EXPERIMENT NO – 5: SMOKE FLOW VISUALIZATION ON A TWO DIMENSIONAL

CIRCULAR CYLINDER AT VARIOUS AIR SPEEDS

AIM:
To perform smoke flow visualization on a two dimensional circular cylinder and to draw the
flow pattern observed at different speeds.

EQUIPMENT:
Subsonic wind tunnel, Circular cylinder model with support mount, Smoke Generator, liquid
paraffin, manometer.

FLOW VISUALIZATION:
Air is a transparent media and its motion always remains invisible to the human eye during a
direct observation. The insight into any physical process is always improved if a pattern
produced can be observed by visual inspection. By observing such a flow pattern, one can get
an idea of the whole development of the flow. In order to be able to recognize the motion of
the fluid, one must therefore provide a certain technique by which the flow is made visible.
The technique by which the flow patterns of a moving fluid can be made visible is called as
flow visualization technique and flow visualization technique helps in better understanding of
the flow characteristics of flow around solid objects.
Flow visualization techniques have always played an important role in understanding the
fluid-mechanical problems. Such techniques provide information about the complete flow
field under study without physically interfering with the fluid flow. In contrast, a single flow
measuring instrument, such as a certain pressure or temperature probe, provides data for only
one point in the flow field, and in addition, the flow field is disturbed to a certain degree
owing to the physical presence of the measuring probe.
There are various methods of flow visualization, ranging from very simple to very
complicated and expensive techniques. In experimental fluid dynamics, flows are visualized
by three methods:

1. SURFACE FLOW VISUALIZATION

 Oil Film Visualization
 Tuft Flow Visualization Technique
 Special Clay Mixture Method
 Fluorescent Dye Technique

2. PARTICLE TRACER METHODS OR DIRECT INJECTION METHODS

 Smoke Flow Visualization
 Oil Droplets Technique
 Dye Injection Technique
 Hydrogen/Helium Bubble Method
 Smoke Wire Method
 Spark Trace Method
  Light Sheet Method
 Speckle Velocimetry
 Particle Image Velocimetry

3. OPTICAL METHODS
 Shadowgraph Technique
 Schlieren Technique
 Interferometry

Among all these techniques, smoke flow visualization and dye injection techniques are the
most commonly used techniques. These two techniques provide only qualitative information
regarding the flow. Flow patterns, separation point, attachment regions, reattachment zones
can be easily identified using these techniques. Smoke flow visualization techniques are used
to visualize changes in air whereas dye injection technique is used in water flow
visualization.

Flow patterns over a circular cylinder at various Reynolds Numbers

PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the circular cylinder model with its support in the tunnel test section securely.
 2. Ensure that the tunnel is not having any loose components.
3. Generate the smoke for the flow visualization through smoke generator.
4. Adjust the amount of smoke generated by adjusting heater control provided with
smoke generator.
5. Observe the flow pattern around the body and infer the location of stagnation point,
flow separation, formation of eddies and vortex shedding nature at different speeds (at
different Reynolds Number).
6. Tabulate the observed flow pattern at different Reynolds Number with a neat sketch
with inference.
7. Gradually shutdown the tunnel.

OBSERVATION:

Sl. No. DESCRIPTION VALUE

1 Diameter of cylinder 50mm
2 Density of air 1.1175 kg/m3
3 Density of alcohol 800 kg/m3
4 Dynamic viscosity of air @ 27 °C 1.7*10-5Pa-s

TABULAR COLUMN:

Free stream velocity in Test Section Reynolds

Sl.
Number Flow pattern Inference
No.
(mm) (mm) (m/s) Re

6
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

Free stream Velocity:

Reynolds Number:
RESULT:
The flow visualization is carried out and the flow pattern around the body at different
Reynolds number and velocity is observed.

Record Marks Faculty Signature

Experiment No : Max Marks
Marks Scored
Conduction of the experiment 3M
& write up
Tabulation & Calculation of 4M
results
Viva voice 3M
Total 10 M
 Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO – 6: SMOKE FLOW VISUALIZATION STUDIES ON A TWO

DIMENSIONAL SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL AT DIFFERENT ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

AIM:
To carry out the smoke flow visualization on a two dimensional symmetric airfoil and to
draw the flow pattern observed at different speeds.

EQUIPMENT:
Subsonic wind tunnel, symmetric airfoil model with support mount, Smoke generator, liquid
paraffin, manometer.

FLOW VISUALIZATION:
Air is a transparent media and its motion always remains invisible to the human eye during a
direct observation. The insight into any physical process is always improved if a pattern
produced can be observed by visual inspection. By observing such a flow pattern, one can get
an idea of the whole development of the flow. In order to be able to recognize the motion of
the fluid, one must therefore provide a certain technique by which the flow is made visible.
The technique by which the flow patterns of a moving fluid can be made visible is called as
flow visualization technique and flow visualization technique helps in better understanding of
the flow characteristics of flow around solid objects.

Flow visualization techniques have always played an important role in understanding the
fluid-mechanical problems. Such techniques provide information about the complete flow
field under study without physically interfering with the fluid flow. In contrast, a single flow
measuring instrument, such as a certain pressure or temperature probe, provides data for only
one point in the flow field, and in addition, the flow field is disturbed to a certain degree
owing to the physical presence of the measuring probe.
There are various methods of flow visualization, ranging from very simple to very
complicated and expensive techniques. In experimental fluid dynamics, flows are visualized
by three methods:

1. SURFACE FLOW VISUALIZATION

 Oil Film Visualization
 Tuft Flow Visualization Technique
 Special Clay Mixture Method
 Fluorescent Dye Technique

2. PARTICLE TRACER METHODS OR DIRECT INJECTION METHODS

 Smoke Flow Visualization
 Oil Droplets Technique
 Dye Injection Technique
 Hydrogen/Helium Bubble Method
  Smoke Wire Method
 Spark Trace Method
 Light Sheet Method
 Speckle Velocimetry
 Particle Image Velocimetry

3. OPTICAL METHODS
 Shadowgraph Technique
 Schlieren Technique
 Interferometry

Among all these techniques, smoke flow visualization and dye injection techniques are the
most commonly used techniques. These two techniques provide only qualitative information
regarding the flow. Flow patterns, separation point, attachment regions, reattachment zones
can be easily identified using these techniques. Smoke flow visualization techniques are used
to visualize changes in air whereas dye injection technique is used in water flow
visualization.

Flow patterns on a symmetric airfoil at various speeds and angle of attack α

PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the symmetric airfoil model with its support in the tunnel test section securely.
2. Ensure that the tunnel is not having any loose components.
3. Generate the smoke for the flow visualization through smoke generator.
4. Adjust the amount of smoke generated by adjusting heater control provided with
smoke generator.
5. Observe the flow pattern around the body and infer the location of stagnation point,
flow separation, formation of eddies and vortex shedding nature at different speeds (at
different Reynolds Number).
6. Tabulate the observed flow pattern at different Reynolds Number with a neat sketch
with inference.
7. Gradually shutdown the tunnel.

OBSERVATION:
Sl. No. DESCRIPTION VALUE
1 Chord length of Airfoil 150mm
2 Density of air 1.1175 kg/m3
3 Density of alcohol 800 kg/m3
4 Dynamic viscosity of air @ 27 °C 1.7*10-5Pa-s

TABULAR COLUMN:

Tunnel Speed (m/s):_______________ Reynolds Number: ________________

Angle of
Sl. No Attack Flow pattern Inference
(Degree)
1 -10
2 -5
3 0
4 04
5 08
6 12
7 16
8 20
RESULT:
The flow visualization is carried out and the flow pattern around the symmetric airfoil at a
given Reynolds number and velocity is observed.

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

Free stream Velocity:

Reynolds Number:

Record Marks Faculty Signature

Experiment No : Max Marks
Marks Scored
Conduction of the experiment 3M
& write up
Tabulation & Calculation of 4M
results
Viva voice 3M
Total 10 M
 Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO – 7: SMOKE FLOW VISUALIZATION STUDIES ON A TWO

DIMENSIONAL CAMBERED AIRFOIL AT DIFFERENT ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

AIM:
To carry out the smoke flow visualization on a two dimensional cambered airfoil and to draw
the flow pattern observed at different speeds.

EQUIPMENT:
Subsonic wind tunnel, cambered airfoil model with support mount, Smoke generator, liquid
paraffin, manometer.

FLOW VISUALIZATION:
Air is a transparent media and its motion always remains invisible to the human eye during a
direct observation. The insight into any physical process is always improved if a pattern
produced can be observed by visual inspection. By observing such a flow pattern, one can get
an idea of the whole development of the flow. In order to be able to recognize the motion of
the fluid, one must therefore provide a certain technique by which the flow is made visible.
The technique by which the flow patterns of a moving fluid can be made visible is called as
flow visualization technique and flow visualization technique helps in better understanding of
the flow characteristics of flow around solid objects.

Flow visualization techniques have always played an important role in understanding the
fluid-mechanical problems. Such techniques provide information about the complete flow
field under study without physically interfering with the fluid flow. In contrast, a single flow
measuring instrument, such as a certain pressure or temperature probe, provides data for only
one point in the flow field, and in addition, the flow field is disturbed to a certain degree
owing to the physical presence of the measuring probe.

There are various methods of flow visualization, ranging from very simple to very
complicated and expensive techniques. In experimental fluid dynamics, flows are visualized
by three methods:

1. SURFACE FLOW VISUALIZATION

 Oil Film Visualization
 Tuft Flow Visualization Technique
 Special Clay Mixture Method
 Fluorescent Dye Technique

2. PARTICLE TRACER METHODS OR DIRECT INJECTION METHODS

 Smoke Flow Visualization
 Oil Droplets Technique
 Dye Injection Technique
  Hydrogen/Helium Bubble Method
 Smoke Wire Method
 Spark Trace Method
 Light Sheet Method
 Speckle Velocimetry
 Particle Image Velocimetry

3. OPTICAL METHODS
 Shadowgraph Technique
 Schlieren Technique
 Interferometry

Among all these techniques, smoke flow visualization and dye injection techniques are the
most commonly used techniques. These two techniques provide only qualitative information
regarding the flow. Flow patterns, separation point, attachment regions, reattachment zones
can be easily identified using these techniques. A smoke flow visualization technique is used
to visualize changes in air whereas dye injection technique is used in water flow
visualization.

Flow patterns on a cambered airfoil at various speeds and angle of attack α

PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the cambered airfoil model with its support in the tunnel test section securely.
2. Ensure that the tunnel is not having any loose components.
3. Generate the smoke for the flow visualization through smoke generator.
4. Adjust the amount of smoke generated by adjusting heater control provided with
smoke generator.
5. Observe the flow pattern around the body and infer the location of stagnation point,
flow separation, formation of eddies and vortex shedding nature at different speeds (at
different Reynolds Number).
6. Tabulate the observed flow pattern at different Reynolds Number with a neat sketch
with inference.
7. Gradually shutdown the tunnel.

OBSERVATION:
Sl. No. DESCRIPTION VALUE
1 Chord length of Airfoil 150mm
1.1175
2 Density of air
kg/m3
3 Density of alcohol 800 kg/m3
4 Dynamic viscosity of air @ 27 °C 1.7*10-5Pa-s

TABULAR COLUMN:

Tunnel Speed (m/s):_______________ Reynolds Number: ________________

Angle of
Sl. No Attack Flow pattern Inference
(Degree)
1 -10
2 -5
3 0
4 04
5 08
6 12
7 16
8 20
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

Free stream Velocity:

Reynolds Number:
RESULT:
The flow visualization is carried out and the flow pattern around the cambered airfoil at a
given Reynolds number and velocity is observed.

Record Marks Faculty Signature

Experiment No : Max Marks Marks Scored
Conduction of the 3M
experiment & write up
Tabulation & 4M
Calculation of results
Viva voice 3M
Total 10 M
 Date: _______________

EXPERIMENT NO – 8: SMOKE FLOW VISUALIZATION ON A TWO DIMENSIONAL

SQUARE CYLINDER AT VARIOUS AIR SPEEDS

AIM:
To perform smoke flow visualization on a two dimensional square cylinder and to draw the
flow pattern observed at different speeds.

EQUIPMENT:
Subsonic wind tunnel, square cylinder model with support mount, Smoke Generator, liquid
paraffin, manometer.

FLOW VISUALIZATION:
Air is a transparent media and its motion always remains invisible to the human eye during a
direct observation. The insight into any physical process is always improved if a pattern
produced can be observed by visual inspection. By observing such a flow pattern, one can get
an idea of the whole development of the flow. In order to be able to recognize the motion of
the fluid, one must therefore provide a certain technique by which the flow is made visible.
The technique by which the flow patterns of a moving fluid can be made visible is called as
flow visualization technique and flow visualization technique helps in better understanding of
the flow characteristics of flow around solid objects.
Flow visualization techniques have always played an important role in understanding the
fluid-mechanical problems. Such techniques provide information about the complete flow
field under study without physically interfering with the fluid flow. In contrast, a single flow
measuring instrument, such as a certain pressure or temperature probe, provides data for only
one point in the flow field, and in addition, the flow field is disturbed to a certain degree
owing to the physical presence of the measuring probe.
There are various methods of flow visualization, ranging from very simple to very
complicated and expensive techniques. In experimental fluid dynamics, flows are visualized
by three methods:

1. SURFACE FLOW VISUALIZATION

 Oil Film Visualization
 Tuft Flow Visualization Technique
 Special Clay Mixture Method
 Fluorescent Dye Technique

2. PARTICLE TRACER METHODS OR DIRECT INJECTION METHODS

 Smoke Flow Visualization
 Oil Droplets Technique
 Dye Injection Technique
  Hydrogen/Helium Bubble Method
 Smoke Wire Method
 Spark Trace Method
 Light Sheet Method
 Speckle Velocimetry
 Particle Image Velocimetry

3. OPTICAL METHODS
 Shadowgraph Technique
 Schlieren Technique
 Interferometry

Among all these techniques, smoke flow visualization and dye injection techniques are the
most commonly used techniques. These two techniques provide only qualitative information
regarding the flow. Flow patterns, separation point, attachment regions, reattachment zones
can be easily identified using these techniques. Smoke flow visualization techniques are used
to visualize changes in air whereas dye injection technique is used in water flow
visualization.

Flow patterns over a rectangular section at various Reynolds Numbers

PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the circular cylinder model with its support in the tunnel test section securely.
2. Ensure that the tunnel is not having any loose components.
3. Generate the smoke for the flow visualization through smoke generator.
 4. Adjust the amount of smoke generated by adjusting heater control provided with
smoke generator.
5. Observe the flow pattern around the body and infer the location of stagnation point,
flow separation, formation of eddies and vortex shedding nature at different speeds (at
different Reynolds Number).
6. Tabulate the observed flow pattern at different Reynolds Number with a neat sketch
with inference.
7. Gradually shutdown the tunnel.

OBSERVATION:

Sl. No. DESCRIPTION VALUE

1 Length of one side of square section 50mm
1.1175
2 Density of air
kg/m3
3 Density of alcohol 800 kg/m3
4 Dynamic viscosity of air @ 27 °C 1.7*10-5Pa-s

TABULAR COLUMN:

Free stream velocity in Test Section Reynolds

Sl.
Number Flow pattern Inference
No.
(mm) (mm) (m/s) Re

6
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

Free stream Velocity:

Reynolds Number:
RESULT:
The flow visualization is carried out and the flow pattern around the body at different
Reynolds number and velocity is observed.

Record Marks Faculty Signature

Experiment No : Max Marks Marks Scored
Conduction of the 3M
experiment & write up
Tabulation & 4M
Calculation of results
Viva voice 3M
Total 10 M
 Date:_______________

Experiment No: 9
CALCULATION OF TOTAL DRAG OF A TWO-DIMENSIONAL CIRCULAR
CYLINDER AT LOW SPEEDS USING PITOT-STATIC PROBE WAKE SURVEY

AIM:
To determine the drag of a two-dimensional circular cylinder using Pitot-Static probe wake
survey.

EQUIPMENT:
Subsonic wind tunnel, two-dimensional circular cylinder, pitot-static probe rake, Multitube
manometer.

THEORY:
Drag can be determined experimentally by mounting a model on a balance and measuring the
force directly or it can be determined by integrating a measured static pressure distribution
over the entire surface, or it can be determined from a momentum balance on a control
volume which contains a model. This momentum balance would require velocity
measurements both upstream and downstream from the model. This is the method which will
be utilized in this experiment.
Undisturbed flow enters the control volume containing the bluff body. When the only flow
disturbance in the control volume is the bluff body, any loss of fluid momentum is realized as
a force on the body. An application of the momentum equation to the control volume will
yield the drag force when analyzed in the stream wise direction.

Fig 10.1 : Velocity profile in the wake region of a cylinder

PROCEDURE:
1. Assemble the cylinder model in the test section securely with the help of support
mounting
2. Place the Pitot-static wake rake behind the cylinder at a distance of 1D from the
cylinder such that the probe is in the wake region of cylinder.
3. Connect the tubing to multitube manometer.
4. Start the tunnel and run at a constant speed
5. Note down the manometer reading and tabulate to find the drag coefficient.
6. Gradually shutdown the tunnel.
 FORMULA:

1. Drag coefficient:
 q q  dy  h hwake  dy
Cd  2   wake
 wake   2  wake
 
 freestream
q q 
freestream  c  h freestream h  c
freestream 

Where qwake = (ho-h∞)w (calculated in wake region)

qfreestream = (ho-h∞)f (calculated for free stream)
dy = Lateral spacing between tubes of wake probe rake
c = Circumference of the cylinder

Note: In the absence of static probe in wake rake, free stream static pressure is taken as static
pressure in wake.

2. Wake Velocity:

2Po  P wake
 V 2  V  3.86 (ho  h ) wake m / s


TABULAR COLUMN:

Tunnel speed: ………………..m/s Re No: …………..

Distance
Port from Pitot Probe Reading, Wake probe
No. tube no. mm reading, mm  hwake   hwake hwake  Wake
    
Sl 1 in mm  h freestream   h freestream h freestream  velocity
No h freestream hwake  hi  h m/s
Vwake
h freestream  h0  h
mm mm
1 1 0.8
2 2 4.5
3 3 8
4 4 12
5 5 15
6 6 18
7 7 20.5
8 8 24
9 9 26.5
10 10 29.5
11 11 33
12 12 36
13 13 38.5
14 14 42
15 15 45
16 16 48
17 17 51.5
18 18 54
19 19 56.5
20 20 60
21 21 62.5
22 22 66
23 23 68.5
24 24 72
25 25 74
26 26 77.5
27 27 81
28 28 84

Table 10.2 : Tabulation of wake velocity at different pressure ports

GRAPH:
1. Vwake/Vfreestream Vs y/C
hwake hwake
2.  Vs y/C
h freestream h freestream

RESULT:
Thus the drag of the two-dimensional cylinder is measured by the pitot-static probe wake
survey method. The value of drag coefficient of cylinder is, Cd =………….

Table 10.1 : Geometrical locations of pressure ports on the circular cylinder surfaces

CALCULATIONS:
Date:_______________

Experiment No: 10
CALCULATION OF TOTAL DRAG OF A TWO-DIMENSIONAL SYMMETRICAL
AIRFOIL AT LOW SPEEDS USING PITOT-STATIC PROBE WAKE SURVEY

AIM:
To determine the drag of a two-dimensional symmetrical airfoil using Pitot-Static probe wake
survey.

EQUIPMENT:
Subsonic wind tunnel, two-dimensional symmetrical airfoil, pitot-static probe rake, Multitube
manometer.

THEORY:
Drag can be determined experimentally by mounting a model on a balance and measuring the
force directly, it can be determined by integrating a measured static pressure distribution over
the entire surface, or it can be determined from a momentum balance on a control volume
which contains a model. This momentum balance would require velocity measurements both
upstream and downstream from the model. This is the method which will be utilized in this
experiment.
Undisturbed flow enters the control volume containing the body. When the only flow
disturbance in the control volume is the body kept in the flow, any loss of fluid momentum is
realized as a force on the body. An application of the momentum equation to the control
volume will yield the drag force when analyzed in the stream wise direction.

Fig 11.1 : Velocity profile in the wake region of a symmetrical airfoil

PROCEDURE:
1. Assemble the airfoil model in the test section securely with the help of support
mounting
2. Place the Pitot-static wake rake behind the airfoil at a distance of 25mm from the
airfoil such that the probe is in the wake region of airfoil.
3. Connect the tubing to multitube manometer.
 4. Start the tunnel and run at a constant speed
5. Note down the manometer reading and tabulate to find the drag coefficient.
6. Gradually shutdown the tunnel.

FORMULA:

1. Drag coefficient:
 q q  dy  h hwake  dy
Cd  2   wake
 wake   2  wake
 
 q freestream q freestream  c  h freestream h freestream  c

Where qwake = (ho-h∞)w (calculated in wake region)

qfreestream = (ho-h∞)f (calculated for free stream)
dy = Lateral spacing between tubes of wake probe rake
c = chord of the airfoil

Note: In the absence of static probe in wake rake, free stream static pressure is taken as
static pressure in wake.

2. Wake Velocity:
2Po  P wake
 V 2  V  3.86 (ho  h ) wake m / s

TABULAR COLUMN:
Tunnel speed: ………………..m/s Re No: …………..

Distance
Port from Pitot Probe Reading, Wake probe
No. tube no. mm reading, mm  hwake   hwake hwake  Wake
    
Sl 1 in mm  h freestream   h freestream h freestream  velocity
No h freestream hwake  hi  h m/s
Vwake
h freestream  h0  h
mm mm
1 1 0.8
2 2 4.5
3 3 8
4 4 12
5 5 15
6 6 18
7 7 20.5
8 8 24
9 9 26.5
10 10 29.5
11 11 33
12 12 36
13 13 38.5
14 14 42
15 15 45
16 16 48
17 17 51.5
18 18 54
19 19 56.5
20 20 60
21 21 62.5
22 22 66
23 23 68.5
24 24 72
25 25 74
26 26 77.5
27 27 81
28 28 84

Table 11.2 : Tabulation of wake velocity at different pressure ports

GRAPH:
1. Vwake/Vfreestream Vs y/C
hwake hwake
2.  Vs y/C
h freestream h freestream

RESULT:
Thus the drag of the two-dimensional airfoil is measured by the pitot-static probe wake
survey method. The value of drag coefficient of cylinder is, Cd =………….

CALCULATIONS:
EXPERIMENT NO – 11: Atmosphere modeling and estimation of pressure,
temperature for change in altitude

Aim:
To write the MATLAB code for modeling the atmosphere and evaluate the pressure,
temperature and Lapse rate for change in altitude

Theory:
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is an atmospheric model of how the pressure,
temperature, density, and viscosity of the Earth's atmosphere change over a wide range of
altitudes or elevations. It has been established to provide a common reference for temperature
and pressure and consists of tables of values at various altitudes.

 Air temperature falls at a constant rate in the troposphere.

 From the tropopause, the temperature remains constant at -60 0C until 20 km above
S.L.
  The lower stratosphere is the limit for atmospheric flight

START
Flow Chart

Inputs
Altitude (Km)
h,h1,h2,h3[tropopause,troposphere,stratosphere limits],
a0,a2 - Lapse rate troposphere and stratosphere
P0,T0,rho0 - sea level values

Calculate P1,T1,rho1,P2,T2,rho2

Yes No h1< h <h2

h< h1
h2>h<h3

Troposphere/Stratosphere [Gradient region] Isothermal Region

Temperature
Troposphere a0= -.0065 K/m
Stratosphere a2=0.003 K/m
T=T1=T0+a0*h1
Temperature Pressure
T=T1=T0+a0*h1 [Troposphere] 𝑃 -g
𝑒 RT − 1
T=T2+a2*(h-h2)[Stratosphere] P1
Pressure Density
-g 𝜌 -g
𝑃 𝑇 aR 𝑒 RT − 1
𝜌1
P1 T1
Density
-g
−1
𝜌 𝑇 aR

ρ1 T1

OUTPUT
Temperature at a given altitude
h = ________
Plot h Vs T, h vs P and h Vs ρ
END
function [T P, rho]=stdatp1(h)
h1=11000; h2=20000; h3=40000; a0=-.0065; a2=0.003;
g=9.81;
R=287;
T0=288.16;
P0=101325; rho0=1.125;
T1=T0+a0*h1;
P1=P0*(T1/T0)^(-g/(a0*R));
rho1=rho0*(T1/T0)^((-g/(a0*R))-1);
T2=T1;
P2=P1*exp((-g/(R*T2))*(h2-h1));
rho2=rho1*exp((-g/(R*T2))*(h2-h1));
if h<=h1
disp('Troposphere');
T=T0+a0*h;
P=P0*(T/T0)^(-g/(a0*R));
rho=rho0*(T/T0)^((-g/(a0*R))-1);

elseif h<=h2
disp('Tropopause');
T=T1;
P=P1*exp((-g/(R*T))*(h-h1));
rho=rho1*exp((-g/(R*T))*(h-h1));

else if h<= h3
disp('Statosphere')
T=T2+a2*(h-h2);
P=P2*(T/T2)^(-g/(a2*R));
rho=rho2*(T/T2)^((-g/(a2*R))-1);
else
disp('Error:the altitude should be less than 40000m');
end
end

figure;
h=0:1000:40000;
for k=1: size (h,2)
[T(k) P(k), rho(k)]=stdatp1(h(k));
end
subplot (2,2,1);
plot (T-273.16,h);
grid on;
xlabel ('Temperature(^{0}C)');
ylabel ('Altitude (m)');
subplot (2,2,2);
plot(P, h);
grid on;
xlabel ('pressure (N/m^2)');
ylabel ('Altitude (m)');
subplot (2,2,3);
plot (rho, h);
xlabel ('Density (Kg/m^3)');
ylabel ('Altitude (m)');
grid on;
grid on;
EXPERIMENT NO – 12: Estimation of thrust required and available with
change in velocity and altitude for unaccelerated flight
Aim:
To write the Matlab code to estimate the thrust required for an unaccelerated level
flight

Theory
To maintain speed and altitude, enough thrust must be generated to exactly overcome the
drag and to keep the airplane going this is the thrust required. The thrust required TR
depends on the velocity, the altitude, and the aerodynamic shape, size, and weight of the
airplane-it is an airframe associated feature rather than anything having to do with the engines
themselves. Indeed, the thrust required is simply equal to the drag of the airplane-it is the
thrust required to overcome the aerodynamic drag. The thrust required is simply the drag of
the airplane, hence the thrust required curve is nothing other than a plot of drag versus
velocity for a given airplane at a given altitude.
At low velocity, where CL is high, the total drag is dominated by the drag due to lift. Since
the drag due to lift is proportional to the square of CL, since CL decreases rapidly as V,
increases, the drag due to lift rapidly decreases, in spite of the fact that the dynamic pressure
is increasing. This is why the TR curve first decreases as V increases.
In contrast, the zero-lift drag increases as the square of V. At high velocity, the total drag is
dominated by the zero-lift drag. Hence, as the velocity of the airplane increases, there is some
velocity at which the increasing zero-lift drag exactly compensates for the decreasing drag
due to lift; this is the velocity at which TR is a minimum. At higher velocities, the rapidly
increasing zerolift drag causes TR to increase with increasing velocity

Thrust available

Thrust available curve is a horizontal line since thrust is constant for subsonic speeds. In
steady, level flight, the maximum velocity, of the airplane is determined by the high speed
intersection of the thrust required and thrust available curves.

Matlab code
clear all
b=15.7;
S=30;
AR=b^2/S;
W=59173.92;
CD0=0.02;
e=0.85;
K=1/(3.14*e*AR);
rho=1.225;
N=100;
Vmin=42;
Vmax=350;
Vi=linspace(Vmin,Vmax,N);
CLv=zeros(size(Vi));
CDv=CLv;
TRv=CLv;
for i=1:N
CL=2*W/(rho*Vi(i)^2*S);
CD=CD0+(K*CL^2);
LoD=CL/CD;
TR=W/LoD;
CLv(i)=CL;
CDv(i)=CD;
TRv(i)=TR;
end;
figure;hold on
hndl=plot(Vi,TRv,'r');
set(hndl,'linewidth',2);
hndl=xlabel('V_\infty,m/s');
set(hndl,'fontsize',18)
hndl=ylabel('T_R&T_A,N');
set(hndl,'fontsize',18)
grid on;
Ta=22240;
yline(Ta);
set(yline(Ta),'linewidth',2);
min(TRv)

Graph Output

Output:

1. The Minimum Thrust Required is ___

2. The Velocity of Minimum Thrust Required is ____
Case Study
1. Carry out the experiment for variation in weight and density and plot the
variation
Inference of result:

Record Marks Faculty Signature

Experiment No : Max Marks Marks Scored
Conduction of the 3M
experiment & write up
Tabulation & 4M
Calculation of results
Viva voice 3M
Total 10 M
EXPERIMENT NO – 13: Estimation of Range and Endurance of jet and
propeller powered aircraft

Aim:

To estimate the Range and Endurance of jet powered aircraft and propeller powered aircraft

Range
It is the horizontal distance travelled by the aircraft from point A to point B during a
steady level flight

Jet Propelled aircraft

Where, R- Range, W1= Gross weight of aircraft (i.e with Fuel)

W2= Weight of the aircraft with fuel tank empty, S-wing planform area, ct- thrust specific
fuel consumption, CL and CD –Lift and drag coefficient of aircraft
Endurance is amount of time an aircraft can stay in the air for a given load of fuel.

To have long endurance:

1) ct as small as possible
2) L/D as large as possible L/D|max
3) W1/W2 as large as possible (W2=W1 - Wfuel as small as possible - lots of fuel!)

Propeller Powered Aircraft

Breguet’s Range and Endurance

Where, E- Endurance, W1= Gross weight of aircraft (i.e with Fuel)

W2= Weight of the aircraft with fuel tank empty, S-wing planform area, ct- thrust specific
fuel consumption, CL and CD –Lift and drag coefficient of aircraft

Matlab code for jet powered Aircraft:

%Range and Endurance for a Jet aircraft

W1=33000;
W2=9000;
S=90;
rho=0.49;
Ct=0.69;
V0=100;
CD0=0.015;
k=0.08;

%To find CL
CL=(2*W1)/(rho*V0*V0*S);

%To find CD

CD=CD0+(k*CL^2);

%To find Range

R=((sqrt(8))/(Ct*sqrt(rho*S)))*((CL^0.5)/CD)*(sqrt(W1)-sqrt(W2))

%To find Endurance

E= (1/Ct)*(CL/CD)*(log(W1/W2))

fprintf('The Range of the aircraft is %f km \n', R)

fprintf('The Endurance of the aircraft is %f hrs \n', E)

Output
1. The Range of the Aircraft is ___________

2. The Endurance of the Aircraft is ___________

Exercise

Write the Matlab code and Plot the variation of Range and Endurance for
Varying Fuel weight and Altitude.
Inference of result:

Record Marks Faculty Signature

Experiment No : Max Marks Marks Scored
Conduction of the 3M
experiment & write up
Tabulation & 4M
Calculation of results
Viva voice 3M
Total 10 M
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
FOR
VIVA PREPARATION
 FUNDAMENTALS

1. What is Aerodynamics
2. Distinguish between solids, liquids and gases.
3. Mention the basic aerodynamic quantities
4. Define pressure, shear stresses, temperature & viscosity.
5. What is dynamic and kinematic viscosity?
6. How are aerodynamic forces and moments generated on the body moving through the
fluid?
7. Define Lift and Drag forces acting on a body moving through the fluid?
8. Which is the component of resultant force normal to the chord of the airfoil/wing?
9. What are aerodynamic coefficients?
10. Explain the significance of using coefficient of lift and drag over just lift and drag, in
the aerodynamic analysis of bodies moving through the air.
11. What is Aerodynamic centre? What is its significance in Aerodynamic analysis?
12. What is centre of pressure? Explain the effect of angle of attack on the location of the
centre of pressure.
13. Define Coefficient of pressure and explain why coefficient of pressure is used rather
than just pressure.
14. List the Aerodynamic forces and moments encountered in Aerodynamics.
15. Define normal and axial forces generated on an airfoil.

WIND TUNNEL

1. What are wind tunnels? List the various parts of a wind tunnel.
2. Mention the various applications of wind tunnels.
3. Based on the speed, name the different types of wind tunnels.
4. Explain dynamic similarity.
5. Define various regimes of flow based on the Mach number.
6. What is Reynolds number and explain the effect of Reynolds number on the flow
behaviour.
7. Why is diffuser section longer in length than contraction section even for a smaller
area ratio than the contraction section?
8. Explain the working of an open circuit and closed circuit wind tunnels.
9. Explain the working of an In Draft supersonic tunnel.
10. What is the function of a convergent section in a wind tunnel?
 CALIBRATION

1. What is sensitivity and range of an instrument?

2. What is meant by calibration and how is it performed for wind tunnel test section
velocity?
3. How can sensitivity of the manometer be increased?
4. What is the adverse effect of increasing the sensitivity of the manometer?
5. How is the formula for flow velocity in the test section derived?

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER CYLINDER

1. Is Cp defined or derived?
2. Does the shape and the size of the pressure taps cause any errors?
3. Can the pressure taps be elliptic or square in shape?
4. After which Reynolds number, there exists a potential difference between the theory
and experimental results?
5. Is there any effect on location of the static pressure taps in the same cross section?
6. What is Von Karman vortex?
7. Explain D’Alembert’s Paradox.
8. Explain the phenomenon of lifting flows over a rotating cylinder.
9. Explain the flow patterns over the cylinder submerged in a flowing fluid.
10. What is meant by Favourable and Adverse Pressure Gradients?

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER AIRFOIL

1. What do you understand by the term Airfoil and how different is an airfoil compared
to a wing?
2. Comment about the nature of the flow occurring over an airfoil and a wing.
3. What is a symmetric and cambered airfoil?
4. List the basic geometric differences between a symmetric and cambered airfoil.
5. Explain the plot of Cl Vs Alpha for a symmetric and cambered airfoil.
6. What is stalling and what are the consequences of stalling.
7. Is coefficient of Lift and Drag dependent on the Reynolds number? If Yes, Explain.
8. Explain the physical phenomenon of the occurrence of stalling.
9. Is the Cl vs α plot same for all the Reynolds numbers? How does the Cl vary as the
Reynolds number is increased? Reason out for the above behaviour.
10. What is Kutta Condition? Explain the same.
11. Why is the zero lift angle of attack a negative value?
12. When will the zero lift angle of attack be a positive value?
13. Is the slope of the curve Cl vs α is equal to 2*π? If not why?
14. Can the slope of Cl vs α curve exceed 2*π?
15. What is meant by Circulation and explain how it aids in finding the lift over an airfoil
analytically.
FLOW VISUALIZATION

1. What do you understand by the term flow visualization?

2. List the various types of flow visualization techniques.
3. What is the difference between smoke generator and smoke wire technique?
4. What are streak lines, streamlines, path lines and timelines?
5. Which of the above are visualized in smoke visualization?
6. Why is smoke required for flow visualization?
7. What other things can be used in flow visualization?
8. What is the principle behind oil flow visualization?
Aircraft performance

1. What is meant by the term "aircraft performance" in aviation?

2. Explain the significance of aircraft performance parameters in the design and

operation of aircraft.

3. How is aircraft range defined, and what factors influence it?

4. Describe the concept of specific range and its importance in aviation.

5. What are the primary factors affecting aircraft endurance, and how are they
interrelated?

6. Explain the terms "takeoff distance" and "landing distance" in the context of aircraft
performance.

7. Discuss the impact of aircraft weight on takeoff and landing performance.

8. How does altitude affect aircraft performance, and what role does density altitude
play?

9. What is the significance of the lift-to-drag ratio in aircraft performance?

10. Describe the effects of temperature on aircraft engine performance and overall aircraft
capabilities.
11. Explain the concept of service ceiling and its relevance to aircraft performance.

12. How do wind conditions affect aircraft performance during takeoff and landing?

13. Discuss the factors that influence climb performance in aircraft.

14. What is the purpose of the V-speeds in aviation, and can you name a few critical V-
speeds?

15. Describe the role of thrust-to-weight ratio in determining aircraft performance.

16. Explain the relationship between power loading and the rate of climb in an aircraft.

17. How does aircraft configuration (such as wing flaps) impact performance during
different phases of flight?

18. Discuss the factors affecting cruise performance and fuel efficiency in aircraft.

19. What is the significance of the maneuvering speed (Va) in aircraft performance?

20. Explain the importance of the drag polar in understanding and optimizing aircraft
performance.