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Lecture-16: Mode of Reproduction
• Reproduction: Reproduction is defined as the production of new individuals from their
parents either sexually or asexually.
• Types of Reproduction: There are two main types of reproduction. They are asexual
reproduction and sexual reproduction.
▪ Asexual reproduction: In asexual reproduction new plants produced without the help
of seeds either through vegetative parts or through apomictic seeds. The vegetative
parts of the plant are the roots, stem and leaves.
▪ Sexual reproduction: In sexual reproduction new plants are produced from seeds. It
includes the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote which is known as
fertilization. The reproductive parts of the plant are the flowers.
• Process of sexual reproduction:
▪ Sporogenesis- Productions of microspores and megaspores is known as sporogenesis.
➢ Microsporogenesis- Microspores are produced in anthers, it is called
microsporogenesis.
➢ Each anther has four pollen sacs, which contain numerous POLLEN MOTHER
CELLS (PMCs). Each PMC undergoes meiosis to produce 4 haploid cells or
microspores; this is known as microsporogenesis. The microspores mature into
pollen grains mainly by thickening of their walls.
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➢ Megasporogenesis- Megaspores are produced in ovule, it is called as
megasporogenesis.
➢ Megasporogenesis occurs in ovules, which are present inside the ovary. A single
cell in each ovule differentiates into MEGASPORE MOTHER CELL (MMC),
which undergo meiosis to produce 4 haploid megaspores. Three of the megaspores
degenerates leaving one functional megaspore per ovule.
▪ Gametogenesis- The production of male and female gamete in the microspore
respectively is known as gametogenesis.
➢ Micro-gametogenesis: The process of production of male gametes is known as
micro-gametogenesis. Each microspore undergoes mitosis and divided into
generative and vegetative/ tube nucleus. Then generative nucleus undergo mitosis
and formed into microgametophyte.
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➢ Mega-gametogenesis: The process of production of female gametes is known as
micro-gametogenesis. Each megaspore undergoes mitosis and eventually form 8-
nucleated stage which is then formed into megagametophyte or embyo-sac. This
includes one egg cell, two synergid cells, three antipodal cells and two polar nuclei.
• Double Fertilization: One male gamete unites with the eggs cell known as syngamy or
fertilization and another male gamete fuse with the polar nuclei known as triple fusion,
when these two processes occur simultaneously known as double fertilization.
• Asexual Reproduction: Multiplication of plants without the fusion of male and female
gametes is known as asexual reproduction. It is of two types:
▪ 1. Vegetative propagation: Vegetative reproduction refers to multiplication of plants
by means of various vegetative plant parts. Vegetative reproduction is again of two
types: viz. i) natural vegetative reproduction and ii) artificial vegetative reproduction.
➢ Natural vegetative reproduction: In nature, multiplication of certain plants occurs
by underground stems, sub aerial stems, roots and bulbils.
➢ Underground stems are of four types: viz. rhizome, tuber, corm and bulb. The
examples of plants which reproduce by means of underground stems are given below:
➢ Bulb: Garlic (Allium sativum), Onion (A. cepa)
➢ Tuber: Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
➢ Rhizome: Turmeric (Curcuma longa), Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
➢ Corm: Arvi (Colocasia esculenta), Bunda (C. antiquorum)
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➢ Sub aerial stems include runner, sucker, stolon, etc. These stems lead to vegetative
reproduction in mint (Mentha sp), strawberry, banana, etc.
➢ Bulbils are modified forms of flower. They develop into plants when fall on the
ground. E.g. Garlic.
▪ Artificial vegetative reproduction: Multiplication of plants by vegetative parts
through artificial method by human effort is known as artificial vegetative
reproduction.
➢ Stem cuttings: Tapioca (Manihot esculenta), Grapes (Vitis vinifera), Rose, Pointed-
gourd etc.
➢ Root cuttings: Bread fruit, Sweet-potato etc.
➢ Layering, Budding, Grafting methods are used for fruits and ornamental crops.
▪ 2. Apomixis: Apomixis refers to the development of seed without sexual fusion
(fertilization). In apomixes, the embryo develops without fertilization. Thus, apomixis
is alsoan asexual means of reproduction.
▪ Types of Apomixis: Based on occurrence:
➢ Obligate apomixis: Reproduction in some species occurs only by apomixis. This
apomixis is termed as obligate apomixis.
➢ Facultative apomixis: In some species sexual reproduction also occurs in addition to
apomixis. Such apomixis is known as facultative apomixis.
▪ Types of Apomixis: Based on recurrence:
➢ Recurrent apomixis (2n): Embryo-sac develops from diploid cells. No reduction of
chromosomes and process repeated from generation to generation.
➢ Non-recurrent apomixis (n): Plants produced by this method having haploid set of
chromosomes and they are usually sterile. Process is not repeated.
▪ Types of Apomixis: Based on origin:
➢ 1. Parthenogenesis: Parthenogenesis refers to development of embryo from the egg
cell without fertilization. E.g. mangosteen.
➢ 2. Apogamy: The origin of embryo from either synergids or antipodal cells of the
embryo-sac is called as apogamy.
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➢ 3. Apospory: In apospory, first diploid cell of ovule lying outside the embryo-sac
develops into another embryo-sac without reduction. The embryo then develops
directly from the diploid egg cell without fertilization.
➢ 4. Diplospory: The origin of embryo from Megaspore mother cell is called as
diplospory.
➢ 5. Adventitious embryony: The development of embryo directly from the diploid
cells of ovule lying outside the embryo-sac belonging to either nucellus or
integuments is referred to as adventitious embryony. E.g. Citrus.
• Parthenocarpy: Parthenocarpy is the natural or artificial induced production of fruit
without fertilization of ovules. The fruit is therefore seedless.
• Types of Parthenocarpy:
▪ Natural parthenocarpy/obligatory parthenocarpy/autonomic parthenocarpy:
Development of seedless fruits due to genetic sterility E.g. Banana, Japanese
persimmon, Pineapple
▪ Facultative parthenocarpy: Production of seedless fruits due to environmental
stimulation. E.g. Grapes, tomato mutants, citrus cultivars, cucumber, watermelon.
▪ Vegetative parthenocarpy: Natural parthenocarpy arises without any external
stimulation E.g. Banana, pineapple, apple
▪ Stimulative parthenocarpy: Development of parthenocarpy fruits requires on external
stimulation (i.e. pollination) E.g. Grape var. Black Corianth, watermelon.
▪ Stenospermocarpy: Term coined by Stout, 1936. Fruits are developed from normal
pollination and fertilization but the abortion of embryo leads to seedlessness. E.g.
Grape cv. Thompson Seedless (All commercial cultivars), watermelon.
▪ Artificial Parthenocarpy: It is induced through some plant growth regualators:
Crops Growth regulator
Tomato IAA, GA3
Loquat GA3
Orange, Lemon, Grapes IAA
Brinjal 2,4-D & IAA
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