BCV654 B Module-3

MODULE-3
Data Input and Topology
Scanner - Raster Data Input – Raster Data File Formats – Georeferencing – Vector Data Input –
Digitiser – Datum Projection and reprojection -Coordinate Transformation – Topology - Adjacency,
connectivity and containment – Topological Consistency – Non topological file formats - Attribute
Data linking – Linking External Databases – GPS Data Integration

SCANNERS FOR RASTER DATA INPUT

Scanners are used to convert from analog maps or photographs to digital image data in raster
format. Digital image data are usually integer-based with one-byte gray scale (256 gray tones from
0 to 255) for black and white image and a set of three gray scales of red (R), green (G) and blue(B)
for color image. The following four types of scanner are commonly used in GIS and remote

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sensing.
(a) Mechanical Scanner
It is called drum scanner since a map or an image placed on a drum is digitized mechanically with
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rotation of the drum and shift of the sensor. It is accurate but slow.
(b) Video Camera
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Video camera with CRT (cathode ray tube) is often used to digitize a small part of map of firm.
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This is not very accurate but cheap.

(c) CCD Camera
Area CCD camera (called digital still camera) instead of video camera will be also convenient to
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acquire digital image data It is more stable and accurate than video camera.
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(d) CCD Scanner

Flat bed type or roll feed type scanner with linear CCD (charge coupled device) is now commonly
used to digitize analog maps in raster format; either in mono-tone or color mode . It is accurate but
expensive.

Scanned data
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➢ A scanner is used to convert an analog source map or document into digital images by
scanning successive lines across a map or document and recording the amount of light
reflected from the data source.
➢ Documents such as building plans, CAD drawings, images and maps are scanned before
vectorization.
➢ Scanning helps in reducing wear and tear; improves access and provides integrated storage.
➢ Three different types of scanners are widely used as shown in the figure below

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Scanners for Raster Data Input

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Types of Scanner
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1) Flat bed scanner

2) Rotating drum scanner
3) Large format feed scanner

Types of Scanner
Flat bed scanner is a PC peripheral which is small and comparatively inaccurate. The rotating drum
scanners are accurate but they tend to be slow and expensive. Large format feed scanner are the
most suitable type for inputting GIS data as they are cheap, quick and accurate.
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RASTER DATA INPUT

Need to have tools to transform spatial data of various types into digital format, data input is a major
bottleneck in the application of GIS technology
➢ Cost of inputs often consume 80% or more of project expenses.
➢ Data input is labor-intensive, tedious, and error-prone.
➢ There is a risk that constructing the database may become an end in itself, preventing the
project from progressing to the analysis of the collected data.
➢ It is essential to find ways to reduce costs and maximize accuracy.
➢ We need to automate the input process as much as possible; however:
➢ Automated input often leads to larger editing issues later.
➢ Source documents (maps) may frequently need to be redrafted to meet the stringent quality
requirements of automated input.

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➢ Due to the associated costs, much research has been conducted to develop better input
methods; however, few cost reductions have been achieved.
➢ Sharing digital data is one way to overcome the input bottleneck.
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➢ Increasing amounts of spatial data are becoming available in digital formats.
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➢ Data input into a GIS involves encoding both locational and attribute data.
➢ Locational data is encoded as coordinates within a specific Cartesian coordinate system.
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➢ Source maps may have differing projections and scales.

➢ Several stages of data transformation may be necessary to align all data to a common
coordinate system.
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➢ Attribute data is often collected and stored in tables.

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Modes of data input

• Keyboard entry for non-spatial attributes and occasionally locational data
• Manual locating devices
◦ user directly manipulates a device whose location is recognized by the computer
◦ e.g. digitizing
• Automated devices
◦ automatically extract spatial data from maps and photography
◦ e.g. scanning
• Conversion directly from other digital sources
• Voice input has been tried, particularly for controlling digitizer operations
◦ Not very successful - machine needs to be recalibrated for each operator, after
coffee breaks, etc.

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Data Input Techniques

Since the input of attribute data is usually quite simple, the discussion of data input techniques will
be limited to spatial data only. There is no single method of entering the spatial data into a GIS.
Rather, several, mutually compatible methods can be used singly or in combination.
The choice of data input method is governed largely by the application, the available budget, and
the type and the complexity of data being input.
There are at least four basic procedures for inputting spatial data into a GIS. These are:
• Manual digitizing;
• Automatic scanning;
• Entry of coordinates using coordinate geometry; and the
• Conversion of existing digital data.
Digitizing

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While considerable work has been done with newer technologies, the overwhelming majority of
GIS spatial data entry is done by manual digitizing. A digitizer is an electronic device consisting
of a table upon which the map or drawing is placed. The user traces the spatial features with a hand-
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held magnetic pen, often called a mouse or cursor. While tracing the features, the coordinates of
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selected points, e.g. vertices, are sent to the computer and stored. All points that are recorded are
registered against positional control points, usually the map corners that are keyed in by the user
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at the beginning of the digitizing session. The coordinates are recorded in a user defined coordinate
system or map projection. Latitude and longitude and UTM is most often used. The ability to adjust
or transform data during digitizing from one projection to another is a desirable function of the GIS
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software. Numerous functional techniques exist to aid the operator in the digitizing process.
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Digitizing can be done in a point mode, where single points are recorded one at a time, or in a
stream mode, where a point is collected on regular intervals of time or distance, measured by an X
and Y movement, e.g. every 3 metres. Digitizing can also be done blindly or with a graphics
terminal. Blind digitizing infers that the graphic result is not immediately viewable to the person
digitizing. Most systems display the digitized linework as it is being digitized on an accompanying
graphics terminal.
Most GIS's use a spaghetti mode of digitizing. This allows the user to simply digitize lines by
indicating a start point and an end point. Data can be captured in point or stream mode. However,
some systems do allow the user to capture the data in an arc/node topological data structure. The
arc/node data structure requires that the digitizer identify nodes.
Data capture in an arc/node approach helps to build a topologic data structure immediately. This
lessens the amount of post processing required to clean and build the topological definitions.

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However, most often digitizing with an arc/node approach does not negate the requirement for
editing and cleaning of the digitized line work before a complete topological structure can be
obtained.
The building of topology is primarily a post-digitizing process that is commonly executed in batch
mode after data has been cleaned. To date, only a few commercial vector GIS software offerings
have successfully exhibited the capability to build topology interactively while the user digitizes.
Manual digitizing has many advantages. These include:
• Low capital cost, e.g. digitizing tables are cheap;
• Low cost of labour;
• Flexibility and adaptability to different data types and sources;
• Easily taught in a short amount of time - an easily mastered skill
• Generally the quality of data is high;

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• Digitizing devices are very reliable and most often offer a greater precision that the
data warrants; and
• Ability to easily register and update existing data.
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For raster-based GIS software data is still commonly digitized in a vector format and converted to
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a raster structure after the building of a clean topological structure. The procedure usually differs
minimally from vector-based software digitizing, other than some raster systems allow the user to
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define the resolution size of the grid-cell. Conversion to the raster structure may occur on-the-fly
or afterwards as a separate conversion process.
Automatic Scanning
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A variety of scanning devices exist for the automatic capture of spatial data. While several different
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technical approaches exist in scanning technology, all have the advantage of being able to capture
spatial features from a map at a rapid rate of speed. However, as of yet, scanning has not proven
to be a viable alternative for most GIS implementations. Scanners are generally expensive to
acquire and operate. As well, most scanning devices have limitations concerning the capture of
selected features, e.g. text and symbol recognition. Experience has shown that most scanned data
requires a substantial amount of manual editing to create a clean data layer. Given these basic
constraints, some other practical limitations of scanners should be identified. These include:
• Hard copy maps are often unable to be removed to where a scanning device is available,
e.g. most companies or agencies cannot afford their own scanning device and therefore
must send their maps to a private firm for scanning;
• Hard copy data may not be in a form that is viable for effective scanning, e.g. maps are
of poor quality, or are in poor condition;
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• Geographic features may be too few on a single map to make it practical, cost- justifiable,
to scan;
• Often on busy maps a scanner may be unable to distinguish the features to be captured
from the surrounding graphic information, e.g. dense contours with labels;
• With raster scanning there it is difficult to read unique labels (text) for a geographic feature
effectively; and
• Scanning is much more expensive than manual digitizing, considering all the
cost/performance issues.
Consensus within the GIS community indicates that scanners work best when the information on
a map is kept very clean, very simple, and uncluttered with graphic symbology.
The sheer cost of scanning usually eliminates the possibility of using scanning methods for data
capture in most GIS implementations. Large data capture shops and government agencies are those

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most likely to be using scanning technology.
Currently, general consensus is that the quality of data captured from scanning devices is not
substantial enough to justify the cost of using scanning technology. However, major breakthroughs
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are being made in the field, with scanning techniques and with capabilities to automatically clean
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and prepare scanned data for topological encoding. These include a variety of line following and
text recognition techniques. Users should be aware that this technology has great potential in the
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years to come, particularly for larger GIS installations.

Coordinate Geometry
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A third technique for the input of spatial data involves the calculation and entry of coordinates
using coordinate geometry (COGO) procedures. This involves entering, from survey data, the
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explicit measurement of features from some known monument. This input technique is obviously
very costly and labour intensive. In fact, it is rarely used for natural resource applications in GIS.
This method is useful for creating very precise cartographic definitions of

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property, and accordingly is more appropriate for land records management at the cadastral or
municipal scale.
Conversion of Existing Digital Data
A fourth technique that is becoming increasingly popular for data input is the conversion of existing
digital data. A variety of spatial data, including digital maps, are openly available from a wide
range of government and private sources. The most common digital data to be used in a GIS is data
from CAD systems. A number of data conversion programs exist, mostly from GIS software
vendors, to transform data from CAD formats to a raster or topological GIS data format. Several
ad hoc standards for data exchange have been established in the market place. These are
supplemented by a number of government distribution formats that have been developed. Given
the wide variety of data formats that exist, most GIS vendors have developed and provide data

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exchange/conversion software to go from their format to those considered common in the market
place.
Most GIS software vendors also provide an ASCII data exchange format specific to their product,
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and a programming subroutine library that will allow users to write their own data conversion
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routines to fulfill their own specific needs. As digital data becomes more readily available this
capability becomes a necessity for any GIS. Data conversion from existing digital data is not a
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problem for most technical persons in the GIS field. However, for smaller GIS installations who
have limited access to a GIS analyst this can be a major stumbling block in getting a GIS
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operational. Government agencies are usually a good source for technical information on data
conversion requirements.
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Some of the data formats common to the GIS marketplace are listed below. Please note that most
formats are only utilized for graphic data. Attribute data is usually handled as ASCII text files.
Vendor names are supplied where appropriate.

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RASTER DATA FILE FORMATS

Raster data formats
Two common data formats based on the raster data model are grids and images.
Grids
Grids are an ESRI file format used to store both discrete features such as buildings, roads, and
parcels, and continuous phenomena such as elevation, temperature, and precipitation. Recall that
the basic unit of the raster data model is the cell. Cells store information about what things are like
at a particular location on the earth's surface. Depending on the type of data being stored, cell values
can be either integers (whole numbers) or floating points (numbers with decimals). There are two
types of grids: one store integers and the other stores floating points.
A discrete grid contains cells whose values are integers, often code numbers for a particular

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category. Cells can have the same value in a discrete grid. For example, in a discrete grid of land
use, each land use type is coded by a different integer, but many cells may have the same code.
Discrete grids have an attribute table that stores the cell values and their associated attributes.
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Continuous grid is used to represent continuous phenomena; its cell values are floating points. Each
cell in a continuous grid can have a different floating-point value. For example, in a continuous
grid representing elevation, one cell might store an elevation value of 564.3 meters, while the cell
to the left might store an elevation value of 565.1 meters. Unlike discrete grids, continuous grids
don't have an attribute table.
Discrete grids represent discrete features such as land use categories with integer values.
Continuous grids represent continuous phenomena such as elevation with floating point values.
The attribute tables of discrete grids are INFO format, the same format in which coverage feature
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class attribute tables are stored. As with coverage attribute tables, the INFO table of a discrete grid
is stored within an info folder, which is stored at the same level as the grid in a workspace folder.
Again like coverages, there is one info folder for all the grids in a workspace folder. To avoid
breaking or corrupting the connection between grid files and the info folder, always use ArcCatalog
to move, copy, rename, and delete grids.
The Grids workspace folder contains two grids: soils and vegetation. The attribute tables for both
grids are stored in the info folder. Auxiliary files called soils.aux and vegetation.aux link the grids
and their attribute tables.
Images
The term "image" is a collective term for raster images whose cells, or pixels, store brightness
values of reflected visible light or other types of electromagnetic radiation, such as emitted heat

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(infrared) or ultraviolet (UV). Aerial photos, satellite images, and scanned paper maps are examples
of images commonly used in a GIS.
Images can be displayed as layers in a map or they can be used as attributes for vector features. For
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example, a real estate company might include photos of available houses as an attribute of a home’s
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layer. To be displayed as a layer, however, images must be referenced to real-world locations.
For example, an aerial photo as it comes from the camera is just a static picture, like a picture of a
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house. There's no information about what part of the world the photo has captured, and the photo
may contain distortion and scale variations caused by the angle of the camera. To display properly
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with other map layers, the aerial photo must be assigned a coordinate system and some of its pixels
must be linked to known geographic coordinates.
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Raster images, such as aerial photographs and scanned maps, can be referenced to real- world
locations, then displayed as a layer in a GIS map.

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There are many image file formats, which differ in the type of compression used to reduce the
file size. Some of the image formats supported by ArcGIS software.

GEOREFRENCEING
Georeferencing is the process of assigning real-world geographic coordinates (latitude and
longitude) to a raster or vector dataset. This ensures that the dataset aligns correctly with other
spatial data in a GIS system.
Importance of Georeferencing
• Ensures spatial accuracy in maps and satellite images.
• Allows integration of historical maps, scanned maps, and aerial imagery into GIS.
• Helps in data overlay and analysis with other GIS layers.
• Supports urban planning, disaster management, and environmental monitoring.

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Methods of Georeferencing
The first step in georeferencing is to establish ground control points (GCPs), which are points
with known geographical locations. Ground control points are also known as tie points, tick
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points, conjugate points. Locations that can be easily identified and precisely located are good
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candidates to be chosen as control points. GCPs should be visible, small, stable, permanent, and
well-defined landmarks.
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GPCs can also be acquired by using GPS receivers. Using appropriate GIS software, the
coordinates of these points are assigned to corresponding pixels in the scanned map or image,
desired projection parameters and coordinate system are selected, and the georeferencing
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operation initiated. The first step implemented by the software is to minimize residuals.
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Residuals are the differences between the actual coordinates of the control points and the
coordinates predicted by the geographic model created using the control points. The residuals
help in determining the level of accuracy of the process.
The quality of the rectification depends on the number, accuracy, and distribution of the control
points and the choice of transformation model. There are two approaches to georeferencing:
1. Image to Map: This procedure is commonly used to georeferenced remotely sensed data
to a standard map projection whereby it may be used in conjunction with other spatial
information in a GIS to solve problems.
2. Image to Image: This procedure is used to georeference a raster layer with the help of
another raster, which is already georeferenced by the process of image to map rectification. The
already georeferenced raster is used as a reference for the raster which is to be rectified. GCPs
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are selected from the raster already georeferenced. Image to Image registration is used to
spatially match several raster layers to a single reference raster layer.
There are various GIS tools available that can be used to georeference raster datasets to some
geographic control framework. These include commercial applications like ArcMap, PCI
Geomatica, TNTmips (MicroImages, Inc) or ERDAS Imagine. Open source software that can
be used for georeferencing include QGIS, SAGA GIS and GRASS GIS. Using these, one can
georeference a set of points, lines, polygons, images, or 3D structures.
VECTOR DATA INPUT
Digitization:
Digitizing is the process of interpreting and converting paper map or image data to vector digital
data.
Heads down digitization

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Digitizers are used to capture data from hardcopy maps shown in the figure below, Heads-down
digitization is done on a digitizing table using a magnetic pen known as Puck. The position of
a cursor or puck is detected when passed over a table inlaid with a fine mesh of wires. The
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function of a digitizer is to input correctly the coordinates of the points and the lines.
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Digitization can be done in two modes:
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• Point mode: In this mode, digitization is started by placing a point that marks the
beginning of the feature to be digitized and after that, more points are added to trace
the particular feature (line or a polygon). The number of points to be added to trace the
feature and the space interval between two consecutive points are decided by the
operator.
• Stream mode: In stream digitizing, the cursor is placed at the beginning of the feature,
a command is then sent to the computer to place the points at either equal or unequal
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intervals as per the position of the cursor moving over the image of the feature.
Heads-up digitization
This method uses a scanned copy of the map or image and digitization is done on the screen of
the computer monitor as shown in the figure below. The scanned map lies vertically, which can
be viewed without bending the head down and therefore is called as head's up digitization.
Semi-automatic and automatic methods of digitizing require post processing but save a lot of
time and resources compared to a manual method and are described in the following section.

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Digitizers for Vector Data Input
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Tablet digitizers with a free cursor connected with a personal computer are the most
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common device for digitizing spatial features with the plan metric coordinates from analog
maps.
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Digitizing Tablet
The analog map is placed on the surface of the digitizing tablet as shown in Figure 3.5.
The size of the digitizer usually ranges from A3 to A0 size.
The digitizing operation is as follows.
Step 1: a map is affixed to a digitizing table.
Step 2: control points or tics at the four corners of this map sheet should be digitized
by the digitizer and input to PC together with the map coordinates of the four corners.
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Step 3: map contents are digitized according to the map layers and the map code
system in either point mode or stream mode at a short time interval.
Step 4: editing errors such as small gaps at line junctions, overshoots, duplicates,
etc. should be made for a clean dataset without errors.
Step 5: conversion from digitizer coordinates to map coordinates to store in a
spatial database.
Datum
So how are we to reconcile our need to work with a (simple) mathematical model of the earth’s
shape with the ondulating nature of the earth’s surface (i.e. its geoid)? The solution is to align
the geoid with the ellipsoid (or sphere) representation of the earth and to map the earth’s surface
features onto this ellipsoid/sphere. The alignment can be local where the ellipsoid surface is
closely fit to the geoid at a particular location on the earth’s surface (such as the state of Kansas)

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or geocentric where the ellipsoid is aligned with the center of the earth. How one chooses to
align the ellipsoid to the geoid defines a datum.
Local Datum
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There are many local datums to choose from, some are old while others are more recently
defined. The choice of datum is largely driven by the location of interest. For example, when
working in the US, a popular local datum to choose from is the North American Datum of 1927
(or NAD27 for short). NAD27 works well for the US but it’s not well suited for other parts of
the world. For example, a far better local datum for Europe is the European Datum of 1950
(ED50 for short). Examples of common local datums are shown in the following table:

Local datum Acronym Best for Comment

North American Continental This is an old datum but still prevalent

NAD27
Datum of 1927 US because of the wide use of older maps.

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Local datum Acronym Best for Comment

European Western Developed after World War II and still

ED50
Datum of 1950 Europe quite popular today. Not used in the UK.

World Geodetic
WGS72 Global Developed by the Department of Defense.
System 1972

Projection and Types

A map projection is a method used to represent the Earth’s three-dimensional, curved surface
onto a two-dimensional plane, such as a piece of paper or a digital screen. Since the Earth is
not flat, map projections inevitably introduce some distortions in area, shape, distance,

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direction, or scale.
Cartographers choose different map projections based on the purpose of the map and the region
being depicted to minimize these distortions and accurately convey information. Three of these
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common types of map projections are cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal.
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1. Cylindrical Projections: These projections involve wrapping a cylinder around the
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Earth and projecting its features onto the cylindrical surface. Examples are the
Mercator, Transverse Mercator, and Miller Cylindrical projections.
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2. Conic Projections: For these projections, a cone is placed over the Earth, and its
features are projected onto the conical surface. Common examples are the Lambert
Conformal Conic and Albers Equal-Area Conic projections.

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3. Azimuthal Projections: Also referred to as planar or zenithal projections, these use a
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flat plane that touches the Earth at a single point, projecting the Earth’s features onto
the plane. Azimuthal Equidistant, Stereographic, and Orthographic projections are
examples.
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TOPOLOGY IN GIS
In geo-databases, a topology is a set of rules that defines how point, line, and polygon features
share coincident geometry. Topology describes the means whereby lines, borders, and points
meet up, intersect, and cross. This includes how street centerlines and census blocks share
common geometry, and adjacent soil polygons share their common boundaries. Another
example could be how two counties that have a common boundary between them will share an
edge, creating a spatial relationship.
Common terms used when referring to topology include: dimensionality, adjacency,
connectivity, and containment, with all but dimensionality dealing directly with the spatial
relationships of features.
Dimensionality - the distinction between point, line, area, and volume, which are said to have

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topological dimensions of 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
1. Adjacency
Adjacency includes the touching of land parcels, counties, and nation-states (They share a
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common border).
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2. Connectivity
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Connectivity including junctions between streets, roads, railroads, and rivers (Very common
topological error. See diagrams about "Overshoot" below).
3. Containment
Containment when a point lies inside rather than outside an area.

Topology defines and enforces data integrity rules (there should be no gaps between polygons).
It supports topological relationship queries and navigation (navigating feature adjacency or
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connectivity), sophisticated editing tools, and allows feature construction from unstructured
geometry (constructing polygons from lines).
Addressing topology is more than providing a data storage mechanism. In GIS, topology is
maintained by using some of the following aspects:
➢ The geo-database includes a topological data model using an open storage format for
simple features (i.e., feature classes of points, lines, and polygons), topology rules, and
topologically integrated coordinates among features with shared geometry. The data
model includes the ability to define the integrity rules and topological behaviour of the
feature classes that participate in a topology.
➢ Most GIS programs include a set of tools for query, editing, validation, and error
correction of topology.
➢ GIS software can navigate topological relationships, work with adjacency and

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connectivity, and assemble features from these elements. It can identify the polygons
that share a specific common edge; list the edges that connect at a certain node;
navigate along connected edges from the current location; add a new line and "burn"
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it into the topological graph; split lines at intersections; and create resulting edges,
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faces, and nodes.
Topological Consistency rules
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Topological consistency describes the trustworthiness of the topological and logical

relationships between the dataset segments. These relations typically involve spatial data
inconsistencies such as incorrect line intersections, polygons not properly closed, duplicate
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lines or boundaries, or gaps in lines. It deals with the structural integrity of a given data set
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based on a formal framework for modelling of spatial data and relationships among objects.
These types of errors must be corrected to avoid incomplete features and to ensure data
integrity. Topological errors, which occur during digitizing and data exploration processes, are
also known as semantic errors. Topological errors exist due to violation of predefined topology
rules. The most common topology errors in map data are shown in below Figure, including: -
Duplicate Lines - Overshoots - Undershoots - Micro Segments - Pseudo Nodes - Merge
Adjacent Endpoints - Self Intersection

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Non-Topological File Formats .IN

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Raster formats
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• ADRG – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s ARC Digitized Raster
Graphics
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• Binary file – An unformatted file consisting of raster data written in one of several
data types, where multiple bands are stored in BSQ (band sequential), BIP (band
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interleaved by pixel) or BIL (band interleaved by line). Geo-referencing and other

metadata are stored in one or more sidecar files.
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• Digital raster graphic (DRG) – digital scan of a paper USGS topographic map
• ECRG – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s Enhanced Compressed
ARC Raster Graphics (Better resolution than CADRG and no color loss)
• ECW – Enhanced Compressed Wavelet (from ERDAS). A compressed wavelet
format, often lossy.
• Esri grid – proprietary binary and meta-dataless ASCII raster formats used by Esri
• GeoTIFF – TIFF variant enriched with GIS relevant metadata
• IMG – ERDAS IMAGINE image file format
• JPEG2000 – Open-source raster format. A compressed format allows both lossy and
lossless compression.

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• MrSID – Multi-Resolution Seamless Image Database (by Lizardtech). A compressed

wavelet format allows both lossy and lossless compression.
• netCDF-CF – netCDF file format with CF metadata conventions for earth science
data. Binary storage in open format with optional compression. Allows for direct web-
access of subsets/aggregations of maps through OPeNDAP protocol.
• RPF – Raster Product Format, military file format specified in MIL-STD-2411
• CADRG – Compressed ADRG, developed by NGA, nominal compression of 55:1
over ADRG (type of Raster Product Format)
• CIB – Controlled Image Base, developed by NGA (type of Raster Product Format)
Vector formats
• AutoCAD DXF – contour elevation plots in AutoCAD DXF format (by Autodesk)
• Cartesian coordinate system (XYZ) – simple point cloud

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• Digital line graph (DLG) – a USGS format for vector data
• Esri TIN - proprietary binary format for triangulated irregular network data used by
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Esri
• Geography Markup Language (GML) – XML based open standard (by OpenGIS)
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for GIS data exchange
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GeoJSON – a lightweight format based on JSON, used by many open-source GIS

packages
• GeoMedia – Intergraph's Microsoft Access based format for spatial vector storage
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• ISFC – Intergraph's MicroStation based CAD solution attaching vector elements to a

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relational Microsoft Access database

• Keyhole Markup Language (KML) – XML based open standard (by OpenGIS) for
GIS data exchange
• MapInfo TAB format – MapInfo's vector data format using TAB, DAT, ID and MAP
files
• National Transfer Format (NTF) – National Transfer Format (mostly used by the
UK Ordnance Survey)
• Spatialite – is a spatial extension to SQLite, providing vector geo-database
functionality. It is similar to Post-GIS, Oracle Spatial, and SQL Server with spatial
extensions
• Shapefile – a popular vector data GIS format, developed by Esri

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• Simple Features – Open Geospatial Consortium specification for vector data

• SOSI – a spatial data format used for all public exchange of spatial data in Norway
• Spatial Data File – Autodesk's high-performance geo-database format, native to
MapGuide
• TIGER – Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing
• Vector Product Format (VPF) – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s
format of vectored data for large geographic databases
Grid formats
• USGS DEM – The USGS' Digital Elevation Model
• GTOPO30 – Large complete Earth elevation model at 30 arc seconds, delivered in
the USGS DEM format
• DTED – National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)'s Digital Terrain Elevation

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Data, the military standard for elevation data
• GeoTIFF – TIFF variant enriched with GIS relevant metadata
• SDTS – The USGS' successor to DEM.
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LINKING THE ATTRIBUTE DATA TO THE SPATIAL DATA
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Before you can use your spatial data as a basis for exploring your attribute data, you must link
the attribute data to the spatial data. One way to use the attribute data after you have linked it
to the spatial data is by creating a theme to control the appearance of features in the spatial data.
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See Overview of SAS/GIS Software for more information.

In the layer bar, right-click the COUNTY layer name to open the pop-up menu for the
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COUNTY layer. Select Edit to open the GIS Layer window. In the definition for the COUNTY
layer, select Thematic. The GIS Attribute Data Sets window appears for you to define the link
to the theme data set.
In the GIS Attribute Data Sets window, select New to define a new link. In the resulting select
a Member window, select MAPS.USAAC. You must next specify the values that are common
to both the attribute and spatial data, because the common values provide the connection
between the spatial data and the attribute data.
The spatial database and the MAPS.USAAC data set share compatible state and county codes,
so first select STATE in both the Data Set Vars and Composites lists, and then select COUNTY
in both lists. Select Save to save the link definition to the Links list. Finally, select Continue to
close the GIS Attribute Data Sets window.
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After the GIS Attribute Data Sets window closes, the Var window automatically opens for you.
Select which variable in the attribute data provides the theme data for your theme. Select the
CHANGE variable to have the counties colored according to the level of change in the county
population. Select OK to close the Var window.
The counties in the spatial data are colored according to the demographic values in the attribute
data set, as shown in the following display.

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Linking External Databases

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The ArcGIS Maps Connect workflow supports external content from Microsoft SQL Server
2008 R2, 2012, 2012 R2, and 2014, including the SQL Server Express editions. The external
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content must contain data that can be geo-coded, such as an address, U.S. city, U.S. state, ZIP
code, or world city. The external content must also contain a primary key column. Alternatively,
the table can contain an existing SQL server spatial data type (geography or geometry) column
that is then converted by the Arc-GIS Maps Connect workflow for use in ArcGIS Maps for
SharePoint.
If the external table has an existing spatial column that contains no data, the ArcGIS Maps
Connect workflow populates the column based on other location information in the table (for
example, address). If no spatial column exists, the ArcGIS Maps Connect workflow creates a
geography spatial type column named EsriShape with a Spatial Reference Identifier (SRID) of
4326 (WGS 84). The EsriShape field supports all geometries including points, lines, and
polygons. In all scenarios, the external content can be enriched with additional geographic data
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variables from ArcGIS

GPS
Stands for "Global Positioning System." GPS is a satellite navigation system used to
determine the ground position of an object. GPS technology was first used by the United
States military in the 1960s and expanded into civilian use over the next few decades. Today,
GPS receivers are included in many commercial products, such as automobiles, Smartphone,
exercise watches, and GIS devices.

The GPS system includes 24 satellites deployed in space about 12,000 miles (19,300
kilometers) above the earth's surface. They orbit the earth once every 12 hours at an
extremely fast pace of roughly 7,000 miles per hour (11,200 kilometers per hour). The
satellites are evenly spread out so that four satellites are accessible via direct line-of-sight
from anywhere on the globe.

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Each GPS satellite broadcasts a message that includes the satellite's current position, orbit,
and exact time. A GPS receiver combines the broadcasts from multiple satellites to calculate
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its exact position using a process called triangulation. Three satellites are required in order
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to determine a receiver's location, though a connection to four satellites is ideal since it
provides greater accuracy.
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In order for a GPS device to work correctly, it must first establish a connection to the
required number of satellites. This process can take anywhere from a few seconds to a few
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minutes, depending on the strength of the receiver. For example, a car's GPS unit will
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typically establish a GPS connection faster than the receiver in a watch or Smartphone. Most
GPS devices also use some type of location caching to speed up GPS detection. By
memorizing its previous location, a GPS device can quickly determine what satellites will
be available the next time it scans for a GPS signal.

Uses of GPS

GPS has many uses, for example;

1. Clock synchronization: The GPS time signals use highly accurate atomic clocks.
This technology can be used for things like automatic updates of daylight saving times
on cell phones
2. Disaster relief and emergency services: Depend upon GPS for location

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3. Tracking a vehicle, person, pet or aircraft: Receivers provide continuous tracking and
can provide an alert if the receiver leaves a set area. Pets can be chipped so they can
be found if they become lost
4. Geotagging: Applying location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs and
other documents for purposes such as creating map overlays.
5. Bus tour commentary: your location will determine what information is displayed
about approaching points of interest
6. Bus stops: to show how long the bus will take to arrive at a bus stop
7. Navigation: eg Navman. The device uses voice activation to describe a preferred route
based on the position of the receiver, the position of the destination and a street map
8. Personal Locator Beacons (PLB): used to inform search and rescue authorities of your
exact location in the event of an emergency

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9. Recreation: For example, geo-caching and way-marking
10. Surveying: Surveyors use absolute locations to make maps and determine property
boundaries
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11. Tectonics: enables fault motion measurement in earthquakes
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