BioSensors

Introduction

Fundamentals, Types, and Applications

Definitions

What is a Sensor?

• A sensor is a converter that measures a physical quantity

and converts it into a signal which can be read by an
observer or by an instrument.

Transducer

• A transducer includes the sensor but also converts the

detected change into a usable signal.
Various types of Transducers/ Sensors

Piezoelectric Measure Change in Mass

Electromechanical Measures change in electric distribution

Optical Measures change in light intensity

Calormetric Measures change in heat

 Difference between Sensor and Transducer

Features Sensor Transducer

A device that detects a physical,

A device that converts one form of
Definition chemical, or biological change in the
energy into another.
environment.

Measures a physical parameter such as Converts the measured physical

Function
temperature, pressure, or light. quantity into an electrical signal.

Usually a raw signal (e.g., resistance, A usable signal (e.g., electrical voltage,
Output
capacitance, or voltage change). current, or digital output).

Thermistor (detects temperature Thermocouple (converts temperature

Example
changes). into an electrical signal).

A transducer may include a sensor

Relation A sensor is a part of a transducer.
along with a signal processing unit.
Biosensor

• Biosensors are analytical devices integrating biological

elements with a transducer to detect specific substances.
• It converts a biological response into an electrical signal.
• Biosensors play a critical role in various fields, including
medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, food
safety, and biotechnology.
• It determines the presence and concentration of a specific
substance in any test solution.

Definition

•A biosensor is an analytical device that combines a

biological component with a physicochemical transducer
to detect and measure the presence of specific analytes.
Purpose of Analyte

What is a Analyte?

• In the context of biosensors, an analyte is the specific

substance or biological molecule that the biosensor is
designed to detect and measure, such as glucose, DNA/
RNA, hCG, or a specific protein.

In other words, an analyte is the target molecule or

substance whose presence and/or concentration is being
measured by the biosensor.
Operation of Biosensor

• Biosensors operate by recognizing analyte through a

biological recognition element (enzyme, antibody, nucleic
acid, etc.) and converting this interaction into a
measurable signal using a transducer. They are widely
used in healthcare, food safety, and environmental
monitoring.

In other words,

• A biosensor typically consists of a bioreceptor (a molecule

that specifically recognizes the analyte), a transducer
(which converts the analyte-bioreceptor interaction into a
measurable signal), and a signal processing system.
Working Principle

• Step1: Biological recognization element which highly

specific towards the biological material analytes
produces.
• Step2: transducer detect and transduces signal from
biological target - receptor molecule to electrical signal
which is due to reaction occur.
• Step3: after transduction signal from biological to
electrical signal where its amplification is necessary and
takes place and read out in detector after processing the
values are displayed for monitor and controlling the
system
Working Flow

Biological material Analyte

Binds Analyte

Biological Response

Electronic Response

Measurement
Schematic Representation of Biosensor Working
History

• 1962:
First biosensor (glucose sensor) developed by Leland C. Clark
• 1970s-1980s:
Development of enzyme and immunosensors
• 1990s-present:
Advances in nanotechnology and miniaturization

• Todays Era: The development of biosensors began with glucose sensors for diabetic
patients, followed by the introduction of enzyme-based and immunological sensors. Today,
biosensors have evolved with advances in nanotechnology, allowing for more precise, rapid,
and portable diagnostic tools.
Main Components of Biosensor

• Main Components:

1. Bioreceptor: Enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid, cell, or microorganism

2. Transducer: Converts biological signals into measurable signals
3. Signal Processor: Amplifies and interprets signals Display Unit: Outputs the final readable result
Interaction of Biological Component

1st Component

• Biological Element:

1. Function:
๏ To interact specifically with a target compound i.e. the
compound to be detected.
๏ It must be capable of detecting the presence of a target
compound in the test solution.
๏ The ability of a bio-element to interact specifically with
target compound (specificity) is the basis for biosensor.
 2nd Component

• Physiological Transducer:

๏ Acts as an interface, measuring the physical change that

occurs with the reaction at the bioreceptor then
transforming that energy into measurable electrical
output.
 3rd Component

• Processing

๏ Signals from the transducer are passed to a

microprocessor where they are amplified and analyzed.
๏ The data is then converted to concentration units and
transferred to a display or/and data storage device.
 Detection Mechanism of Biosensor

Analytes Bio-Recognition Elements

e.g. E. Coli reacts with polluted water to release specific protein

Antigens E.g SAR-CoV-2

e.g. Due to complementary base-pairing activity

Extracellular
e.g. The enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx) binds to
chemicals in glucose (substrate)
environment

Transducer
RNA/DNA
probes

Substrate/
Inhibitors
e.g. Cells respond to toxic drugs
Drugs/ by changing their viability,
Small growth, or fluorescence.
Molecules

Electrochemical Thermometric Optical Piezometric Magnetic

Basic Characteristics of Biosensors

๏ LINEARITY - Linearity of the sensor should be high for the detection of high substrate
concentration. (The sensor should provide accurate and proportional readings across a range of
concentrations)

๏ SENSITIVITY - Value of the electrode response per substrate concentration. (Sensitivity tells us
how much the sensor's signal changes when the concentration of the detected substance (analyte)
changes.)

๏ SELECTIVITY - Chemicals Interference must be minimised for obtaining the correct result. (The
biosensor should detect only the target substance (analyte) and not react to other chemicals.)

๏ RESPONSE TIME - Time necessary for having 95% of the response. (This is the time taken for the
biosensor to reach 95% of its final reading after detecting a substance.)
Various Classification based of Bioreceptors and Transducers

Types Based on Bioreceptors:

1. Enzymatic Biosensors: e.g. Glucose biosensor

2. Immunosensors DNA Biosensors: A type of biosensor that detects specific molecules
using antibody-antigen interactions) e.g. COVID-19 Rapid Test
3. Microbial Biosensors (When the target substance interacts with the microorganism, it
undergoes a biochemical reaction. This reaction produces byproducts such as electrons, CO₂,
acids, or gases)

Types Based on Transduction Mechanisms:

1. Electrochemical Biosensors
2. Optical Biosensors
3. Piezoelectric Biosensors
4. Thermal Biosensors
Most Common BioSensors

Examples:

1. Enzymatic Biosensors: Glucose biosensors

2. ImmunoSensors: Pregnancy Test
3. DNA Biosensors: DNA biosensors
4. Optical BioSensors: Cancer Biomarker Detection
5. Electrochemical Biosensors: Cholesterol biosensors
Biosensors types/ Recognition element and Analytes

Types of BioSensors Biological recognition Element Analyte

Gluocose biosensor Glucose oxidase Glucose

Pregnancy test hCG Urine

DNA biosensor Probe DNA/ Antibodies SAR-CoV2

Cancer Biomarker Detection Antibodies specific to Biomarker Biomarker for prostate cancer

Cholesterol Biosensors Cholesterol oxidase enzymes Cholesterol in blood sample

Glucose Biosensor
Principle

Glucose sensors is an enzymatic biosensor, like those used in blood glucose meters and continuous
glucose monitors, work by detecting glucose using the enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx), which
catalyzes the oxidation of glucose into glycolic acid and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

Glucose Oxidase
Glucose + O2 ————> Gluconic Acid + H202
Immune Biosensors
Immunosensor employ antibodies or antigen as a biological recognition element. When target antigen
or antibodies bind to the recognition element, it triggers a signal that is transducer and measured.

Pregnancy Test

A hormone called hCG which is produced in the earliest stages of pregnancy which supports the
formation of placenta and transfers nutrients from mother to fetus.

The test starts which urine is applied to the end of the strip, it crosses three separate zones.

1) Reaction zone - (Y shape proteins called antibodies attaches hCG. Later since, all antibodies are
losely attached to the zone, it detaches from reaction zone and move towards Test zone along with
hCG enzyme.

2) Test Zone - More Y shape antibodies are present in test zone which binds to more hCG containing
antibodies coming from reaction zone. When hCG enzyme is present, both antibodies binds the
enzyme in a sandwich manner with existing fixed antibodies in test zone. Test zone also contains
enzyme conjugated antibodies, which helps reacting with anti dye molecule. The unbind and
residue antibodies moves further to control zone.

3) Control Zone - The control zone antibodies binds the remaining antibodies. Here, enzyme
conjugate antibodies are present which helps reacting with anti dye molecule causing color line.
Schematic Representation of Immunobiosensors
Cholesterol Biosensor

Principle

A cholesterol biosensor is a device that uses biological components, like enzymes, to detect and
quantify cholesterol levels in a sample, offering a rapid, sensitive, and specific method for cholesterol
measurement, offering a rapid, sensitive, and specific method for cholesterol measurement.

Liebermann-Burchard Method

There are many enzymes which acts on cholesterol, however, two main enzymes are;
1. Cholesterol Esterase - Acts on cholesterol and produce hydrolytic product
2. Cholesterol Oxidase - It catalyse cholesterol to cholesterol one.
 CHOLESTROL BIOSENSOR

Cholesterol oxidase
is immobalizes Cholesterol + O2
Modified thioglycolic
Sensing Area/ acid (TGA) monolayer

Gold nano
particles
Biochips

Cholesterol
Oxidase

Cholestenone + H2O2
• The biosensor has an electrode (usually made of platinum, gold, or
carbon). The electrode is modified with Thio-Glycolic Acid (TGA) to
improve electron transfer efficiency. TGA forms a thin self-assembled
monolayer (SAM) on the electrode, enhancing the detection of H₂O₂
H2O2 → O2 +2H + 2e−
• The H₂O₂ generated from cholesterol oxidation now reacts at the
electrode surface. This reaction is an oxidation-reduction (redox)
process, where H₂O₂ is broken down into oxygen (O₂), protons (H⁺), and
electrons (e⁻):
Healthcare Applications

1. Blood glucose monitoring

2. Cancer detection
3. Infectious disease diagnosis

Biosensors play a crucial role in medical diagnostics,

allowing for rapid and accurate detection of diseases.
Portable biosensors help manage chronic diseases such
as diabetes by enabling real-time monitoring.
Environmental Monitoring

1. Detection of heavy metals in water

2. Monitoring air pollution
3. Detection of pathogens in water bodies

Biosensors help in detecting environmental pollutants,

ensuring water and air quality, and identifying harmful
biological agents, aiding in public health and safety.
Food Safety

1. Detection of pathogens (E. coli, Salmonella)

2. Monitoring pesticide residues Identifying food
adulteration

Food safety biosensors detect contaminants, ensuring

that food products are safe for consumption. They are
widely used by regulatory agencies and food
manufacturers.
Applications in Biotechnology

1. Drug discovery and development

2. Bioprocess monitoring

Biosensors assist in monitoring fermentation processes,

optimizing drug production, and improving yield in
biotechnological applications.
Challenges and Limitations

1. Sensitivity and specificity

2. Cost and scalability
3. Integration with digital healthcare

Despite their advantages, biosensors face challenges such

as false positives/negatives, high production costs, and
integration with existing healthcare systems.