Detailed Notes on Transportation Engineering (CEPC 203)
These notes are prepared as per the First Draft (January 2025) of the Second Year Diploma
in Civil Engineering, Orissa syllabus.
UNIT - I: Overview of Highway Engineering
1. Role of Transportation in the Development of a Nation
Transportation is a critical infrastructure for the social, economic, and cultural development
of any nation. Its primary roles include:
Economic Growth: Facilitates the movement of raw materials to industrial centers and
finished goods to markets. It promotes trade, commerce, and industrialization.
Social Development: Connects communities, providing access to healthcare, education, and
other essential services. It promotes national integration.
Cultural Exchange: Enables the movement of people, fostering the exchange of ideas,
cultures, and traditions between different regions.
Administrative and Security Needs: Allows for efficient administration, quick movement of
security forces, and aids in maintaining law and order, especially in remote areas.
Employment Generation: The transport sector is a major employer, providing jobs in
construction, maintenance, and operation.
2. Scope and Importance of Roads in India
India has one of the largest road networks in the world.
Scope: The scope of highway engineering involves planning, financing, design, construction,
operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe, efficient, and
economical transportation.
Importance & Characteristics:
Last-Mile Connectivity: Roads offer door-to-door service, which other modes like railways or
airways cannot provide.
Feeder System: They act as a feeder system for other modes of transport, connecting
villages and remote areas to railway stations, airports, and ports.
Flexibility: Road transport is highly flexible in terms of routes and timings.
Suitable for Short Distances: It is more economical and faster for carrying goods and
passengers over short to medium distances.
3. Different Modes of Transportation
Transportation can be broadly classified into three modes:
Mode Description Merits Demerits
Land Way Movement on land. Includes Roadways and Railways. Roadways: High
flexibility, door-to-door service, suitable for short distances. <br> Railways: High capacity,
economical for long distances, reliable in all weather. Roadways: Lower capacity,
higher operational cost, prone to traffic congestion. <br> Railways: Inflexible routes, requires
huge initial investment, no door-to-door service.
Waterway Movement through water bodies (rivers, canals, seas). Lowest
operational cost, huge carrying capacity, ideal for bulky goods. Slowest mode, limited to
areas with navigable waterways, susceptible to weather.
AirwayMovement through the air using aircraft. Fastest mode of transport, essential for
emergencies and long distances, not affected by land barriers. Highest operational cost,
limited carrying capacity, highly dependent on weather, requires specialized infrastructure.
4. General Classification of Roads
Roads in India are generally classified based on the Nagpur Road Plan (1943) and
subsequent modifications.
National Highways (NH): Main arterial roads running through the length and breadth of the
country, connecting state capitals, major ports, industrial centers, and foreign highways.
Maintained by the Central Government (through NHAI).
State Highways (SH): Arterial roads of a state, connecting district headquarters and
important cities within the state to the National Highways. Maintained by the respective State
Governments.
Major District Roads (MDR): Important roads within a district, connecting areas of production
and markets with each other or with State and National Highways.
Other District Roads (ODR): Roads serving rural areas of production and providing them
with an outlet to market centers, taluka headquarters, or other main roads.
Village Roads (VR): Roads connecting villages or a group of villages with each other and to
the nearest road of a higher category.
5. Road Alignment and Factors Affecting It
Alignment is the position or the layout of the centerline of the highway on the ground. A good
alignment should be short, easy, safe, and economical.
Factors Affecting Road Alignment:
Obligatory Points: These are points through which the alignment must or must not pass
(e.g., must pass through a town, must not pass through a religious site or dense forest).
Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements, connecting centers of population
and industry.
Geometric Design: Factors like gradient, radius of the curve, and sight distance must be
considered.
Economy: The alignment should be economical, balancing the initial cost of construction with
the future cost of maintenance and vehicle operation.
Topography: The alignment should avoid steep slopes, marshes, and unstable hills to
minimize earthwork and ensure stability.
Drainage: The alignment must be chosen to ensure good drainage, which is crucial for
pavement life. The road should preferably be located along a watershed.
Material Availability: Proximity to sources of construction materials (like stone, gravel) can
make the alignment more economical.
UNIT - II: Geometric Design of Highway
Geometric design deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway.
1. Camber (or Crossfall)
Definition: Camber is the transverse slope provided to the road surface to drain off rainwater
from the pavement. It is provided from the center towards the edges.
Purpose: To prevent the entry of surface water into the pavement layers and the subgrade,
which can reduce the pavement's strength and life.
Types & IRC Recommendations: The amount of camber depends on the type of road
surface and the amount of rainfall.
Type of Road SurfaceHeavy Rainfall Area Light Rainfall Area
Cement Concrete & High Bituminous1 in 50 (2.0%)1 in 60 (1.7%)
Thin Bituminous 1 in 40 (2.5%)1 in 50 (2.0%)
Water Bound Macadam (WBM) & Gravel 1 in 33 (3.0%)1 in 40 (2.5%)
Earthen Roads 1 in 25 (4.0%)1 in 33 (3.0%)
2. Kerbs, Road Margin, Road Formation, Right of Way (ROW)
Kerbs: A line of stone or concrete along the edge of a pavement to define the edge, provide
lateral support, and channel drainage.
Road Margin: The portion of the road beyond the carriageway. It includes shoulders,
footpaths, side drains, etc.
Road Formation (or Formation Width): The top width of the highway embankment or the
bottom width of a cutting, excluding the side drains. It is the sum of the carriageway width,
shoulders, and separators.
Right of Way (ROW): The total area of land acquired for the construction and maintenance of
the road. It includes the formation width and any extra land for future widening, service
roads, and utility lines.
3. Design Speed
Definition: The single most important factor that governs the geometric design of a highway.
It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained by a vehicle over a specified section of
a highway when conditions are favorable.
Factors Affecting Design Speed (as per IRC):
Class of Road: NHs have higher design speeds than VRs.
Terrain: Plain terrain allows for higher speeds than mountainous or steep terrain.
Proximity to Urban Areas: Lower design speeds are adopted in urban or built-up areas.
4. Gradient
Definition: The rate of rise or fall of the road surface along its length. It is expressed as a
ratio (e.g., 1 in 30) or as a percentage (e.g., 3.33%).
Types & IRC Recommendations:
Ruling Gradient: The maximum gradient that the designer attempts to provide in normal
conditions. (For plain terrain, IRC suggests 1 in 30 or 3.3%).
Limiting Gradient: A gradient steeper than the ruling gradient, used in short sections where
the topography makes the ruling gradient uneconomical. (For plain terrain, IRC suggests 1 in
20 or 5%).
Exceptional Gradient: A very steep gradient given in extraordinary situations for very short
lengths. (For plain terrain, IRC suggests 1 in 15 or 6.7%).
Minimum Gradient: A minimum slope is required for effective drainage, typically 1 in 200
(0.5%).
5. Sight Distance (SSD)
Definition: The length of the road ahead visible to the driver at any instant.
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): The minimum distance required for a driver to stop their
vehicle safely without colliding with an obstacle ahead. It is the sum of the distance traveled
during the driver's reaction time (lag distance) and the distance traveled while braking
(braking distance).
IRC Recommendations & Formula: SSD = vt + \\frac{v^2}{2gf} Where:
v = design speed in m/s
t = total reaction time (as per IRC, t = 2.5 seconds)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s^2)
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction (as per IRC, it varies from 0.40 at 20 km/h to 0.35 at 100
km/h)
Simple Numerical: You will be expected to calculate SSD by substituting given values into
this formula.
6. Curves
Necessity: Curves are necessary to change the direction or gradient of a road gradually.
Types:
Horizontal Curves: Provided to change the direction of the road in a horizontal plane. They
are usually circular arcs.
Vertical Curves: Provided at the intersection of two different gradients to ensure a smooth
change in vertical profile. They are usually parabolic.
7. Extra Widening of Roads
On horizontal curves, the pavement is widened to account for the off-tracking of vehicles and
driver psychology.
Formula for Extra Widening (W\_e): W\_e = W\_m + W\_{ps} = \\frac{nl^2}{2R} +
\\frac{V}{9.5\\sqrt{R}} Where:
n = number of lanes
l = length of the wheelbase (as per IRC, l = 6.1 m)
R = radius of the curve in meters
V = design speed in km/h
8. Super-elevation (or Cant, or Banking)
Definition: The inward transverse slope provided to the road surface on a horizontal curve to
counteract the effect of centrifugal force.
Formula for Calculating Super-elevation: The basic relationship is: e + f = \\frac{v^2}{gR} For
practical design, using speed V in km/h: e + f = \\frac{V^2}{127R} Where:
e = rate of super-elevation
f = coefficient of lateral friction (as per IRC, f = 0.15)
V = design speed in km/h
R = radius of the curve in meters
Minimum Super-elevation: Should be equal to the road camber to ensure drainage.
Maximum Super-elevation:
Plain & Rolling Terrain: 7% (1 in 14.3)
Hilly Terrain (not snow-bound): 10% (1 in 10)
Urban Areas: 4% (1 in 25)
Method of Providing: Super-elevation is provided gradually by raising the outer edge of the
pavement with respect to the inner edge over the length of the transition curve.
9. Standard Cross-sections of National Highway
In Embankment (Filling): The road level is above the natural ground level. The cross-section
shows the carriageway, shoulders, formation width, and side slopes leading down to the
natural ground. Side drains are provided at the toe of the embankment.
In Cutting: The road level is below the natural ground level. The cross-section shows the
carriageway, shoulders, and side slopes excavated from the ground. Side drains are
provided along the edges of the formation to carry water away.
UNIT - III: Construction of Road Pavements
1. Types of Road Materials and Their Tests
Aggregates: The primary structural material in pavements.
Flakiness Index Test: Determines the percentage of particles that have a thickness less than
60% (0.6 times) of their mean dimension. Elongated and flaky particles are undesirable as
they lead to poor interlocking.
Elongation Index Test: Determines the percentage of particles that have a length greater
than 180% (1.8 times) of their mean dimension.
Angularity Number Test: Measures the angularity of aggregates, which is important for
interlocking and stability in bituminous mixes. It is based on the percentage of voids in a
compacted sample.
Bitumen: A black, sticky binder derived from petroleum.
Penetration Test: Measures the hardness or consistency of bitumen by determining the
depth a standard needle penetrates under standard conditions of load, time, and
temperature.
Ductility Test: Measures the ability of bitumen to stretch before breaking. High ductility is
desirable for road works.
Flash and Fire Point Test: Determines the temperature at which bitumen vapors will flash
(Flash Point) and catch fire (Fire Point). This is a safety test to specify the maximum safe
heating temperature.
Softening Point Test: Measures the temperature at which bitumen attains a specific
consistency. It is used for grading bitumen.
2. Pavement: Definition, Types, and Components
Definition: A layered structure placed over the subgrade (natural soil) to distribute the vehicle
loads and provide a smooth, durable wearing surface.
Types:
Flexible Pavements: Have a bituminous surface. They transmit loads to the subgrade
through grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate layers. The structural strength decreases
with depth. (e.g., Bituminous roads).
Rigid Pavements: Have a Portland cement concrete (PCC) slab. They distribute loads over a
wide area of the subgrade due to their high flexural rigidity. (e.g., Concrete roads).
Structural Components:
Flexible Pavement (from bottom up): Subgrade -> Sub-base Course -> Base Course ->
Binder Course -> Wearing Course (Surface).
Rigid Pavement (from bottom up): Subgrade -> Base Course (optional) -> PCC Slab.
3. Construction of WBM & WMM Roads
Water Bound Macadam (WBM): A traditional pavement where crushed stone aggregates are
bound together by stone dust and water, compacted by rollers.
Construction: Involves preparing the subgrade, spreading coarse aggregates, dry rolling,
applying screenings (filler material), sprinkling with water, and final compaction until a wave
of grout flushes ahead of the roller.
Merits: Low initial cost, uses local materials, simple construction.
Demerits: High maintenance cost, generates dust, low load-carrying capacity, easily
damaged by water.
Wet Mix Macadam (WMM): An improvement over WBM where aggregates and binder
material are mixed with water in a pugmill or mixing plant before being laid and compacted.
Merits: Better quality control, faster construction, more uniform mix, higher strength than
WBM.
Demerits: Requires a central mixing plant, slightly higher initial cost than WBM.
4. Construction of Flexible (Bituminous) Road
Types of Bitumen:
Paving Grade Bitumen: Used for standard road construction (e.g., VG-30, VG-10).
Cutback Bitumen: Bitumen with its viscosity reduced by adding a volatile solvent (e.g.,
kerosene). The solvent evaporates after application.
Bitumen Emulsion: A stable dispersion of bitumen in water with an emulsifying agent. It can
be used in cold applications.
Tar: A byproduct of the carbonization of coal. It is less preferred now due to its temperature
susceptibility and carcinogenic properties.
Important Terms:
Prime Coat: The first application of a low-viscosity liquid bituminous material over a
non-bituminous base course (like WBM/WMM). It plugs voids and provides a bond.
Tack Coat: A very light application of bituminous material over an existing bituminous or
concrete surface to ensure a bond between the old and new layers.
Seal Coat: A thin top layer of bitumen, sometimes with cover aggregates, applied to
waterproof the surface and improve skid resistance.
Merits: Low initial cost, can be strengthened in stages, comfortable to ride, easy to repair.
Demerits: Shorter lifespan, requires frequent maintenance, susceptible to damage from oil
spillage and water.
5. Construction of Cement Concrete Road
Methods of Construction:
Alternate Bay Method: The road is constructed in alternate longitudinal bays or panels. This
is a slower, manual method.
Continuous Bay Method: The entire width of the road is constructed continuously, typically
using slipform pavers. This is a fast, mechanized method.
Joints in Concrete Roads:
Expansion Joints: Provided to allow the slab to expand due to temperature rise. They
provide a complete gap between slabs, filled with a compressible filler.
Contraction Joints: Provided to induce controlled cracking at pre-determined locations due to
shrinkage. They are saw-cut grooves in the slab.
Construction Joints: Provided at the end of a day's work.
Fillers and Sealers:
Joint Filler: Compressible material used in expansion joints (e.g., cork, bitumen-impregnated
fiberboard).
Joint Sealer: Material poured into the top of joints to prevent the ingress of water and debris
(e.g., rubber-bitumen compounds).
Merits: Long life (20+ years), very low maintenance, excellent riding surface, resistant to oil
and fuel spillage, good visibility at night.
Demerits: Very high initial cost, construction is complex and requires skilled supervision,
uncomfortable to ride if not constructed well.
UNIT - IV: Basics of Railway Engineering
1. Classification and Zones of Indian Railways
Classification: Indian Railways is one of the world's largest railway networks. It is the
backbone of the country's logistics sector.
Zones of Indian Railways: Indian Railways is divided into several zones for administrative
convenience. As of recent updates, there are 19 zones (including Kolkata Metro). A few
examples are:
Northern Railway (NR) - HQ: Delhi
Eastern Railway (ER) - HQ: Kolkata
Western Railway (WR) - HQ: Mumbai (Churchgate)
Southern Railway (SR) - HQ: Chennai
East Coast Railway (ECoR) - HQ: Bhubaneswar
2. Permanent Way
Definition: The combination of rails, sleepers, ballast, and fastenings, all laid on a prepared
formation, is called the Permanent Way or Railway Track.
Ideal Requirements:
Gauge should be uniform and correct.
Rails should have proper alignment and level.
Track should be resilient and elastic.
It should provide a smooth and safe path for trains.
It should have good drainage and be easy to maintain.
Components: Rails, Sleepers, Ballast, Fixtures & Fastenings.
Rail Gauge: The clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of the two rails.
Types in India:
Broad Gauge (BG): 1.676 m (1676 mm). This is the Indian standard gauge.
Metre Gauge (MG): 1.000 m (1000 mm). Being converted to BG under Project Unigauge.
Narrow Gauge (NG): 0.762 m (762 mm) and 0.610 m (610 mm). Used in hilly terrains.
Factors Affecting Selection: Cost of construction, traffic volume, topography, and potential
speed.
3. Rails and Rail Joints
Rail: The steel sections laid in two parallel lines to provide a continuous and level surface for
the movement of trains.
Rail Joints: A connection between two consecutive rails to provide a continuous path. The
weakest part of the track.
Requirements: Should hold rails at the correct level and alignment, allow for expansion and
contraction, and be strong enough to withstand stresses.
Types: Supported Joint, Suspended Joint, Bridge Joint. Most common is the Suspended
Joint where the joint is suspended between two sleepers.
4. Creep of Rail
Definition: The longitudinal movement of rails in the direction of traffic.
Causes: Wave motion of rails under moving loads, starting/accelerating forces,
stopping/decelerating forces, temperature changes.
Prevention: Using steel sleepers with firm keying, using anti-creepers (devices that grip the
rail and are fixed against the sleeper), and pulling back the rails periodically.
5. Sleepers
Function: To hold the rails at the correct gauge, transfer loads from the rails to the ballast,
and provide a firm and level support for the rails.
Requirements: Should be strong, durable, provide good stability, and be economical.
Types:
Concrete Sleepers: Now the most widely used type on Indian Railways.
Advantages: Long life, heavy (provides good stability), holds gauge well, requires less
maintenance.
Disadvantages: Heavy to handle, susceptible to damage from derailments.
Density: The number of sleepers per rail length (e.g., M+7, where M is the rail length in
meters).
6. Ballast
Function: To transfer loads from the sleepers to the formation, provide drainage for the track,
hold the track in position (longitudinally and laterally), and provide elasticity.
Types: Broken stone (best and most common), gravel, sand, cinders.
Suitability: The best ballast is hard, tough, angular broken stone that resists crushing and
does not produce dust.
7. Rail Fixtures and Fastenings
Devices used to connect rails to sleepers and rails to each other.
Fish Plates: Used at rail joints to connect two rails end-to-end.
Spikes: Used to hold flat-footed rails to wooden sleepers.
Bolts: Used with fish plates (fish bolts) and to fasten chairs or bearing plates to sleepers.
Keys: Tapered wedges (usually metal) used to fix rails tightly into chairs.
Bearing Plates: Steel plates placed between flat-footed rails and sleepers to distribute the
load over a larger area of the sleeper.
Chairs: Used to hold Bull-Headed rails in position on sleepers.
Anchors (Anti-Creepers): Devices fitted to the foot of the rail and bearing against the sleeper
to prevent creep.
UNIT - V: Track Geometrics, Construction, and Maintenance
1. Alignment
Factors Governing Rail Alignment: Similar to road alignment: obligatory points, topography,
geometric standards, minimizing earthwork, and ensuring good drainage.
2. Track Cross-Sections
Standard Cross-Section: Shows the components in their relative positions.
Terms:
Permanent Land: The land acquired for the railway, similar to Right of Way.
Formation Width: Top width of the embankment or bottom width of the cutting. Wider for
double lines than single lines.
Side Drains: Essential for draining water away from the formation.
In Cutting vs. Embankment: Similar principles as in highways, ensuring stability and
drainage.
3. Railway Track Geometrics
Gradient: The rate of rise or fall of the track. Similar concepts as in highways (ruling, limiting
gradients).
Grade Compensation on Curves: On curves, extra resistance is offered to the train. To
compensate for this, the gradient is reduced on the curve.
IRC Rule:
Broad Gauge: 0.04% per degree of curve.
Metre Gauge: 0.03% per degree of curve.
Super-elevation (Cant): The outer rail on a curve is raised with respect to the inner rail to
counteract centrifugal force. Formula is based on equilibrium speed, gauge, and radius.
e = \\frac{GV^2}{127R} where G is the gauge.
Cant Deficiency: Occurs when a train travels faster than the equilibrium speed for which the
cant was designed. It is the additional cant that would be required.
Negative Cant: Occurs on transition curves or in station yards where the main line is canted,
but the branch line has a lower required cant, leading to the outer rail of the branch line
being lower than the inner rail.
Coning of Wheels & Tilting of Rail: The tread of the train wheels is made in the shape of a
cone (approx. 1 in 20). This helps the train negotiate curves smoothly and keeps it centrally
on the track. To match this cone and reduce wear, rails are also tilted inwards at a slope of 1
in 20.
4. Branching of Tracks, Points, and Crossings
Turnout: A mechanical arrangement that diverts a train from one track to another. It consists
of points (or a switch) and a crossing.
Components: A pair of tongue rails, a pair of stock rails, a switch mechanism, and a crossing
assembly (Vee, wing rails, check rails).
Track Junctions: Arrangements to connect or cross tracks.
Crossover: Two turnouts connecting two parallel tracks, allowing a train to move from one to
the other.
Scissor Crossover (Double Crossover): An arrangement that allows trains to cross from one
track to another in either direction, located at the intersection of two crossovers.
Diamond Crossing: When two tracks of the same or different gauge cross each other.
Track Triangle (Wye): A triangular arrangement of tracks used for reversing the direction of a
locomotive or an entire train.
5. Station and Station Yard
Railway Station: A place on a railway line where traffic is booked and dealt with and trains
are stopped.
Requirements: Should have facilities for passengers (platforms, waiting halls) and goods
(loading/unloading platforms, storage).
Site Selection Factors: Availability of level land, good drainage, accessibility to the town/city.
Station Yard: A system of tracks laid within defined limits for receiving, storing, sorting, and
dispatching vehicles.
Classification of Yards:
Passenger Yards: For handling passenger trains.
Goods Yards: For handling goods traffic.
Locomotive Yards: For servicing, housing, and refueling locomotives.
Marshalling Yards: Large yards where goods wagons from different trains are sorted and
reassembled into new trains for their respective destinations. They have reception, sorting,
and departure lines. Their main drawback is the time taken for sorting.
6. Track Maintenance
Necessity: To maintain the track geometry, ensure safety, provide passenger comfort, and
extend the life of track components.
Classification: Daily, periodic, and special maintenance.
Tools: Beaters, shovels, ballast forks, rail tongs, spanners, crowbars, etc.
Organization: The permanent way is maintained by gangs under the supervision of a
hierarchy of officials.
Duties of Personnel:
Permanent Way Inspector (PWI) / Junior Engineer (JE): In charge of a section of track
(typically 40-50 km). Responsible for inspection, planning, and execution of all maintenance
work.
Gangmate (Mate): The leader of a gang. Responsible for the safety and work of his gang
members.
Key-man: Responsible for daily patrolling of a specific length (key) of the track (typically 5-8
km). He checks for loose fittings, cracks, and other defects and performs minor corrections.
