African Methodist Episcopal University, (AMEU)

34 Camp Johnson Road

Monrovia, Liberia

College of Science and Allied Health (COSAH)

Course: Biology 302

Section: Three (3)

Date of Submission: March 23, 2025

Submitted to: MR. Lousine N. Farwenel

Submitted by: Group Nine (9)

Group Nine Members:

 Sandy B. Fotorma…………….2222352

 Adrea Sherman……………….2240858

 Odell M. Davis………….……2222235
 Table of Content
Introduction 1

Life Cycle of Toxoplasma Gondii 2

Host/ Vectors 3

Body Form and Function of the vector 3

Type of Parasite 5

Body Form and Function of the Parasite 5

Mode of Transmission 6

Geographic Distribution 8

Incubation Period 9

Signs and Symptoms 10

Treatment 12

Recommendation 14

Conclusion 16

Reference 17
 Introduction

Toxoplasmosis is an infectious disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which

affects a wide range of warm-blooded animals, including humans. While many infected
individuals may not experience noticeable symptoms, the disease can cause serious health
problems in people with weakened immune systems and in unborn children if a mother
becomes infected during pregnancy. In such cases, toxoplasmosis may lead to complications
like brain damage, vision problems, or even miscarriage.

The primary host of Toxoplasma gondii is the domestic cat, which is the only animal where
the parasite can reproduce sexually. Once infected, cats shed oocysts in their feces, which can
contaminate soil, water, and food. Humans and other animals may become infected by
accidentally ingesting these oocysts through contact with contaminated environments or by
consuming undercooked meat containing tissue cysts. Other transmission methods include
congenital transmission from mother to fetus and, more rarely, through organ transplants or
blood transfusions.

This parasite is highly adaptable and can survive in various environments. It forms tissue
cysts that allow it to persist in the host's body for years, often without causing symptoms.
However, when the immune system is compromised, these cysts can reactivate, leading to
severe illness. The global distribution of Toxoplasma gondii is influenced by climate,
sanitation, food preparation practices, and cat population density.

Understanding the life cycle, transmission routes, and health effects of Toxoplasma gondii is
essential for prevention and control. This paper explores the biology of the parasite, its hosts
and vectors, signs and symptoms of infection, treatment options, and preventive measures. By
increasing awareness and promoting safe practices, we can reduce the risk of infection and
protect vulnerable populations.

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 Life Cycle of Toxoplasma Gondii

Life Cycle of Toxoplasma gondii: The life cycle of parasite Toxoplasma gondii is different
from most other parasites. While other insect life cycles include sexual stages of reproduction,
this parasite has asexual and sexual stages of reproduction in felines such as cats. This parasite
seems to spread faster amongst intermediate hosts.

 Oocyst – Stage 1 – The parasite Toxoplasma gondii forms an oocyst which is a cyst
that contains zygote of the parasite. The process of producing spores is called
sporulation. The oocyst sheds multiple times and takes around 5 days to become
infective. The intermediate hosts like cats and dogs get infected when they consume
soil or mud that contains these oocysts. Once they infect a host, they enter the next
stage, where they transform into Tachyzoites.
 Tachyzoite – Stage 2 – Once an oocyst has entered the stomach of the animal (cat or
dog), it forms into tachyzoites after ingestion. These tachyzoites attack the neural and
muscle tissues and form other tissues known as the cyst bradyzoites.
 Bradyzoite – Stage 3 – Bradyzoites are parasites formed in tissue cysts which are
found in muscle cells and within cells of the nervous system. Animals like cats can be
infected with this parasite if they feed on intermediate hosts who have tissue cysts like
bradyzoites.

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 Host/Vectors

Definitive Hosts (Cats):

 Cats are the only animals where T. gondii can reproduce sexually. They become
infected by eating infected rodents or other animals. Once infected, cats shed oocysts
(the infectious stage) in their feces, which can contaminate the environment.

 Intermediate Hosts:
 Rodents: Rodents can become infected by ingesting oocysts from
contaminated soil or water, or by eating infected meat.
 Livestock: Animals like pigs, sheep, and goats can become infected by
ingesting oocysts or by consuming infected meat.
 Humans: Humans can be infected by:
 Ingesting undercooked meat: Tissue cysts in infected meat can be ingested
by humans.
 Ingesting contaminated food or water: Oocysts in contaminated food or
water can be ingested.
 Contact with cat feces: Oocysts in cat feces can contaminate the
environment and be ingested.
 Congenital transmission: A pregnant woman can transmit the parasite to her
fetus.
 Blood transfusion or organ transplantation: In rare cases, the parasite can
be transmitted through blood or organs.

Other potential vectors:

 Cockroaches: Can carry oocysts in their intestinal tract.
 Ticks: Some studies suggest that ticks might be a potential vector for T. gondii.

Body Form and Function of the Vector of Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii does not have a single biological vector like mosquitoes in malaria
transmission. However, mechanical vectors such as flies and cockroaches can help spread the

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parasite by carrying T. gondii oocysts from cat feces to food, water, or surfaces. Below is an
overview of their body form and function in relation to their role as mechanical vectors:

1. House Flies (Musca domestica)

 Body Form

• Head: Contains large compound eyes, antennae, and sponging mouthparts adapted for
feeding on liquids and semi-solids.

• Thorax: Has three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings (one functional, one reduced as
halteres for balance).

• Abdomen: Houses digestive and reproductive organs.

Function in Transmission

• Flies land on cat feces containing T. gondii oocysts, which stick to their legs, mouthparts,
and body hairs.

• They then transfer the oocysts to food, water, or surfaces, where they can be ingested by
humans or animals.

2. Cockroaches (e.g., Periplaneta Americana, Blattella germanica)

 Body Form

• Head: Has long antennae for detecting food, strong mandibles for chewing, and compound
eyes for vision.

• Thorax: Three pairs of legs adapted for fast movement and wings (though not all species
fly).

• Abdomen: Contains reproductive organs and digestive structures.

Function in Transmission

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• Cockroaches consume contaminated feces or walk over it, picking up T. gondii oocysts on
their legs and bodies.

• They then spread oocysts to human food, utensils, and surfaces through contact or fecal
contamination.

Types of Parasite

Toxoplasma gondii is classified as:

1. Intracellular Parasite – It lives and reproduces inside the cells of its host.

2. Obligate Parasite – It cannot complete its life cycle without a host.

3. Protozoan Parasite – It is a single-celled eukaryotic organism belonging to the phylum

Apicomplexa.

4. Facultative Heteroxenous Parasite – It can infect multiple host species, though it requires
felids (cats) as definitive hosts for sexual reproduction.

Body Form and Function of Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii is a unicellular, eukaryotic protozoan parasite belonging to the phylum

Apicomplexa. It exhibits multiple morphological stages throughout its life cycle, each
specialized for different functions such as host invasion, replication, and environmental
survival. These stages include the tachyzoite, bradyzoite, and oocyst, each playing a key
role in the parasite's ability to infect and persist in its hosts.

1. Tachyzoite (Active, Rapidly Dividing Form)

 Body Form: Crescent-shaped, approximately 2–3 µm wide and 4–8 µm long.

Contains a single nucleus and a specialized apical complex for cell invasion.
 Function:
o Responsible for the acute phase of infection.

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 o Rapidly multiplies inside host cells (intracellular).
o Disseminates through the host’s bloodstream and lymphatic system.
o Causes tissue damage and activates the host's immune response.

2. Bradyzoite (Dormant, Slow-Growing Form)

 Body Form: Oval-shaped and encased within tissue cysts; similar in appearance to
tachyzoites but with a denser cytoplasm.
 Function:
o Represents the chronic stage of infection.
o Forms long-lasting tissue cysts, primarily in muscles and the brain.
o Can remain dormant for years and may reactivate in immunocompromised
individuals (e.g., those with HIV/AIDS).
o Ensures long-term survival of the parasite within the host.

3. Oocyst (Environmental, Infectious Stage)

 Body Form: Spherical in shape, measuring approximately 10–12 µm in diameter.

Enclosed by a thick, resistant wall and contains sporozoites within.
 Function:
o Excreted in cat feces as part of the sexual reproduction cycle in felines.
o Capable of surviving in harsh environmental conditions (soil, water, etc.) for
extended periods.
o Becomes infectious after sporulation (1–5 days) and infects new hosts through
ingestion of contaminated material.

Mode of Transmission

Toxoplasma gondii can be transmitted to humans and animals through several routes. These
include ingestion of contaminated food or water, congenital transmission, and, in rare cases,
organ transplantation or blood transfusion. The primary modes of transmission are outlined
below:

1. Ingestion of Oocysts (Fecal-Oral Route)

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Source: Oocysts are shed in the feces of infected cats. These oocysts contaminate soil, water,
food, and surfaces, especially in outdoor or unsanitary environments.
How Infection Occurs:

Drinking contaminated water or eating unwashed fruits and vegetables

Handling cat litter, gardening, or playing in contaminated soil and accidentally ingesting
oocysts

Mechanical transmission by flies and cockroaches, which can carry oocysts from cat feces to
uncovered food and utensils

2. Ingestion of Tissue Cysts (Foodborne Transmission)

Source: Raw or undercooked meat (particularly pork, lamb, or venison) may contain tissue
cysts of T. gondii.
How Infection Occurs:

Consuming undercooked or raw meat from infected animals

Cross-contamination in the kitchen (for example, using the same cutting board for raw meat
and vegetables without proper cleaning)

3. Congenital Transmission (Mother-to-Fetus)

Source: A pregnant woman who becomes infected for the first time during pregnancy can
transmit the parasite to her fetus through the placenta.
Risk Factors:

Highest risk occurs when the infection is acquired in the first trimester, which can result in
miscarriage, stillbirth, or congenital toxoplasmosis

Congenital toxoplasmosis may cause serious complications such as hydrocephalus, vision

problems, seizures, and brain damage in the newborn

4. Blood Transfusion or Organ Transplantation

Source: In rare cases, transmission can occur through transfusion of infected blood or
transplantation of infected organs.
Risk Factors:

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More likely to affect immunocompromised individuals, such as organ transplant recipients or
patients with HIV/AIDS

5. Laboratory Exposure (Occupational Risk)

Source: Accidental exposure in laboratories where T. gondii is studied or cultured.

Risk Factors:

Exposure may occur through needlestick injuries, inhalation of aerosolized parasites, or

improper handling of infectious materials

Geographic Distribution

Toxoplasma gondii is worldwide in distribution, infecting humans and animals on every

continent. However, prevalence varies depending on factors like climate, diet, hygiene, and
the presence of cats.

1. High-Prevalence Regions (Above 50%)

• Latin America – Brazil, Colombia, and other South American countries have high infection
rates, likely due to warm, humid conditions that favor oocyst survival.

• Central and West Africa – High prevalence due to environmental conditions and dietary
habits (e.g., consumption of undercooked meat).

• Southeast Asia – Countries like Thailand and the Philippines report significant infection
rates.

• Parts of Europe – France has particularly high prevalence, likely due to dietary habits
(consumption of raw or undercooked meat).

2. Moderate-Prevalence Regions (20–50%)

• United States & Canada – Around 10–20% of people are infected, with higher rates in
certain communities (e.g., hunters, people consuming raw meat).

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• Northern & Eastern Europe – Countries like Germany and Poland have moderate infection
rates, though they are lower than in France.

• China & India – Varies by region, with some rural areas showing higher rates.

3. Low-Prevalence Regions (Below 20%)

• Cold and Dry Regions – Arctic, parts of Scandinavia, and deserts have lower infection rates
because oocysts do not survive well in extreme cold or dryness.

• Highly Urbanized Areas – Places with better sanitation and minimal contact with soil or raw
meat have lower transmission rates.

Factors Affecting Distribution

1. Climate – Warm, humid environments favor oocyst survival in soil and water.

2. Diet – Raw or undercooked meat consumption increases risk.

3. Cat Population – More stray or domestic cats increase environmental contamination.

4. Hygiene & Sanitation – Poor sanitation and lack of water treatment contribute to higher
infection rates.

Incubation Period of Toxoplasma gondii

The incubation period for toxoplasmosis varies depending on the mode of transmission and
the host’s immune status.

1. Acquired Toxoplasmosis (Foodborne or Fecal-Oral Infection)

• Incubation Period: 5 to 23 days after ingesting oocysts or tissue cysts.

• Symptoms: Many cases are asymptomatic, but some individuals develop flu-like symptoms
(fever, muscle aches, swollen lymph nodes).

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2. Congenital Toxoplasmosis (Mother-to-Fetus Transmission)

• Incubation Period: During fetal development (infection occurs in the womb).

• Symptoms: May appear at birth (severe cases) or later in life (e.g., vision problems,
developmental delays).

3. Reactivation in Immunocompromised Individuals

• Incubation Period: Varies (reactivation can occur anytime if immunity weakens, such as in
HIV/AIDS or organ transplant recipients).

• Symptoms: Severe neurological complications, encephalitis, or organ damage.

Signs and Symptoms

The symptoms of Toxoplasma gondii infection vary depending on the individual’s immune
status and whether the infection is acute, chronic, or congenital.

1. Acquired (Acute) Toxoplasmosis (Healthy Individuals) - Most people are asymptomatic,

but when symptoms occur, they resemble mild flu or mononucleosis:

• Fever

• Swollen lymph nodes (especially in the neck)

• Muscle aches and joint pain

• Fatigue

• Headache

• Sore throat

Duration: Symptoms usually resolve within a few weeks to months without treatment.

2. Chronic (Latent) Toxoplasmosis

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• In most cases, the parasite remains dormant in tissues (brain, muscles, and eyes).

• Usually asymptomatic, but it may reactivate in immunocompromised individuals.

3. Severe Toxoplasmosis (Immunocompromised Individuals)

People with HIV/AIDS, organ transplants, or cancer are at high risk of severe disease.
Symptoms include:

• Brain infection (Toxoplasmic encephalitis):

• Confusion

• Seizures

• Weakness

• Speech or vision problems

• Lung infection (Pneumonitis):

• Shortness of breath

• Cough

• Fever

• Heart infection (Myocarditis):

• Chest pain

• Irregular heartbeat

If untreated, severe toxoplasmosis can be fatal.

4. Congenital Toxoplasmosis (Mother-to-Fetus Transmission)

Occurs when a mother is infected during pregnancy. Severity depends on when infection
occurs:

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• First trimester: High risk of miscarriage or stillbirth.

• Second and third trimesters: The baby may be born with:

• Hydrocephalus (fluid buildup in the brain)

• Microcephaly (abnormally small head)

• Seizures

• Jaundice (yellow skin and eyes)

• Eye damage (Chorioretinitis): Can lead to blindness

• Hearing loss or intellectual disabilities

Some infected babies appear healthy at birth but develop symptoms months or years later,
such as vision loss or learning difficulties.

Note:

• Healthy individuals – Usually mild or no symptoms.

• Immunocompromised individuals – Severe brain, lung, or heart infections.

• Congenital cases – Can cause miscarriage, brain damage, or blindness.

Treatment of Toxoplasma Gondii

The treatment of Toxoplasma gondii infection depends on the severity of the disease and the
immune status of the patient.

1. Treatment for Healthy Individuals (Mild Cases)

• Not usually required – Most healthy people recover without treatment.

• If symptoms persist or are severe, a doctor may prescribe medication.

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2. Treatment for Severe or Immunocompromised Patients

Patients with HIV/AIDS, organ transplants, or severe symptoms need antiparasitic treatment:

First-Line Treatment (Combination Therapy)

1. Pyrimethamine – An antimalarial drug that inhibits parasite growth.

2. Sulfadiazine – An antibiotic that works with pyrimethamine to kill the parasite.

3. Leucovorin (Folinic Acid) – Given to reduce side effects of pyrimethamine (prevents bone
marrow suppression).

Alternative Medications (If the first-line drugs are not tolerated)

• Clindamycin (used instead of sulfadiazine).

• Atovaquone + Pyrimethamine (for resistant cases).

• Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) – Sometimes used for prophylaxis in

immunocompromised patients.

3. Treatment for Congenital Toxoplasmosis (Infected Newborns or Pregnant Women)

• Spiramycin – Given during early pregnancy to reduce transmission to the fetus.

• Pyrimethamine + Sulfadiazine + Leucovorin – Used in later pregnancy or for infected

newborns.

4. Treatment Duration

• Acute infection: 4 to 6 weeks.

• Severe cases (e.g., encephalitis): Long-term therapy with maintenance treatment to prevent
relapse in immunocompromised patients.

5. Prevention in High-Risk Individuals

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• HIV/AIDS patients with CD4 counts <100 may take TMP-SMX as prophylaxis to prevent
reactivation.

• Organ transplant recipients may receive preemptive treatment if they test positive for T.
gondii.

Recommendations for Preventing and Managing Toxoplasmosis

To reduce the risk of infection and complications from Toxoplasma gondii, follow these
recommendations:

1. General Prevention Measures

 Practice Good Hygiene

• Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water after handling raw meat, gardening, or
cleaning litter boxes.

• Wear gloves when handling soil or cat litter.

 Avoid Contaminated Food and Water

• Cook meat thoroughly (internal temperature: 63–74°C or 145–165°F).

• Wash fruits and vegetables well before eating.

• Drink only safe, treated water (avoid untreated water sources).

 Prevent Cat-Related Transmission

• Keep pet cats indoors to reduce their exposure to infected prey.

• Feed cats commercial pet food instead of raw meat.

• Clean the litter box daily (oocysts become infectious after 1–5 days).

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• Pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals should avoid cleaning litter boxes or
use gloves and wash hands afterward.

2. Recommendations for High-Risk Individuals

 Pregnant Women

• Get tested for Toxoplasma gondii if at risk.

• Avoid handling cat litter and eating raw meat.

• If infected during pregnancy, seek immediate medical treatment to reduce fetal

transmission.

 Immunocompromised Individuals (HIV/AIDS, Organ Transplant Patients)

• Take preventive medications (e.g., TMP-SMX) if at high risk.

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 Conclusion on Toxoplasma gondii and Toxoplasmosis

Toxoplasma gondii is a globally distributed protozoan parasite that infects a wide range of
warm-blooded animals, including humans. While most infections are asymptomatic or mild,
severe cases can occur in immunocompromised individuals and congenital infections can
lead to serious complications.

The parasite spreads primarily through ingestion of contaminated food, water, and cat feces,
making proper hygiene, safe food handling, and responsible pet care essential in reducing
transmission. Treatment is available for severe cases, with antiparasitic medications
effectively managing symptoms and preventing complications.

In conclusion, awareness, prevention, and early treatment are key to controlling

toxoplasmosis and minimizing its impact, particularly in high-risk populations such as
pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals. Continued research and public health
measures remain important in addressing this silent but widespread infection.

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