SCIENCE NOTES

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER------>GLUCOSE +OXYGEN
FACTORS: LIGHT, CO2,H2O, CHLOROPHYLL
IT IS THE PROCESS IN WHICH WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE REACT TO FORM
GLUCOSE + OXYGEN.
PLANT WITH GREEN/WHITE PATCHES-VARIEGATED
CUTICLE- IT IS THE WAXY LAYER PRESENT ON TOP OF THE LEAF. IT PREVENTS THE
LEAF FROM DRYING OUT BY STOPPING EXCESSIVE WATER LOSS IN THE PLANT.
UPPER EPIDERMIS- IT IS A CONTINUOUS LAYER OF CELLS AND IS PRESENT
BENEATH THE CUTICLE. IT PROTECTS THE UNDERLYING TISSUES. THIN AND
TRANSPARENT
Palisade mesophyll- most of the photosynthesis occurs here. It is faced upwards
towards the sun. elongated, tightly places cells with a large number of chloroplasts.
SPONGY MESOPHYLL: IT IS A TISSUE AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC LAYER WHICH
FACILITATES THE EXCHANGE OF GASES. THEY HAVE AIR SPACES IN THEM.
VASCULAR BUNDLE-CONDUCTING PART OF LEAF
XYLEM- takes water FROM THE ROOTS OF THE PLANT TO THE REST OF THE PLANT.

☠️
WATER CONDUCTION IS IN THE UPWARD DIRECTION. No end walls – xylem vessels
are like long, hollow tubes. Made of dead cells (for strength and water transport)
PHLOEM-FOOD CONDUCTOR- ALLOWS TRAVEL IN BOTH DIRECTIONS FROM THE
LEAF TO THE REST OF THE PLANT.
LOWER EPIDERMIS- CONTINUOUS LAYER OF CELLS. HAS SOMATA AND FORMS THE
LOWER SURFACE OF THE LEAF.
STOMATA: SMALL PORES/OPENINGS IN L.E. CAN BE OPENED OR CLOSED BY GUARD
CELLS. Stomata Mostly Close

●​ Plants close their stomata to conserve water when there's no sunlight.​

●​ That reduces gas exchange with the environment (less CO₂ in, less O₂ out).

Photosynthesis needs light, specifically sunlight (or artificial light), to drive the
process. The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur in the chloroplasts
and require light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and glucose.

At night:

●​ There is no light, so the light-dependent stage stops.​

●​ The plant cannot split water to produce oxygen or make ATP and NADPH,
which are needed for the next steps.​

●​ So, no glucose is made from CO₂ at night through photosynthesis.

GUARD CELLS: OPEN TO RELEASE WATER AND OXYGEN.

CHLOROPHYLL- A PIGMENT WHICH IS PRESENT IN THE CHLOROPLAST. TRAPS
LIGHT FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
CHLOROPLAST- PRESENT IN THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC PARTS OF LEAVES AND
CONTAINS CHLOROPHYLL.
RESPIRATION: GLUCOSE + OXYGEN-------> CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER + ENERGY

●​ Perform active transport 🧫

Plants make glucose during photosynthesis, but they need ATP (a form of energy) to:

●​ Grow 🌱​
●​ Repair cells 🔧​
●​ Transport minerals and sugars 🚛​
●​ Open/close stomata 🔄​
LIMITING FACTORS: LIGHT INTENSITY, CO2 CONCENTRATION, TEMPERATURE
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE ABSORBS CO2 FROM THE AIR.
NITROGEN- PROTEINS- HELP MAKE CELLS
DEFICIENCY- STUNTED GROWTH, YELLOW LEAVES
PHOSPHORUS: PROPER GROWTH OF ROOTS
ROOTS-MINERALS-WATER-PHOTOSYNTHESIS
DEFICIENCY-STUNTED GROWTH
K( POTASSIUM)-HEALTHY FLOWERS AND FRUITS
Fewer pollinators visiting means less pollination, leading to fewer fruits and seeds,
and worsening the plant’s reproductive success.
MAGNESIUM- NEEDED TO MAKE CHLOROPHYLL.
DEFICIENCY- YELLOW LEAVES + STUNTED GROWTH
NPK- FERTILISER
UREA- USED WHEN THERE IS NITROGEN DEFICIENCY

TRANSPIRATION-
PROCESS WHERE WATER ABSORBED BY ROOTS MOVES UP THE PLANT AND
EVAPORATES FROM STOMATA. PULLS WATER AND DISSOLVED MINERALS FROM
SOIL UP THROUGH THE PLANT VIA XYLEM VESSELS. PLANT COOLS AND TEMP
REGULATES. TRANSPIRATION HELPS MAINTAIN TURGOR PRESSURE, WHICH HELPS
PLANT CELLS BE FIRM AND SUPPORTS STRUCTURE. Transpiration helps maintain
turgor pressure by pulling water upward from the roots to the leaves, keeping plant
cells full and firm.
AS WATER EVAPORATES FROM THE LEAF, IT CREATES A TRANSPIRATIONAL PULL.
THE MAIN PRESSURE DURING TRANSPIRATION IS CALLED TRANSPIRATIONAL PULL.
IT IS A SUCTION FORCE THAT PULLS WATER UP THROUGH THE XYLEM FROM
ROOTS TO LEAVES. IT IS CAUSED BY WATER EVAPORATING FROM LEAVES, WHICH
PULLS MORE WATER UP THROUGH THE XYLEM FROM THE ROOTS. ROOT HAIR
CELLS ABSORB WATER THROUGH OSMOSIS. INSIDE ROOT HAIR CELLS, WATER
MOVES THROUGH THE XYLEM-UP DIRECTION THROUGH NARROW TUBES IN SMALL
AMOUNTS, JUST LIKE WATER MOVES IN A STRAW.
WATER-ENTERING ROOTS CREATES PRESSURE-ROOT PRESSURE Water builds up in
the root xylem and creates pressure. This pushes water upward into the stem — this is
root pressure! Root pressure is like the plant's internal pump that pushes water up
from the roots — especially helpful when transpiration isn’t doing the job!
ROOT PRESSURE IS THE PUSHING FORCE THAT MOVES WATER UP THROUGH THE
XYLEM FROM ROOTS, CAUSED BY THE ACTIVE TRANSPORT OF MINERALS INTO
ROOTS WHICH DRAWS IN WATER BY OSMOSIS.
WATER EVAPORATES FROM THE STOMATA
TO REPLACE LOST WATER, THE PULL REPEATED.
WATER LEAVES TISSUES AND MOVES TOWARDS AIR SPACES AND BOMBS.
TO OBSERVE AND COMPARE THE UPPER AND LOWER EPIDERMIS UNDER A
MICROSCOPE. NEED: GLASS SLIDE, SCOTCH TAPE, NAIL ENAMEL
1 CM SQUARE- TRANSPARENT ENAMEL ON U.E
1 INCH SCOTCH TABLE ON TOP
TAPE ON SLAB, MAKE SURE NO AIR BUBBLES
NO STOMATA ON U.E BUT YES STOMAT ON L.E
EXPERIMENT: TO CONFIRM THE IMPORTANCE OF CHLOROPHYLL FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
TAKE LEAF FROM PLANT KEPT IN DARK FOR 24 HRS
BOIL IT FOR 2-3 MINS IN THE BEAKER ON THE BUNSEN BURNER TO STOP ALL
REACTIONS.
AFTER, PLACE THE LEAF IN THE BOILING TUBE WITH ETHANOL. THE ETHANOL WILL
REMOVE CHLOROPHYLL SO IT WON’T AFFECT THE COLOUR.
PLACE THE BOILING TUBE IN HOT WATER. GREEN COLOUR WILL DISSOLVE OUT OF
THE LEAF INTO ETHANOL
FORCEPS TAKE LEAF OUT
PUT IN WATER
SPREAD IODINE
KEPT IN DARK- BROWN
KEPT IN LIGHT-BLACK

Investigating the Need for Light

 ●​ The same procedure as above can be used to investigate if light is needed for
photosynthesis
●​ Before starting the experiment the plant needs to be destarched by placing in a
dark cupboard for 24 hours
●​ This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up
and will not affect the results of the experiment
●​ Following destarching, a leaf of the plant can be partially covered with
aluminium foil and the plant placed in sunlight for a day
●​ The leaf can then be removed and tested for starch using iodine
●​ The area of the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil will remain
orange-brown as it did not receive any sunlight and could not photosynthesise,
while the area exposed to sunlight will turn blue-black
●​ This proves that light is necessary for photosynthesis and the production of
starch

CARBON CYCLE
THE CARBON CYCLE IS THE CONTINUOUS MOVEMENT OF CARBON
AMONG THE ATMOSPHERE, LIVING ORGANISMS, OCEANS, AND
EARTH.

1.​ PLANTS TAKE IN CARBON DIOXIDE FROM THE AIR FOR

PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
 2.​ ANIMALS EAT PLANTS AND GET CARBON COMPOUNDS.​
RESPIRATION BY PLANTS AND ANIMALS RELEASES CARBON
DIOXIDE BACK INTO THE AIR.​
3. DEAD ORGANISMS DECOMPOSE, AND DECOMPOSERS
RELEASE CARBON DIOXIDE.​
4. SOME CARBON IS STORED IN FOSSIL FUELS (COAL, OIL,
GAS).​
5. COMBUSTION (BURNING) OF FOSSIL FUELS RELEASES MORE
CARBON DIOXIDE INTO THE ATMOSPHERE.

CARBON ATOMS MOVE FROM ONE ORGANISM TO ANOTHER THROUGH THE

CARBON CYCLE. PLANTS TAKE IN CO2 FROM THE AIR DURING
PHOTOSYNTHESIS, ANIMALS EAT PLANTS (OR OTHER ANIMALS)
AND CARBON IS TRANSFERRED INTO THEIR BODIES. WHEN ORGANISMS
RESPIRE OR DECOMPOSE, CARBON IS RELEASED BACK INTO THE
ENVIRONMENT, CONTINUING THE CYCLE.
3 COMPOUNDS WITH CARBON:
GLUCOSE
DNA
CHOLESTEROL
\===================================CORAL REEF BLEACHING: RISING
OCEAN TEMPERATURES CAUSE CORALS TO EXPEL ALGAE, LEADING TO THEIR
DEATH AND LOSS OF MARINE HABITATS.
SEA LEVEL RISE- RISING AT A RATE OF 3MM PER YEAR
LESS PREDICTABLE RAINFALL
EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS
GLOBAL WARMING: Fossil fuels RELEASE EXCESS CARBON, WHICH TRAPS
HEAT IN THE ATMOSPHERE.
ASREROID COLLISIONS PRODUCE HUGE QUANTITIES OF DUST WHICH
REDUCES THE AMOUNT OF SUNLIGHT AND HEAT FROM THE SUN ENTERING
THE EARTH. THE ICECAPS SPREAD MUCH FURTHER FROM THE POLES AND
SEA LEVELS FELL. MASSIVE TSUNAMIS CAUSED DUE TO HIGH ENERGY AND
LESS PHOTOSYNTHESIS. DISRUPTS FOOD CHAINS.
ICE AGE: 2 BILLION YEARS AGO, FIRST ICE AGE. THE ICE AGE IS A PERIOD IN
EARTH'S HISTORY WHEN LARGE PARTS OF THE PLANET WERE COVERED BY
ICE SHEETS AND GLACIERS.
ASTEROID - OBJECT IN SPACE
SMALLER OBJECT - METEOROID
ENTER EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE - METEOR
COLLIDE WITH EARTH - METEORITE
Excretion:
●​ The human excretory system is a group of organs which are specialised for the
removal of certain excretory products
○​ They include the lungs and kidneys
○​ The liver also has a vital role in excretion

Organ Mainly Explanation

Excretes

Lungs Carbon dioxide The lungs excrete carbon dioxide (the waste product of
aerobic respiration) during exhalation

Kidney Excess water, The kidneys excrete excess water, salts and urea
s salts and urea (produced in the liver from excess amino acids) through
the formation of urine

What is excretion?
●​ Excretion is the removal of the waste substances of metabolic reactions (the
chemical reactions that take place inside cells), toxic materials and
substances over requirements
●​ Carbon dioxide must be excreted as it dissolves in water easily to form an acidic
solution which can lower the pH of cells
○​ This can reduce the activity of enzymes in the body which are essential
for controlling the rate of metabolic reactions
○​ For this reason, too much carbon dioxide in the body is toxic
●​ Urea is also toxic to the body in higher concentrations and so must be excreted

Metabolic process: Chemical process in which food is broken down to give us

energy–the broken down food goes into the bloodstream and becomes part of our
body
Cellular respiration happens to give us energy from glucose (food breakdown)
Metabolic Waste: Substance left from the metabolic processes which is not needed by
our body-not solid waste(poop)
And is thus wasted
Urea: a toxic metabolic waste that is being excreted through the excretory organs.
 1)​ Skin –sweating- removal of water with the dissolved salts- if dehydration( and
too much sweating), then the electrolyte balance is disturbed- so we drink ORS
2)​ Lungs- help in removing Carbon Dioxide that is being produced/ formed in
cellular respiration, being transported by blood, diffuses out of the blood into
the alveoli and then out of the lungs
Electrolyte balance: for proper functioning of body functions such as carrying
messages to and from the brain + handling the pH acidity –electrolytes such as
potassium and sodium
Any artery/vein associated with the kidneys and the excretory system is called the
renal vein/artery
During the cleansing process of blood in kidneys (which then goes to the heart), urine
is formed which is transported to the bladder through the ureter.
Blood comes from the heart for cleaning, then goes back to the heart
Bladder: A sack-like structure which stores the urine
Kidneys are bean-shaped organs responsible for the filtration of blood
Nitrogenous products (toxic) come from protein ( they contain nitrogen and some
sulphur) breakdown and are separated in the liver, where urea (nitrogenous product) is
also produced ( if they pass a certain toxicity level)
Blood from the digestive tract gets processed here
All food groups have carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

FOR EACH PART AND ITS FUNCTION:

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1WHKeRJPFzjk3WrG1Gfa776OBm5LgKmLwbnR1HLn
EhhE/edit?tab=t.0

Filtrate → tubules → collecting duct → ureter → bladder → urethra → out! ✅

GENES AND INHERITANCE
GENES- UNITS OF HEREDITY MADE UP OF DNA THAT DETERMINE TRAITS IN
LIVING ORGANISMS. A GENE IS A SMALL SECTION OF DNA THAT CARRIES

👉
INSTRUCTIONS TO MAKE A PROTEIN (LIKE EYE COLOR, HAIR TEXTURE, ETC.).
A gene is just a specific sequence of these bases — like a code.
For example: ATCGATCGTACG might be part of one gene.
DNA- DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID- A MOLECULE THAT CARRIES GENETIC
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, FUNCTIONING AND
REPRODUCTION OF ALL LIVING ORGANISMS. DOUBLE HELIX STRUCTURE.
IT’S THE ACTUAL MOLECULE—LIKE A TWISTY LADDER—THAT HOLDS ALL
YOUR GENETIC INFO.
THINK OF IT AS A LONG STRING OF CODE MADE UP OF A, T, C, AND G.
CHROMOSOMES- THREAD-LIKE STRUCTURES MADE OF DNA AND PROTEINS
THAT CONTAIN GENES AND ARE FORMED IN THE NUCLEUS OF THE CELLS. So
it's DNA + organizing system = chromosome. “If a chromosome is just one
long DNA strand... isn’t it just DNA??”

And here's the answer:

🔁 YES — A CHROMOSOME IS DNA… BUT PACKAGED AND STRUCTURED

Think of it like this:

●​ 💿 DNA = The raw string of genetic material.​

●​ 📦 Chromosome = That DNA wrapped tightly around proteins (called
histones) and coiled up neatly so it fits inside the tiny cell nucleus.​
So it's DNA + organizing system = chromosome.

VARIATIONS- DIFFERENCE IN TRAITS AMONG INDIVIDUALS OF A SPECIES DUE

TO GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS.
INHERITANCE- THE PROCESS BY WHICH GENETIC TRAITS ARE PASSED FROM
PARENTS TO OFFSPRING.
FERTILIZATION- THE FUSION OF MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES ( SPERM AND
EGG) TO FORM A ZYGOTE.
GAMETES: REPRODUCTIVE CELLS ( SPERM AND EGG) THAT CARRY HALF THE
GENETIC INFO OF AN ORGANISM.
ZYGOTE: A FERTILISED EGG CELL FORMED BY THE UNISON OF SPERM AND
EGG, CONTAINING A COMPLETE SET OF CHROMOSOMES.
NATURAL SELECTION: A PROCESS IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS WITH
FAVOURABLE TRAITS ARE MORE LIKELY TO SURVIVE AND REPRODUCE,
LEADING TO EVOLUTION.
SELECTIVE BREEDING: THE INTENTIONAL BREEDING OF ORGANISMS WITH
DESIRABLE TRAITS TO PRODUCE OFFSPRING WITH SPECIAL TRAITS.
EVOLUTION: THE GRADUAL CHANGE IN CHARACTERISTICS OF A SPECIES
OVER GENERATIONS DUE TO NATURAL SELECTION AND GENETIC VARIATION.
DOMINANT: A TYPE OF ALLELE THAT EXPRESSES ITS TRAIT EVEN IF ONE COPY
IS PRESENT IN A PERSON’S GENOTYPE.
RECESSIVE: A TYPE OF ALLELE THAT EXPRESSES ITS TRAIT WHEN 2 COPIES
ARE PRESENT IN AN ORGANISM’S GENOTYPE.
MUTATION: A CHANGE IN DNA SEQUENCE THAT CAN LEAD TO VARIATIONS
IN TRAITS AND MAY BE BENEFICIAL OR HARMFUL.
CHROMOSOMES MAKE REPLICAS OF THEMSELVES DURING CELL DIVISION
SO THAT EACH NEW CELL RECEIVES AN IDENTICAL SET OF CHROMOSOMES.\
During cell division, chromosomes replicate (copy themselves) so that each
new cell gets an identical set of chromosomes.

BODY CELLS ARE ALSO CALLED SOMATIC CELLS. THEY INCLUDE ALL CELLS IN
THE BODY EXCEPT SPERM AND EGG CELLS (GAMETES). SOMATIC CELLS
DIVIDE BY MITOSIS.

THE DIPLOID NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES IS FOUND IN SOMATIC CELLS

(BODY CELLS). THESE CELLS HAVE TWO SETS OF CHROMOSOMES—ONE SET
FROM EACH PARENT—AND THE DIPLOID NUMBER IS DENOTED AS 2N. IN
HUMANS, THE DIPLOID NUMBER IS 46 CHROMOSOMES (23 PAIRS).
THE HAPLOID NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES IS FOUND IN GAMETES (SPERM
AND EGG CELLS). THESE CELLS CONTAIN ONLY ONE SET OF CHROMOSOMES,
HALF THE DIPLOID NUMBER. IN HUMANS, THE HAPLOID NUMBER IS 23
CHROMOSOMES. WHEN A SPERM AND EGG FUSE DURING FERTILIZATION,
THE RESULTING ZYGOTE WILL HAVE A DIPLOID NUMBER OF 46.
THE 23RD PAIR IN FEMALES IS XX AND IN MALES XY
Tt Tt T- TALL t-SHORTPOSIBLITIES: TT, Tt, tt, Tt
EGG CELLS DON’T MOVE FROM THEIR PLACE. SPERM CELL HAS TAIL WHICH
HELPS WITH THE SWIMMING MOVEMENTS.
GENDER IS DETERMINED ONCE FUSION TAKES PLACE
EACH CHROMOSOME CONTAINS MANY GENES
GENES- THEY ARE SEGMENTS OF DNA THAT ACT AS INSTRUCTIONS FOR
MAKING PROTEINS WHICH DETERMINE OUR CHARACTERISTICS. GENES ARE
SPECIFIC SEQUENCES OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES THAT CODE FOR PROTEINS.
DNA, MADE UP OF NUCLEOTIDES. A PAIRS WITH T. C PAIRS WITH G
DURING MEIOSIS, A NORMAL CELL SPLITS TWICE TO CREATE SPERM OR EGG
CELLS WITH ONLY 23 CHROMOSOMES. WHEN CELL DIVIDING-MISTAKE CAN
HAPPEN-CAN CHANGE IN DNA SEQUENCE, MUTATIONS
ZYGOTE STARTS DIVIDING THROUGH MITOSIS INTO CELLS.
HOMOZYGOUS-BOTH ALLELES ARE THE SAME
HETEROZYGOUS-ALLELES DIFF
WHEN ZYGOTE IS FORMED DIPLOID NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES IS
RESTORED. THE MOM’S CHROMOSOME AND DAD’S CHROMOSOME COME
TOGETHER.
THEY SWAP SMALL SECTIONS OF DNA WITH EACH OTHER.
EACH CHROMOSOME IS A MIXTURE OF BOTH PARENTS, RATHER THAN
PURELY FROM ONE.
GENOTYPE-GENETICALLY CONTROLLED
PHENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENTALLY CONTROLLED