a , b  , it holds that

 f (t )dt = F (b ) − F (a ) = F 
b b
a a
𝜋
Example: ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋) − (−𝑐𝑜𝑠0) = 1 + 1 = 2.

6.6.2. Indefinite integral

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Theorem1 (𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)

If F is an antiderivative function of f and G is an antiderivative function of g on an interval I
and   R then F + G is an antiderivative of f + g on I and  F is an antiderivative of  f
on I.

Theorem2 (set of antiderivative functions)

Let F be an antiderivative function of f on I. then the set of all an antiderivative functions of f
in I is {𝐹 + 𝑐, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅}
Notation. the fact that the function F is an antiderivative function of f is denoted by
∫ 𝑓 + 𝑐, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅.

f means the set of all an antiderivative functions of f on the given interval.

Theorem: If f is continuous on I, then f has an antiderivative function F on I.
Remark: a discontinuous function can have an antiderivative.

Antiderivative function of elementary function

x m +1
 x dx = m + 1 + c , m  −1 ∫ 𝑥𝑛 = (𝑛−1)𝑥𝑛−1 + 𝑐, 𝑛 ≠ 1.
m 𝑑𝑥 −1

𝑑𝑥
e dx = e x + C
x
∫ = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥| + 𝑐
𝑥
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐

dx dx
 cos 2
x
dx = tgx + c  sin 2
x
= − cot gx + c

∫ 𝑐ℎ𝑥 = 𝑠ℎ𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫ 𝑠ℎ𝑥 = 𝑐ℎ𝑥 + 𝑐

dx 1 1+ x
1− x
dx = +C
1+ x 2
= Arctgx + C 2
n
2 1− x
dx dx
 1− x 2
= Arc sin x + C  x +h
2
= n x + x 2 + h +C

Remark. One will note that there exist elementary functions whose primitives are not
elementary functions. This is the case, for example, with the integrals.
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑥 , ∫ √1−𝑥 2√1−𝑘 2𝑥 2 , 0 < 𝑘 < 1.
This sometimes leads to expanding the usual set of primitives by adding new functions (error
function, sine integral function, elliptic functions, etc.). In this chapter, we will study some
cases of integrations of elementary functions.

6.6.3. General Methods of integration

a) Integration by parts
Theorem. If f , g : I → R are continuous function on an interval I and differentiable on 𝐼 and
their derivatives 𝑓’, 𝑔’ are integrable on 𝐼, then
∫ 𝑓𝑔′𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓𝑔 − ∫ 𝑓′𝑔𝑑𝑥

Example1. Calculate the indefinite integral ∫ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥,

Solution: We put

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𝑓 = 𝑥, 𝑔′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑓 ′ = 1, 𝑔 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Then
∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓𝑔′𝑑𝑥 = x ( − cos x ) −  − cos xdx
∫ 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −x cos x + sin x + C

Example2. Calculate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

Solution: We put
𝑓 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑔′ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑓 ′ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, 𝑔 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Then
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓𝑔′𝑑𝑥= −𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)+∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)+∫(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)+∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 − ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)+𝑥 + 𝑘

−𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)+x
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑘.
2
b) Integration by substitution
Theorem1. Let 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ be continuous function and 𝜑: [𝛼, 𝛽] → [𝑎, 𝑏] be differentiable
and its derivative is continuous such that 𝜑(𝛼) = 𝑎, 𝜑(𝛽) = 𝑏. Then the function
𝑡 → 𝑓(𝜑(𝑡))𝜑′(𝑡) is integrable on [𝛼, 𝛽] and we have
𝛽 𝑏
∫𝛼 𝑓(𝜑(𝑡))𝜑′(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.
𝜋
Example1. 𝐼 = ∫02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑡) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡. We put 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 so 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡)𝑑𝑡.
𝜋 𝜋
𝑡 = 0 ⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0, 𝑡 = 2 ⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = 1.
𝜋
2 1 1
2 (𝑡) 2
𝑢3 1
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = [ ] = .
3 0 3
0 𝑎
Example2.

𝑑𝑢
Solution. A reasonable is 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 + 2 So 𝑑𝑢 = 4𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = .
4𝑥 3

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Theorem2. Let 𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → ℝ be integrable function and 𝜑: [𝛼, 𝛽] → [𝑎, 𝑏] be bijective with
𝜑 and𝜑 −1 are differentiable and their derivatives are continuous then the function
𝑡 → 𝑓(𝜑(𝑡))𝜑′(𝑡) is integrable on [𝛼, 𝛽] and we have
𝑏 𝛽

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝜑(𝑡))𝜑′(𝑡)𝑑𝑡.
𝑎 𝛼
1
Example1. 𝐼 = ∫0 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
We put 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑢); 𝑠𝑜 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 𝑑𝑢. 𝑢 is bijective from [0,1] to [0, 2 ]
𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0,
𝜋
𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛1 = .
𝜋
2
1 2

𝐼 = ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 𝑑𝑢
0 0
𝜋 𝜋
2 2

= ∫ √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

0 0
𝜋
2 𝜋
1 𝑢 1 2 𝜋
= ∫ 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = [ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑢] = .
2 2 4 0 4
0
√𝑎
Example2. Evaluate the following integral 𝐼 = ∫0 √𝑎 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥, 𝑎 > 0.
√𝑎 √𝑎
𝑥 2
𝐼 = ∫ √𝑎 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑎 (1 + ( ) ) 𝑑𝑥.
√𝑎
0 0
We know that 𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 = 1 so 𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑠ℎ2 𝑥.
𝐴𝑟𝑔𝑠ℎ𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛 (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 2
We put = 𝑠ℎ(𝑢); 𝑠𝑜 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑟𝑔𝑠ℎ ( 𝑎) = 𝑙𝑛 ( + √( 𝑎) + 1).
√𝑎 √ √𝑎 √

𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑢 𝑑𝑢.
𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑟𝑔𝑠ℎ0 = 0,
𝑥 = √𝑎 ⟹ 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑟𝑔𝑠ℎ1 = 𝑙𝑛(1 + √2).

√ 𝑎 𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛(1+√2)
𝐼 = ∫0 √𝑎 (1 + ( 𝑎) ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 √𝑎(1 + (𝑠ℎ𝑢)2 ) √𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑢 𝑑𝑢.
√

𝑙𝑛(1+√2)

= ∫ √𝑎(𝑐ℎ𝑢)2 √𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑢 𝑑𝑢.

0
𝑙𝑛(1+√2) 𝑙𝑛(1+√2)

=𝑎 ∫ √(𝑐ℎ𝑢)2 𝑐ℎ𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑐ℎ2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

0 0

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𝑙𝑛(1+√2)
𝑙𝑛(1+√2)
1 𝑢 1
= 𝑎 ∫ 1 + 𝑐ℎ(2𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎 [ + 𝑠ℎ(2𝑢)]
2 2 4 0
0
𝑎
= 𝑎𝑙𝑛(1 + √2) + 𝑠ℎ (2𝑙𝑛(1 + √2)).
4

Indefinite integral by substitution

Theorem. If 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval 𝐼 and 𝑓 is
continuous on 𝐼, then
∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢.
Corollary
Using the previous theorems, we deduce the following antiderivatives:
1
1) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐. 𝑎 ≠ 0.
1
2) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐. 𝑎 ≠ 0.
3) ∫ 𝑢′(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑢(𝑥) + 𝐶.
𝑢𝑛+1 (𝑥)
4) ∫ 𝑢′(𝑥) 𝑢𝑛 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐, 𝑛 ≠ −1.
𝑛+1
𝑢′(𝑥) −1
5) ∫ 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛−1 + 𝑐, 𝑛 ≠ 1.
(𝑢(𝑥)) (𝑛−1)(𝑢(𝑥))
1 −1
6) ∫ (𝑥−𝑎)2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥−𝑎 + 𝑐.
𝑢′(𝑥)
7) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑢 + 𝑐.
2√𝑢(𝑥)
Proof.
𝑑𝑢
1) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 we put 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 so 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
Then
𝑑𝑢 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑢) = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
𝑎 𝑎
1 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑢) + 𝑐 == − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝑐.
𝑎 𝑎
1
5) ∫ (𝑥−𝑎)2 𝑑𝑥 we put 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑎 so 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥.
Then
1 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑢
(𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑢
−2+1
𝑢
= ∫ 𝑢−2 𝑑𝑢 = + 𝑐.
−2 + 1

1 −1 −1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 = + 𝑐.
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 𝑢 𝑥−𝑎
1
Example1. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥 + 2) + 𝑐.
sin 4 ( x )
Exemple2.  sin ( x ) cos xdx = +C
3

4
Indeed, we put 𝑢 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 (𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢

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National Polytechnic School Math Analysis F. FELLAG
Preparatory cycle-ENP

𝑢4 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥)
∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢 =
+𝑐 = + 𝑐.
4 4
1 2 3 2 𝑢′(𝑥) 2
Example3. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ 2√3𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑢 + 𝑐 = 3 √3𝑥 + 1 + 𝑐.
√3𝑥+1 2√𝑢(𝑥)
𝑠ℎ𝑥 𝑢′
Example4. ∫ 𝑐ℎ3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑥 with 𝑢 = 𝑐ℎ𝑥
Then
𝑠ℎ𝑥 𝑢′ −1 −1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = 2 + 𝑐 = +𝑐
𝑐ℎ 𝑥 𝑢 2𝑢 2𝑐ℎ2 (𝑥)

C) Primitive functions of rational functions

Primitive function for rational function can be calculated for any rational function, the key is a
decomposition to the sum of simple rational functions of the types
𝐴 𝑀𝑥+𝑁
∫ (𝑥−𝑎)𝑘 𝑑𝑥, ∫ ((𝑥−𝛼)2 2)𝑘 𝑑𝑥 +𝛽

We have
𝐴 −𝐴
∫ (𝑥−𝑎)𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑘−1)(𝑥−𝑎)𝑘−1 + 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 > 1.

A
−a x
= n x − a +C
The third type we put 𝑥 − 𝛼 = 𝛽𝑡 𝑠𝑜 x =  + t 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛽𝑑𝑡.
So
𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁 𝑀(𝛼 + 𝛽𝑡) + 𝑁 𝑀(𝛼 + 𝛽𝑡) + 𝑁
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝛽𝑑𝑡 = 𝛽 ∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑡
((𝑥 − 𝛼)2 + 𝛽 2 )𝑘 ((𝛽)2 𝑡 2 + 𝛽 2 )𝑘 ((𝛽)2 (𝑡 2 + 1))
It remains to compute the following primitive functions

𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝑘 = ∫ , 𝐽𝑘 = ∫ 2
(𝑡 2 + 1) 𝑘 (𝑡 + 1)𝑘

For 𝐼𝑘 we put 1 + t 2 = u then 2tdt = du so I k = 1  duk

2 u
Hence, for k 1
−1
Ik = +C
2 ( k − 1) (1 + t 2 ) k − 1
And for k = 1
n (1 + t 2 ) + C
1
I1 =
2
About 𝐽𝑘 by integration by part we get
𝑡
2𝑘𝐽𝑘+1 = + (2𝑘 − 1)𝐽𝑘
(𝑡 2 + 1)𝑘
Special case.
hx + k
Let f : R → R the function defined by f ( x ) =
ax 2 + bx + c

Consider the polynomial

P ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c

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Its discriminant is  = b 2 − 4ac

We are interested in calculating the following integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
For this we distinguish three cases.

First case: Δ > 0

In this case the polynomial admits two real roots  ,  and it is written.
P ( x ) = a ( x −  )( x −  )
Which allows us to move on the fractional decomposition of the function 𝑓 which is written.
hx + k 1 ℎ𝑥+𝑘
f (x ) = = 𝑎 ((𝑥−𝛼)(𝑥−𝛽)).
ax + bx + c
2

ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 1 ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 1 𝐴 𝐵
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ = ∫ + 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥 2+ 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑥 − 𝛽

Hence

ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = (𝐴𝑙𝑛|𝑥 − 𝛼| + 𝐵𝑙𝑛|𝑥 − 𝛽|) + 𝑐.
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎
Second case: Δ = 0.
In this case P ( x ) admis a double root 𝛼 and it is written.
P (x ) = a (x −  )
2

Then
ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 1 𝛾 𝛿
= = ( + )
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)2 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝛼 (𝑥 − 𝛼)2
ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 1 𝛾 1 𝛿
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 𝑥−𝛼 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝛼)2

ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 𝛾 1 −𝛿
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 − 𝛼| + ( ) + 𝑐.
𝑎𝑥 2+ 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥−𝛼
Third case: Δ < 0.
In this case P ( x ) does not admit real roots and we write P ( x ) of the form.

P ( x ) = a ( x −  ) +  2 
2

 
ℎ𝑥+𝑘 ℎ𝑥+𝑘
The integration of simple elements of the second kind 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 = 𝑎((𝑥−𝛼)2+𝛽2) reduced by the
change of variable x =  + t to the calculation of integrals.

t dt
I1 =  dt and I 2 =  dt
1+t 2
1+ t 2
n (1 + t 2 ) + C
1
I1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 + 𝑐
2
Exercise: calculate the following primitives
𝑥3 − 4 𝑥 𝑥+1
𝐼=∫ 2 𝑑𝑥, 𝐽=∫ 2 𝑑𝑥, 𝐾=∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +𝑥−2 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 𝑥2 −𝑥+3

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Solution
𝑥 3 −4
1) 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 2+𝑥−2 𝑑𝑥
Using the division
x3 −4 x2 +x −2
− x 3 − x 2 + 2x
− x 2 + 2x − 4x x −1
−x 2 + x − 2
3x − 6

x3 −4 3x − 6
= x −1+ 2
x +x −2
2
x +x −2
We put P ( x ) = x + x − 2, we factor P ( x )
2

 = 9, x 1 = 1, x 2 = −2 are the roots of P ( x )

P ( x ) = ( x − 1)( x + 2 )
3x − 6 3x − 6 A B
= = +
x + x − 2 ( x − 1)( x + 2 ) x − 1 x + 2
2

By multiplying by the denominator gives

3x − 6 = A ( x + 2 ) + B ( x − 1) = ( A + B ) x + 2A − B
A + B = 3 and 2A − B = −6
We get
A = −1 and B = 4
Substituting these values for A and B into the expansion gives
3x − 6 −1 4
= +
x + x − 2 x −1 x + 2
2

x3 −4 −1 4
 x 2 + x − 2 =  ( x − 1)dx +  x − 1 + x + 2 dx
𝑥2
= 2 − 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑛|𝑥 − 1| + 4𝑙𝑛|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐.

𝑥 𝑥
2) 𝐽 = ∫ 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥+2)2 𝑑𝑥

x A B
 (x + 2)
2
dx = 
(x + 2)
2
+
x +2
dx

A + B ( x + 2)
= dx
(x + 2)
2

Bx + A + 2B
= dx
(x + 2)
2

B = 1 B = 1
 
 A + 2B = 0  A = −2

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x −2 1
 (x + 2)
dx = 
( x + 2)
2
+
x +2
dx

 −1 
= −2   + n x + 2 +C
x +2
𝑥+1
3) 𝐾 = ∫ 𝑥 2−𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥 we have
𝑎 2 𝑎 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 = (𝑥 + ) − ( ) .
2 2
2 2

We have x 2 − x + 3 =  x −  −   + 3
1 1
 2 2
2
2 1 2 11 1 2 11
𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3 = (𝑥 − 2) + 4 =(𝑥 − 2) + √ 4

So
x +1 x +1
=
x −x +3 
2
1   11 
2 2

x −  + 
 2  2 
1 √11
We can do the integral using the substitution 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑡
2
Then
1 11 11
x = + t . so dx = dt
2 2 2
1 √11
𝑥+1 + 𝑡+1 √11
2 2
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥=∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑡
1 2 √11 √11 √11 2
(𝑥− ) +( ) ( 𝑡) +( )
2 2 2 2

3
𝑡+
𝑡𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡
= ∫ 2 √11 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 2 + ∫ 2
𝑡 +1 𝑡 + 1 √11 𝑡 + 1
1 3
= 𝑙𝑛(𝑡 2 + 1) + 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑡) + 𝑐.
2 √11
We have
1 √11 2𝑥−1
𝑥−2= 𝑡 so 𝑡 =
2 √11
Finally
𝑥+1 1 2𝑥−1 2 3 2𝑥−1
𝐾 = ∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑙𝑛 (( ) + 1) + 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )+𝑐
√11 √11 √11
𝑥+1 1 4 3 2𝑥−1
𝐾 = ∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑥+3 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑙𝑛 (11 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3)) + 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )+𝑐
√11 √11

ℎ𝑥+𝑘
Primitive functions of functions of the form 𝑓: 𝑥 → √𝑎𝑥 2 .
+𝑏𝑥+𝑐
Consider the polynomial
P ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c

Its discriminant is  = b 2 − 4ac

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We have
P ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c = 𝑎 ((𝑥 + 2𝑎
𝑏 ∆ 2
) − 4𝑎2 )
First case: Δ > 0
In this case the polynomial admits two real roots and it is written.
P ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c =𝑎((𝑥 + 𝛼)2 − 𝛽 2 ) with 𝛼 = 2𝑎
𝑏 √Δ
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 2𝑎 .

We put 𝑥 + 𝛼 = 𝛽𝑡 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 = 𝛽𝑡 − 𝛼 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛽𝑑𝑡.
So
ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘
=
√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 √𝑎((𝑥 + 𝛼)2 − 𝛽 2 )
ℎ(𝛽𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝑘
=
√𝑎((𝛽𝑡)2 − 𝛽 2 )
ℎ(𝛽𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝑘
=
√𝑎𝛽 2 (𝑡 2 − 1)

It remains to compute the following primitive functions

𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 0,
√𝑡 2 − 1 √𝑡 2 − 1
𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0,
√1 − 𝑡 2 √1 − 𝑡 2
We have
𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∫ √𝑡 2 −1 = √𝑡 2 − 1 + 𝑐, ∫ √𝑡 2 −1 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑡 + √𝑡 2 − 1| + 𝑐.

𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∫ = −√1 − 𝑡 2 + 𝑐, ∫ = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑡) + 𝑐.
√1 − 𝑡 2 √1 − 𝑡 2
Second case: Δ = 0.
In this case P ( x ) admis a double root 𝛼 and it is written.
P (x ) = a (x −  )
2

ℎ𝑥+𝑘
The function 𝑓: 𝑥 → √𝑎𝑥 2 is defined if 𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≠ 𝛼.
+𝑏𝑥+𝑐
Then
ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘 ℎ𝑥 + 𝑘
= = .
2
√𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 √𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)2 √𝑎|𝑥 − 𝛼|
It remains to compute the following primitive functions

𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥 𝑎
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 + 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑙𝑛|𝑥 − 𝑎| + 𝑐.
𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
Third case: Δ < 0.
In this case P ( x ) does not admit real roots and we write P ( x ) of the form.

P ( x ) = a ( x −  ) +  2  , 𝑎 > 0.
2

 

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ℎ𝑥+𝑘 ℎ𝑥+𝑘
The integration of √𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
= reduced by the change of variable 𝑥 − 𝛼 = 𝛽𝑡
√𝑎(√(𝑥−𝛼)2 +𝛽 2 )
x =  + t to the calculation of integrals.
𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∫
√𝑡 2 + 1 √𝑡 2 + 1
We have
𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∫ √𝑡 2 +1 = √𝑡 2 + 1 + 𝑐, ∫ √𝑡 2 +1 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑡 + √𝑡 2 + 1| + 𝑐.

Exercise: calculate the following primitives

2𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
𝐼 = ∫ √1+2𝑥−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥, 𝐽 = ∫ √2𝑥 2
+𝑥+3

2𝑥−1
1) 𝐼 = ∫ √1+2𝑥−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 2 𝑎 2
We have 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 = (𝑥 + ) − ( )
2 2
2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = −𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = −(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) = −[(𝑥 − 1)2 − 1]
2
−𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = −[(𝑥 − 1)2 − 1] + 1 = −(𝑥 − 1)2 + 2 = √2 −(𝑥 − 1)2
𝑥−1
We put 𝑥 − 1 = √2𝑡 so 𝑥 = 1 + √2𝑡, 𝑑𝑥 = √2𝑑𝑡, 𝑡 =
√2
2𝑥 − 1 2(1 + √2𝑡) − 1
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √2𝑑𝑡.
√1 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 2 2
√√2 −(√2𝑡)
2 + 2√2𝑡 − 1
𝐼=∫ √2𝑑𝑡
√2√1−𝑡 2
1+2√2𝑡 1 𝑡
𝐼=∫ √1−𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡=∫ √1−𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 + 2√2 ∫ √1−𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝐼=𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 2√2√1−𝑡 2 + 𝑐.
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 2
𝐼=𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) − 2√2√1− ( ) + 𝑐.
√2 √2
𝑥−1
𝐼=𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) − 2√−𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑐.
√2
𝑑𝑥
2) 𝐽 = ∫ √2𝑥 2
+𝑥+3
1 3
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3 = 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + ).
2 2
2
2
1 3 1 1 3 1 2 23
𝑥 + 𝑥 + = (𝑥 + ) − + = (𝑥 + ) + .
2 2 4 16 2 4 16
2
1 23 2 1 23 2
√2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3 = √2 √(𝑥 + 4) + 16 =√2 √(𝑥 + 4) + (√16) .
1
1 23 23 1 23 𝑥+
4
𝑥 + = √ 𝑡 ⟹ 𝑥 = √ 𝑡 − , 𝑑𝑥 = √ 𝑑𝑡. 𝑡 =
4 16 16 4 16 23
√
16
23
𝑑𝑥 √ 𝑑𝑡
16
𝐽=∫ =∫
√2𝑥 2 +𝑥+3 2
2
1 23
√2 √(𝑥+ ) +(√ )
4 16

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23
√ 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝑡 1
16
=∫ 2 2
= ∫ √𝑡 2 +1
= 𝑙𝑛|𝑡 + √𝑡 2 + 1| + 𝑐.
√2 √2
23 23
√2 √(√16𝑡) +(√16)

2
1 1
1 𝑥+ 𝑥+
= 𝑙𝑛 || 4
+ √( 4
) + 1|| + 𝑐 .
√2 √
23
√
23
16 16

𝑑𝑥 4𝑥 + 1 + 2√2√2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3
𝐽=∫ = 𝑙𝑛 | | + 𝑐.
√2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3 √23

6.6.4. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

a) Primitives of a rational function of sin(x) and cos(x). To integrate a rational function of

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, we often use the Weier strass Substitution (Half-Angle Tangent)
𝑥
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2).
This transformation allows us to express the trigonometric functions in terms of rational
fractions of 𝑡 using the following formulas:

2𝑡 1−𝑡 2 2𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) = 1+𝑡 2 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) = 1+𝑡 2 , 𝑑𝑥 = 1+𝑡 2 .

Proof
𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛( ) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2 (2)) = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2) = 2 2
𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2)=2𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2).
𝑐𝑜𝑠( )
2
1 𝑥 1 1
We have 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥)= 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥) then 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2) = 𝑥 = 1+𝑡 2
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( )
2
𝑥 1 2𝑡
Thus 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 2𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2) (1+𝑡 2) = 1+𝑡 2.

𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 1 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) 1−𝑡2
2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2 (2)) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (2) − 1 = 2( 𝑥 )−1= 2
𝑥 =
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) 1+𝑡2
2 2
𝑥 1 𝑥 2𝑑𝑡 2𝑑𝑡
3) 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2) ⟹ 𝑑𝑡 = 2 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (2)) 𝑑𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 1+𝑡 2
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( )
2

1
Example. Evaluate ∫ 2+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 1−𝑡 2 2𝑑𝑡
we use the substitution 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2) then 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) = 1+𝑡 2 , 𝑑𝑥 = 1+𝑡 2.
1 1 2𝑑𝑡
∫ 2+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥=∫ ( 1−𝑡2
) 1+𝑡 2
2+ 2
1+𝑡

2𝑑𝑡 2 2𝑑𝑡
=∫ 3+𝑡 2 = ∫ 𝑡 2
√3 1+( )
√3
𝑡
we use now the substitution 𝑢= ⟹ 𝑡 = √3𝑢, 𝑑𝑡 = √3𝑑𝑢
√3

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2 2𝑑𝑡 2 2√3𝑑𝑢
∫ 2 = ∫
√3 𝑡 √3 1 + (𝑢)2
1+( )
√3
𝑑𝑢
= 4 ∫ 1+(𝑢)2=4 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑢) + 𝑐. 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.
𝑡
We replace u by
√3
𝑡
=4 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) + 𝑐. 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.
√3
𝑥
Finally, we replace 𝑡 by 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2) we obtain
𝑥
1 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 4 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) + 𝑐.
2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 √3
𝑥
Particular cases. The change of variable 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2) always succeeds but often leads to
rather long calculations. We can try other, better-adapted changes of variables.
In the following cases, the variable changes are obvious
∫ 𝑅(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥, 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑡;

∫ 𝑅(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥, 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 𝑡;

𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑅(𝑡𝑔𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑔𝑥 = 𝑡.
Such that 𝑅(𝑢(𝑥)) means rational function of u.
𝑐𝑜𝑠5 𝑥
Example. Calculate 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Let 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑥
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
2 2
(𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥) (1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)
=∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
=∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
Let 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥, we have

1 + 𝑡 4 − 2𝑡 2 1
𝐼=∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ ( + 𝑡 3 − 2𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑡
𝑡4 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥
𝐼 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑡| + 4 − 𝑡 + 𝐶 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| + 4 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝐶
2

b) STRATEGY FOR EVALUATING ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 (𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

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Example. Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 (𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝑥)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 2

Example1. Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

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Example2. Evaluate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Example3. Evaluate ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

c) Primitives of the product of functions of the form: 𝑥 → 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 → 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑏𝑥).

Proposition. The following identities hold

Example. Calculate ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝑥)𝑑𝑥

6.6.5. Primitives of a rational function of 𝑒 𝑥

integration is still systematically reducible to that of a rational fraction by the change of
variable 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑡.
𝑑𝑥
Example. calculate ∫
2+𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
We put 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑡 then 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = =
𝑒𝑥 𝑡

𝑑𝑡 1 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎 𝑏 2 2 1 𝑡
∫ 2+𝑒 𝑥= ∫ 2+𝑡 =∫ 𝑡(2+𝑡)=∫ 𝑡 +2+𝑡 𝑑𝑡=∫ 𝑡 − 2+𝑡 𝑑𝑡=2 𝑙𝑛 |2+𝑡|+c.

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Remark. rational fraction in 𝑐ℎ𝑥 and 𝑠ℎ𝑥 are reduced to this case.
Primitives of function 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) where p is a polynomial
An integration by part allows us to calculate the antiderivative of 𝑓 , but it is more
convenient to operate by noting that
∫ 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑄(𝑥)
where Q is a polynomial of the same degree as p which will be determined by
identification

Example. Calculate 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑄(𝑥)
where Q is a polynomial of the degree 2.
Then
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) ⟹
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑒 2𝑥 (2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 (2𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑥(2𝑏 + 2𝑎) + 2𝑐 + 𝑏).
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) so 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) ⟺ (2𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑥(2𝑏 + 2𝑎) + 2𝑐 + 𝑏) = (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)
By identification we obtain
2𝑎 = 1
1
{2𝑏 + 2𝑎 = −1 ⟺ 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = −1, 𝑐 = 1
2𝑐 + 𝑏 = 1
Then
1
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑥 (2 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1) + 𝑘.

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