Conducting Heat
Rojin Eghbali
Thermal Expansion
Most materials expand
when they are heated.
The thermal strain caused
by a change in temperature
is characterized by the
Linear Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion, α:
Anisotropic materials (such as fibre composites) expand by
different amounts in different directions and require two or
three coefficients
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Example
A bar has a length of 100.0 mm when measured at 20 ºC. If the
material has a thermal expansion coefficient of 10.2×10-6 /K,
what is the expected change in length of the bar measured at
293 ºC? (1μm=10-3mm)
1 𝑑𝐿
𝛼=
𝐿 𝑑𝑇
1 𝑑𝐿
10.2 × 10−6𝐾−1 = ×
100 𝑚𝑚 293 + 273 𝐾 − 20 + 273 𝐾
𝑑𝐿 = 0.278 𝑚𝑚
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Thermal Expansion
• The amplitude of atomic
vibrations increases when
atoms are heated.
• However, the ‘springs’
between atoms are not
linear –they are stiffer in
compression than in
tension (Non-Symmetric).
• As temperature increases,
the atoms vibrate about an
increasing mean spacing.
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Recall: Binding energy
The minimum energy, is the binding energy, or the energy required to create
or break the bond. r
E
Energy
r
att
Force
rep
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Thermal Expansion
• Stronger bonds mean a steeper
force-spacing curve and a
deeper energy well meaning
less expansion (a lower CTE, α)
• Stronger bonds also implies:
-Higher Young’s Modulus
-Higher Melting Temperature
• In fact, to remarkably good
approximations:
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Thermal Conductivity
The rate at which heat is
conducted through a solid under
steady-state conditions is
characterized by the Thermal
Conductivity according to
Fourier’s Law:
where q is the heat flux per unit area, or power density. Power is measured in
Watts(Joules per second), so the units of power density are W/m2.
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Thermal Conductivity
Heat is transmitted through solids in three ways:
1. Thermal vibrations (all materials)
2. The motion of free electrons (metals)
3. Radiation (transparent materials)
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Thermal Conductivity
Thermal vibrations (phonons) are elastic waves that travel at
the speed of sound.
The speed of sound in a solid, c0, is a function of its density and
Young’s Modulus:
Heat is not conducted at the same speed because the
phonons are scattered at imperfections in the lattice.
• vacancies, impurities, grain boundaries, …
We define the mean free path, lm, of a phonon as the
average distance between scattering events. This distance
is typically quite small (approx. 0.01μm)
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Thermal Conductivity
Scattering is a random event.
In the figure, phonons to the left of
M-M have greater energy than
those to the right The net flux of
photons, q across M-M is:
By comparison with Fourier’s Law:
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Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity describes steady-state heat transfer.
For transient conditions (temperature changing with time),
heat flow is governed by the Thermal Diffusivity, a:
ρCp is volumetric heat capacity.
Thermal diffusivity is measured by subjecting one end of a
material to a heat pulse (e.g. by a laser) and measuring the
time it takes for the temperature rise to be sensed at the
other end.
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Thermal Property Charts
Thermal
conductivity:
Stainless Steel
16 W/m.K
Steel, C 1%
43 W/m.K
PE
0.45W/m.K
Water
0.58W/m.K
Air 0.024W/m.K
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Thermal Property Charts
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Manipulating Thermal Properties
Thermal Expansion depends on the strength and
stiffness of the atomic bonds. There is very little that
we can do to manipulate a material’s CTE (Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion).
The volumetric Heat Capacity is essentially constant
for all materials. Foaming (reducing the density) is
the only approach.
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Manipulating Thermal Properties
Thermal Conductivity depends on heat capacity
(constant), the speed of sound in the material (bond
stiffness, density) and the mean free path (lattice
defects).
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Manipulating Thermal Conductivity
The same lattice
defects that impede
dislocation motion
(leading to increased
yield strength) also
scatter phonons and
free electrons
(causing a decrease
in thermal
conductivity).
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