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Practical Biomedical
Signal Analysis Using
MATLAB®
Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering

Series Editors: Kwan-Hoong Ng, E. Russell Ritenour, and Slavik Tabakov

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Practical Biomedical Signal Analysis Using MATLAB®, Second

Edition
Katarzyna J. Blinowska, Jarosław Żygierewicz
 Practical Biomedical
Signal Analysis Using
MATLAB®
Second Edition

Katarzyna J. Blinowska, Jarosław Żygierewicz

MATLAB ® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
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Contents

About the Series xi

Preface xiii

List of Abbreviations xv

1 A Short Introduction to MATLAB R 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Where Is Help? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Vectors and Matrixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4.1 Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4.2 Matrix Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.3 Logical Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.4 Example Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Scripts and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Working with Binary Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8.1 Saving to and Loading from Binary Files . . . . . . . 7
1.8.2 Saving and Loading Signals Using .mat Files . . . . . 9
1.8.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.3.1 Unknown Data Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8.3.2 Unknown Number of Channels . . . . . . . . 10

2 Introductory Concepts 11
2.1 Stochastic and Deterministic Signals, Concepts of Stationarity
and Ergodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Discrete Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 The Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1.1 Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Quantization Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Linear Time Invariant Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Duality of Time and Frequency Domains . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.1 Continuous Periodic Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 Infinite Continuous Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.3 Finite Discrete Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

v
vi Contents

2.4.4 Basic Properties of Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . 23

2.4.5 Power Spectrum: The Plancherel Theorem and Parse-
val’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.6 Z -Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.7 Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Hypotheses Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.1 The Null and Alternative Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.2 Types of Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.3 Multiple Comparisons Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.3.1 Correcting the Significance Level . . . . . . . 31
2.5.3.2 Parametric and Non-Parametric Statistical
Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.3.3 False Discovery Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 Surrogate Data Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3 Single Channel (Univariate) Signal 35

3.1 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 Designing Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1.2 Changing the Sampling Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.3 Matched Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.4 Wiener Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Probabilistic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.1 Hidden Markov Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.2 Kalman Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Stationary Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.1 Analytic Tools in the Time Domain . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.1.1 Mean Value, Amplitude Distributions . . . . 48
3.3.1.2 Entropy and Information Measure . . . . . . 48
3.3.1.3 Autocorrelation Function . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3.2 Analytic Tools in the Frequency Domain . . . . . . . 50
3.3.2.1 Estimators of Spectral Power Density Based
on Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.2.2 Choice of Windowing Function . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.2.3 Parametric Models: AR, ARMA . . . . . . . 56
3.4 Non-Stationary Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.4.1 Instantaneous Amplitude and Instantaneous Frequency 64
3.4.2 Analytic Tools in the Time-Frequency Domain . . . . 66
3.4.2.1 Time-Frequency Energy Distributions . . . . 66
3.4.2.2 Time-Frequency Signal Decompositions . . . 69
3.4.3 Cross-Frequency Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4.3.1 Models of Phase-Amplitude Coupling . . . . 87
3.4.3.2 Evaluation of Phase-Amplitude Coupling . . 88
3.5 Non-Linear Methods of Signal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5.1 Lyapunov Exponent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.5.2 Correlation Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Contents vii

3.5.3 Detrended Fluctuation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

3.5.4 Recurrence Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.5.5 Poincaré Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.5.6 Approximate, Sample, and Multiscale Entropy . . . . 99
3.5.7 Limitations of Non-Linear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4 Multiple Channels (Multivariate) Signals 103

4.1 Cross-Estimators: Cross-Correlation, Cross-Spectra, Coherence 103
4.2 Multivariate Autoregressive Model (MVAR) . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.1 Formulation of MVAR Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2.2 MVAR in the Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.3 Measures of Directedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.3.1 Estimators Based on the Phase Difference . . . . . . . 108
4.3.2 Causality Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3.2.1 Granger Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3.2.2 Granger Causality Index and Granger-Geweke
Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.3.2.3 Directed Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.3.2.4 Partial Directed Coherence . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.3.2.5 Directed Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.4 Non-Linear Estimators of Dependencies between
Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.4.1 Kullback-Leibler Entropy, Mutual Information . . . . 118
4.4.2 Transfer Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.4.3 Generalized Synchronization and Synchronization
Likelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.4.4 Phase Synchronization (Phase Locking Value) . . . . . 122
4.4.5 Testing the Reliability of the Estimators of
Directedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.5 Comparison of the Multichannel Estimators of Coupling be-
tween Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.5.1 Bivariate versus Multivariate Connectivity Estimators 125
4.5.2 Linear versus Non-Linear Estimators of Connectivity . 127
4.5.3 The Measures of Directedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.6 Multivariate Signal Decompositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.6.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) . . . . . . . . . 129
4.6.1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.6.1.2 Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.6.1.3 Possible Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.6.2 Independent Components Analysis (ICA) . . . . . . . 130
4.6.2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.6.2.2 Estimation of ICA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.6.2.3 Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.6.2.4 Possible Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
viii Contents

4.6.3 Common Spatial Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

4.6.4 Multivariate Matching Pursuit (MMP) . . . . . . . . . 134

5 Application to Biomedical Signals 137

5.1 Brain Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.1.1 Generation of Brain Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.1.2 EEG/MEG Rhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.1.3 EEG Measurement, Electrode Systems . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1.4 MEG Measurement, Sensor Systems . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.1.5 Elimination of Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.1.6 Analysis of Continuous EEG Signals . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.1.6.1 Single Channel Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.1.6.2 Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.1.6.3 Connectivity Analysis of Brain Signals . . . . 152
5.1.6.4 Influence of Volume Conduction on Connec-
tivity Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.1.6.5 Graph Theoretical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.1.6.6 Sleep EEG Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.1.6.7 Analysis of EEG in Epilepsy . . . . . . . . . 169
5.1.6.8 EEG in Monitoring and Anesthesia . . . . . 178
5.1.7 Analysis of Epoched EEG Signals . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.1.7.1 Analysis of Phase-Locked Responses . . . . . 182
5.1.7.2 In Pursuit of Single Trial Evoked Responses 189
5.1.7.3 Applications of Cross-Frequency Coupling . . 194
5.1.7.4 Analysis of Non-Phase-Locked Responses . . 196
5.1.7.5 Analysis of EEG for Applications in Brain-
Computer Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.1.8 fMRI Derived Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.1.8.1 Relation between EEG and fMRI . . . . . . 221
5.1.9 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Signals . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.2 Heart Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.2.1 Electrocardiogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.2.1.1 Measurement Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.2.1.2 Physiological Background and Clinical Appli-
cations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.2.1.3 Processing of ECG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.2.2 Heart Rate Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.2.2.1 Time-Domain Methods of HRV Analysis . . 242
5.2.2.2 Frequency-Domain Methods of HRV Analysis 243
5.2.2.3 Non-Linear Methods of HRV Analysis . . . . 244
5.2.3 Fetal ECG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.2.4 Magnetocardiogram and Fetal Magnetocardiogram . . 253
5.2.4.1 Magnetocardiogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Contents ix

5.2.4.2 Fetal MCG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

5.2.5 Ballistocardiogram, Seismocardiogram, Photoplethys-
mogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.2.5.1 Wearable Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.3 Electromyogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.3.1 Measurement Techniques and Physiological Background 261
5.3.2 Quantification of EMG Features . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5.3.3 Decomposition of Needle EMG . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
5.3.4 Surface EMG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
5.3.4.1 Surface EMG Decomposition . . . . . . . . . 270
5.4 Acoustic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.4.1 Phonocardiogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.4.2 Otoacoustic Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5.5 Multimodal Analysis of Biomedical Signals . . . . . . . . . . 286

Bibliography 289

Index 349
About the Series

The Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering describes the ap-
plications of physical sciences, engineering, and mathematics in medicine and
clinical research.
The series seeks (but is not restricted to) publications in the following
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matics • Tissue engineering

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The Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering is an interna-

tional series that meets the need for up-to-date texts in this rapidly developing
field. Books in the series range in level from introductory graduate textbooks
and practical handbooks to more advanced expositions of current research.
The Series in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering is the official
book series of the International Organization for Medical Physics.

xi
xii About the Series

The International Organization for Medical Physics

The International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) represents over
18,000 medical physicists worldwide and has a membership of 80 national
and six regional organizations, together with a number of corporate members.
Individual medical physicists of all national member organizations are also
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The mission of the IOMP is to advance medical physics practice worldwide
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The IOMP has several programmes to assist medical physicists in develop-
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The IOMP co-sponsors the Journal of Applied Clinical Medical Physics.
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Preface

This book is intended to guide all those working in the field of biomedical
signal analysis and application, particularly for graduate students, researchers
at an early stage of their career, industrial researchers, and people interested
in the development of signal processing methods. The book is different from
other monographs, which are usually collections of papers written by several
authors. We tried to present a coherent view of various signal processing meth-
ods in the context of their application. Not only do we wish to present the
current techniques of biomedical signal processing, but we also want to pro-
vide guidance on which methods are appropriate for the given task and given
kind of data.
One of the motivations for writing this book was the longstanding ex-
perience of the authors in reviewing manuscripts submitted to journals and
conference proceedings, which showed how often the signal processing meth-
ods are misused. Quite often, sophisticated, but at the same time non-robust
and prone to systematic errors, methods are applied for the tasks where more
straightforward methods would work better. In this book, we aim to show the
advantages and disadvantages of different techniques in the context of their
applications.
In the first part of the book, we describe the methods of signal analysis, in-
cluding the most advanced and new approaches, in an easy and accessible way.
We illustrate them with MATLAB R Live Scripts. We omitted proofs of the
theorems when necessary, sending the reader to the more specialized mathe-
matical literature. To make the book a practical tool, we refer to MATLAB R
routines when available and to the software freely available on the Internet.
In the second part of the book, we describe the application of the methods
presented in the first part of the book to the different biomedical signals: elec-
troencephalogram (EEG), electrocorticogram (ECoG), event-related potential
(ERP), electrocardiogram (ECG), heart rate variability signal (HRV), elec-
tromyograms (EMG), magnetoencephalograms (MEG), magnetocardiograms
(MCG), phonocardiograms (PCG), and otoacoustic emissions (OAE).
In this second edition, we also address the analysis of fMRI (BOLD) and
functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) time series. We discuss new
topics that gained interest in recent years, namely, phase-amplitude coupling,
wearable devices, multimodal signal analysis, and brain-computer interfaces.
Major updates concern multiple channel analysis and connectivity measures.
We included a short introduction presenting the basic syntax and functionality
relevant to signal processing for those new to MATLAB.

xiii
xiv Preface

Different approaches to solving particular problems are presented to

indicate which methods seem to be most appropriate for a given application.
Possible pitfalls, which may be encountered in applying the specific method-
ology, are pointed out.
We hope that this book will be a practical help to students and researchers
in choosing the appropriate methods, designing their own, and adding new
value to the growing field of biomedical research.
You can access MATLAB scripts and data in the support material section
at: www.routledge.com/9781138364417
List of Abbreviations

AIC Akaike information criterion EP evoked potentials

ApEn approximate entropy ERD event-related
ANN artificial neural networks desynchronization
AR autoregressive model ERP event-related potential
ARMA autoregressive moving ERS event-related
average model synchronization
BAEP brain stem auditory evoked FA factor analysis
potentials FAD frequency amplitude
BCG ballistocardiogram damping (method)
BSPM body surface potential fECG fetal electrocardiogram
mapping FDR false discovery rate
BSR burst suppression ratio FFT fast Fourier transform
BSS blind source separation FIR finite impulse response
CAP cyclic alternating pattern fMCG fetal magnetocardiogram
CFC cross-frequency coupling fMRI functional magnetic
CSD current source density resonance imaging
CWT continuous wavelet fNIRS functional near-infrared
transform spectroscopy
DFA detrended fluctuation FT Fourier transform
analysis FWE family wise error
DFT discrete Fourier transform FWER family wise error rate
IDFT inverse discrete Fourier GAD Gabor atom density
transform GFP global field power
DWT discrete wavelet transform GGC Granger-Geweke causality
ECG electrocardiogram GS generalized synchronization
ECoG electrocorticogram HHT Hilbert-Huang transform
EEG electroencephalogram HMM hidden Markov model
EF evoked fields HSD honesty significant
EGG electrogastrogram difference test
EIG electrointestinogram IC independent component
EMD empirical mode ICA independent component
decomposition analysis
EMG electromyogram IDFT inverse discrete Fourier
EEnG electroenterogram transform
EOG electrooculogram iEEG intracranial
ERC event-related causality electroencephalogram

xv
xvi List of Abbreviations

IIR infinite impulse response PLV phase-locking value

IQ information quantity PM Poincare map
KL Kullback-Leibler (entropy) PPG photoplethysmogram
LDA linear discriminant analysis PS phase synchronization
LDS linear dynamic system PSD power spectral density
LFP local field potentials PSP post-synaptic potential
LTI linear time invariant REM rapid eye movement
MCG magnetocardiogram RP recurrence plot
MCP multiple comparison SaEn sample entropy
problem SCG seismocardiogram
MDL minimum description length sEMG surface electromyogram
(criterium)
SIQ subband information
mECG maternal electrocardiogram
quantity
MEnG magnetoenterogram
SnPM statistical non-parametric
MGG magnetogastrogram
mapping
MEG magnetoelectroence-
SOAE spontaneous otoacoustic
phalogram
emissions
MI mutual information
MLP multilayer perceptron SOBI second-order blind inference
MMSE minimum mean square error SPM statistical parametric
MP matching pursuit mapping
MPC multiple comparison SSOAE synchronized spontaneous
problem otoacoustic emissions
MPF median power frequency STFT short time Fourier
MTM multi taper method transform
MU motor unit SVD singular value
MUAP motor unit action potential decomposition
OAE otoacoustic emissions TE transfer entropy
PAC phase-amplitude coupling TWA T-wave alternans
PCA principal component SWA slow wave activity
analysis WP wavelet packets
PCG phonocardiogram WT wavelet transform
PCI phase clustering index WVD Wigner-Ville distribution
1
A Short Introduction to MATLAB R

1.1 Introduction
MATLAB R is a commercial platform offered by The MathWorks, Inc., the
USA which delivers a high-level, matrix-based language and an integrated
development environment. Together with specialized libraries, so-called tool-
boxes, it is a very efficient system for fast prototyping, and complex scientific
and engineering computations. What is also very important many algorithms
used in biomedical signal processing were implemented and published as MAT-
LAB functions or toolboxes. In the following sections, we shortly present basic
syntax and concepts, needed for the understanding of the examples given in
the book and in accompanying Live Script demos. This may be helpful for a
novice MATLAB user. A deeper knowledge of MATLAB can be obtained from
many MATLAB books and the very useful build-in documentation system of
MATLAB.

1.2 Where Is Help?

The documentation can be accessed by the GUI, or from the command
prompt. In the latter case just type doc (this opens the graphical documenta-
tion window) or help (if you prefer a more compact textual help). The general
set of commands can be displayed by issuing doc matlab/general.

1.3 Vectors and Matrixes

In signal processing, it is very convenient to implement the signals as vectors
or matrixes. The most basic type of variable in MATLAB is a matrix. In fact,
a scalar value is represented as 1 × 1 matrix. So vectors are N × 1 (a column
vector) or 1 × N (a row vector).

DOI: 10.1201/9780429431357-1 1
2 Practical Biomedical Signal Analysis Using MATLAB R

The matrixes can be entered either from command line/editor (type and
execute the examples in the command line, and look into the workspace
window ):
A=[1 2 3 4; 5 6 7 8; 8 9 1 2];
disp(A)
or produced by a function:
B=rand(3,3);
disp(B)
or, in practical cases most often, loaded from a file (this we will show later in
Sect. 1.8).
Note the semicolon at the end of each line—it prevents MATLAB from
displaying its result in the command window. A semicolon inside the matrix
forming command finishes a given row and starts another one.

1.4 Matrix Operations

1.4.1 Algebraic Operations
In an intuitive way we can do the matrix algebraic operations:
B = [1 2;3 4];
disp(B)
C = B + B;
disp(C)
D = C - 2* B;
disp(D)
M = B/B;
disp(M)
An operator preceded by a dot evaluates the operation element-wise. Please,
compare results of:
G = B*B;
disp(G)
H = B.*B;
disp(H)
There is a set of matrix operators. The basic ones are:
transpose: B_tr = B’;
determinant: d = det(B);
trace: d = trace(B);
A Short Introduction to MATLAB R 3

diagonal: di = diag(B);

inverse: B_inv = B^(-1);

sum: s = sum(B); this sums by default along the first dimension, other
direction can be indicated in the function call e.g., s = sum(B,2);

1.4.2 Matrix Indexing

Matrix addressing starts from 1. We get an element of a matrix like this:
B = [1 2;3 4];
disp(B)
1 2
3 4
>> B(1,2)
ans =
2

We assign its value in this way:

>> B(1,2) = 4;
>> B
B =
1 4
3 4
Note, that when you modify matrix elements, the matrix size adjusts
automatically and it can create elements that were not directly assigned, set-
ting them to 0. Note the element B(2,3) in the example below:
>> B(1,3) = 4;
>> B
B =
1 4 4
3 4 0
Range control is done only when retrieving matrix elements:

>> B(3,1)
??? Index exceeds matrix dimensions.
The colon operator “:”, is one of the most useful operators in MATLAB. It
occurs in several different use cases. The expression 1:10 produces a row vector
with elements from 1 to 10.

>> 1:10
ans =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4 Practical Biomedical Signal Analysis Using MATLAB R

If we give an increment, then we get a vector with the desired difference

between elements, for example:
>> 10: -2.5: 0
ans =
10.0000 7.5000 5.0000 2.5000 0
This operator used in the matrix index gives an easy access to its fragments,
e.g.: A(1:k, j) gets the first k elements of the jth column of matrix A. Semi-
colon by itself stands for all the elements of a given row or column e.g.:
sum(A(:, end)) calculates the sum of the elements of the last (keyword end)
column of A. The operator [] is used to concatenate matrixes. For example:
B = ones(2,2);
C = [B B + 1; B + 2 B + 3];
disp(C);
We can delete columns or rows in a matrix. This shows how to delete the 2nd
row of matrix C (compare content of matrix C before and after the deletion):
C = [1 2 3 4; 5 6 7 8; 9 10 11 12; 13 14 15 16]
disp(C);
C(2,:) = [];
disp(C);

1.4.3 Logical Indexing

Evaluation of logical expressions on matrixes yields logical arrays, with ele-
ments 0 or 1, where 1 indicates the elements for which the expression was
true.
>> a
a =
1 2 3
4 5 6
0 1 1
>> a>2
ans =
0 0 1
1 1 1
0 0 0
We can use such array as a mask to modify the original matrix, as shown
below:
>> a(ans) = 7
a =
1 2 7
7 7 7
0 0 0
A Short Introduction to MATLAB R 5

1.4.4 Example Exercise

Create a matrix with numbers of the magic square of size 4, then count the
sum of the elements in each row, column, and both diagonals. A possible
solution1 :

M = magic(4);
% count the sum of the elements in each row,
s_r = sum(M,2);
disp(s_r)
% in each column,
s_c = sum(M,1);
disp(s_c)
% and both diagonals.
s_d1 = sum(diag(M));
disp(s_d1)
s_d2 = sum(diag(fliplr(M)));
disp(s_d2)

1.5 Conditionals
Often an algorithm needs to branch based on runtime conditions. MATLAB
has syntax for this in the form of if statement, try this example for different
values of x:
x = -1;
if x == 0
disp(’x is zero’)
elseif x > 0
disp(’x is positive’)
else
disp(’x is negative’)
end
Note that the block of the statement finishes with the keyword end. The
indentions are not necessary, but they make the code more readable.
If there are many options, it may be better to use the switch command.
For instance:
method = ’bilinear’;
switch method
case {’linear’,’bilinear’}
1 The code is delivered in matlab/c1/Ch1_magic_square.m
6 Practical Biomedical Signal Analysis Using MATLAB R

disp(’Method is linear’)
case ’cubic’
disp(’Method is cubic’)
case ’nearest’
disp(’Method is nearest’)
otherwise
disp(’Unknown method.’)
end

1.6 Loops
We would use loops if we need to execute a block of commands for a number
of times. There are two types of loops:
while executes a group of statements an indefinite number of times, based
on some logical condition; example:

i = 10
while i>1
i = i-1;
disp(i)
end

for executes a group of statements a fixed number of times, example:

for k = 1:10
disp(k*(1:10))
end

Additionally, we can modify behavior of loops with:

continue passes control to the next iteration of a for or while loop, skipping
any remaining statements in the body of the loop
break terminates execution of a for or while loop.

1.7 Scripts and Functions

A sequence of MATLAB commands saved in a text file (with extension .m) is
a script. You can execute them by entering the file name (without extension)
at the prompt in the command window. This is equivalent to typing all of
A Short Introduction to MATLAB R 7

the commands from the file. The script has access to all variables found in
the workspace, variables created in the script are visible in the workspace.
Most MATLAB commands are functions, some are precompiled and work very
fast, but a significant number is delivered as text files that are interpreted at
runtime (they run slower). The advantage is that we can look into these files
and learn a lot.
In MATLAB, you can also create your own functions—built from existing
ones. The file containing a function should have the same name as the function
with the extension “.m”. This is because MATLAB identifies the names of
scripts and functions by the names of files on the search path. The first line
of a function file defines the syntax of a function call, e.g.:
function [mean, stdev] = stat(x)
% STAT computes mean and standard deviation of x.
n = length(x);
mean = sum(x) / n;
stdev = sqrt( sum((x - mean).^ 2) / n);
The above code2 defines the function stat (should be saved in the file
stat.m). This function accepts the vector x as an argument and returns two
values: mean and stdev. Variables used inside the function are local, i.e. they
are not visible in the workspace outside the scope of the function.
You can call the stat function as:
>> x = 1:10;
>> [m, s] = stat(x)
m =
5.5000
s =
2.8723
Return from the function occurs after reaching the end of the function body.
An earlier conditional return can be achieved with the command return.

1.8 Working with Binary Files

1.8.1 Saving to and Loading from Binary Files
The following examples3 illustrate how to write two sine functions at 2 Hz and
3 Hz to a binary file:
First, prepare the signals.
2 The code is delivered in matlab/c1/Ch1_stat.m
3 The code is delivered in matlab/c1/Ch1_working_with_binary_files.m together with
the exemplary signals.
8 Practical Biomedical Signal Analysis Using MATLAB R

T = 1;
Fs = 128;
t = 0:1/Fs:T-1/Fs;
s1 = sin(2*pi*2*t);
s2 = sin(2*pi*3*t);
signal = zeros(2,T * Fs);
signal(1,:) = s1;
signal(2,:) = s2;
We store the consecutive signals in the rows of matrix signal. This is conve-
nient for writing them as a multiplexed file.4
Saving the binary signal:
f_out = fopen(‘test_signal1.bin’, ’w’,’l’); %open a file for writing
fwrite(f_out, signal,’double’,’ieee-le’); % write the signal data
% to the file identified by
% f_out as double precision
% floats with the machine
% format little-endian
fclose(f_out); % close the file

The opposite—reading a binary file:

ch = 2; % specify the number of channels

f_in = fopen(’test_signal1.bin’, ’r’); % open the file for reading
s = fread(f_in,[ch,Inf],’double’,’ieee-le’ ); % read all data (Inf)
% from the file
fclose(f_in); % close the file

Plot and compare the saved and the loaded data:

figure()
subplot(221)
plot(t,signal(1,:))
ylabel(’channel 1’)
title(’saved signal’)
subplot(223)
plot(t,signal(2,:))
ylabel(’channel 2’)
subplot(222)
plot(t,s(1,:))
title(’loaded signals’)
subplot(2,2,4)
plot(t,s(2,:))
4 In a multiplexed file containing n samples of k channel signal, samples are ordered in

the file in the following way:

s1 c1 , s1 c2 , s1 c3 , . . . , s1 ck , s2 c1 , s2 c2 , s2 c3 , . . . , s2 ck , . . . , sn c1 , sn c2 , sn c3 , . . . , sn ck ,
| {z } | {z } | {z }
1st sample 2nd sample kth sample

where s is sample and c is channel.

A Short Introduction to MATLAB R 9
40

20

-20

-40
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

20
10
0
-10
-20

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

40

20

-20
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

FIGURE 1.1
Correct traces of the signal form the file 3_channel_signal.bin.

1.8.2 Saving and Loading Signals Using .mat Files

If working only in the MATLAB environment it is convenient to use save/load
functions. The same operations as above can be performed in the following
way:
% saving the binary signal:
save(’test_signal1.mat’, ’signal’); % note, variables
% are given by name (string)
% the opposit - reading a binary file
load(’test_signal1.mat’);

1.8.3 Exercises
1.8.3.1 Unknown Data Type
Suppose, we have a 3-channel binary file with an EEG signal. Unfortu-
nately, we have forgotten what is the type of the recorded data. Load the file
3_channel_signal.bin and using the plots and Figure 1.1 with signal frag-
ments guess which of the following type of stored variables is true: “float”,
“uint” or “double”. Note, how the traces change if you enter the wrong data
type.
10 Practical Biomedical Signal Analysis Using MATLAB R

1.8.3.2 Unknown Number of Channels

Suppose we have a n-channel binary file with some ECG, EEG, and EMG
signals, the type of variables is float, but we don’t know the correct number
of channels. Load n_channel_signal.bin file and try to guess the correct
number of channels by plotting the signals. If you guess the correct number
of channels you should see the characteristic QRS complex of an ECG signal
in the last channel.
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