Chapter 5

Data Representation
Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:

 Describe the binary and hexadecimal number systems,
 Given a number in one of base 2, 10, or 16, convert that number to its equivalent in the other
bases,
 Perform addition with binary and hexadecimal numbers, and
 Demonstrate how a character is stored internally using the EBCDIC or ASCII collating
sequences.

Introduction

We've done about as much assembler as we can without learning more about how data is
represented internally. In this chapter we will discuss the binary and hexadecimal number systems.
But first, we need to take a brief look at our decimal number system....

A Closer Look at Our Decimal Number System

Time now for some very basic arithmetic review. This may take you back a while! Consider the
number 1956. We know this is a valid decimal number, but why? It is a valid decimal number
because it is composed of valid digits for the decimal, or base 10, number system, specifically, 0
through 9 inclusive. That is, the base 10 number system consists of ten digits. Recall that 10 is not
a digit, but is a valid decimal number consisting of the digits 1 and 0.

Consider again the number 1956 . We know this number to be one thousand nine hundred fifty six,
but why? Let's look at this more closely. Recall:

1956
::::
::::... 6 x 1 = 6
:::.... 5 x 10 = 50
::..... 9 x 100 = 900
:...... 1 x 1000 = 1000
1956

Furthermore, recall:

1 = 10 0
10 = 10 1
100 = 10 2
1000 = 10 3

And so we can rewrite the above as:

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Copyright © 2009 by Bill Qualls – All Rights Reserved
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1956
::::
::::... 6 x 10 0 = 6
:::.... 5 x 10 1 = 50
::..... 9 x 10 2 = 900
:...... 1 x 10 3 = 1000
1956

So we see that for a base 10 number, each digit is multiplied by a successive power of ten.

What is the highest decimal number with four digits? Answer: 9999 . We know this because 9 is
the highest digit allowed in the base 10 number system, and to get the highest decimal number
with four digits, we simply use this digit in all four positions.

Similarly, the lowest decimal number with four digits is 0000, because 0 is the lowest digit allowed
in the base 10 number system, and to get the lowest decimal number with four digits, we simply
use this digit in all four positions.

So in summary,
 The base 10 system has ten digits. They are 0 through 9 inclusive.
 The value of a number is found by multiplying each digit by a successive power of ten and
summing these products.
 To get the highest number in a fixed number of digits, use the highest digit (9) in all positions.
Similarly, to get the lowest number in a fixed number of digits, use the lowest digit (0) in all
positions.

These same principles will be used as we discuss other number systems!

The Binary Number System

The binary number system is also known as the base 2 number system. Just as the base 10 system
has 10 digits, the base 2 system has 2 digits. They are 0 and 1. Just as 10 was not a valid digit in
the base 10 system, 2 is not a valid digit in the base 2 system.

So we see that a binary number is one composed of zeros and ones only. 10110 is a valid binary
number, but 10120 is not valid. Note that 10110 is also a valid decimal number. When the base is
not obvious, we often use a subscript to indicate the base. For example, 10110 2 vs. 10110 10.

The binary number system is the system used by all computers to represent data. The reason for
doing so is that a binary digit is easily represented electronically, such as by the presence or
absence of current.

Each binary digit is referred to as a bit. Bit is an abbreviation for binary digit.

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Binary-to-Decimal Conversion

Using the same technique as was used with the base 10 numbering system, the value of a binary
number can be found by multiplying each digit by a successive power of two and summing these
products. For example,

10110
:::::
:::::... 0 x 20 = 0 x 1 = 0
::::.... 1 x 21 = 1 x 2 = 2
:::..... 1 x 22 = 1 x 4 = 4
::...... 0 x 23 = 0 x 8 = 0
:....... 1 x 24 = 1 x 16 = 16
22

So we see that 10110 2 = 22 10

You Try It...

1. 1101 2 = _____ 10
2. 10010 2 = _____ 10
3. 110111 2 = _____ 10

The EBCDIC and ASCII Collating Sequences

A byte is a collection of bits. There are usually 8 bits in a byte, an exception being some early
teletype devices which had 6 or 7 bits in a byte. For our purposes, we will always assume 8 bits
per byte.

A natural question then is, "What is the maximum decimal value representable by a single byte?"
Recall from our discussion of the base 10 number system, to get the highest number in a fixed
number of digits, use the highest digit in all positions. The highest digit in the base 2 number
system is 1, so the highest base 2 number in 8 digits is 11111111 .
11111111
::::::::
::::::::... 1 x 20 = 1 x 1 = 1
:::::::.... 1 x 21 = 1 x 2 = 2
::::::..... 1 x 22 = 1 x 4 = 4
:::::...... 1 x 23 = 1 x 8 = 8
::::....... 1 x 24 = 1 x 16 = 16
:::........ 1 x 25 = 1 x 32 = 32
::......... 1 x 26 = 1 x 64 = 64
:.......... 1 x 27 = 1 x 128 = 128
255

So we see that the maximum decimal number representable by 8 bits or 1 byte is 255. Similarly,
the lowest decimal number representable by 8 bits or 1 byte is 0 ( 00000000 2).
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There are, therefore, a total of 256 possible values (0 through 255) representable by one byte.

This fact is important, but still does not answer the question, "How does a computer, which
processes bits (which are ON or OFF only) represent data?" The answer to the question lies in the
use of codes.

You may have played with secret codes when you were younger. For example, you may have
used the following:

A B C D E F G H I  Y Z
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9  25 26

Using this code, if I need to send the word CABBAGE , I would send 3-1-2-2-1-7-5 instead, and
no one would know what I was saying. (This is commonly referred to as a code, but is actually
what is known as a substitution cipher. A code is really something different.)

In order to represent data, similar coding schemes are used to assign a decimal value (from 0 to
255 inclusive) to each character. There are two such coding schemes. The first, EBCDIC , or
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, is the code used by IBM mainframes (and
therefore PC/370). A portion of that code is shown here:

A..193 G..199 M..212 S..226 Y..232 4..244

B..194 H..200 N..213 T..227 Z..233 5..245
C..195 I..201 O..214 U..228 0..240 6..246
D..196 J..209 P..215 V..229 1..241 7..247
E..197 K..210 Q..216 W..230 2..242 8..248
F..198 L..211 R..217 X..231 3..243 9..249

ASCII ,or American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is the code used by non-IBM
mainframes, and all PCs. A portion of that code is shown here:

A..65 G..71 M..77 S..83 Y..89 4..52

B..66 H..72 N..78 T..84 Z..90 5..53
C..67 I..73 O..79 U..85 0..48 6..54
D..68 J..74 P..80 V..86 1..49 7..55
E..69 K..75 Q..81 W..87 2..50 8..56
F..70 L..76 R..82 X..88 3..51 9..57

These codes determine the collating sequence, or sort sequence, of the characters. Note that
when using EBCDIC , letters come before numbers, while in ASCII , numbers come before letters.
Similarly, when using EBCDIC , lower case letters come before upper case letters, while in ASCII ,
upper case letters come before lower case letters.

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DATA REPRESENTATION
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Decimal-to-Binary Conversion

To convert a decimal number to its binary equivalent, subtract the highest power of two which is
less than or equal to the number. Continue until the difference is equal to zero. Those powers of
two which were subtracted will be 1's in the binary number. All other digits will be 0. For
example:

55
- 32 32 = 2 5 --> the fifth* digit is 1
23
- 16 16 = 2 4 --> the fourth digit is 1
7
- 4 4 = 2 2 --> the second digit is 1
3
- 2 2 = 2 1 --> the first digit is 1
1
- 1 1 = 2 0 --> the zeroth digit is 1
0

Answer: Binary number is 110111

Another example:

200
-128 128 = 2 7 --> the seventh digit is 1
72
- 64 64 = 2 6 --> the sixth digit is 1
8
- 8 8 = 2 3 --> the third digit is 1
0

Answer: Binary number is 11001000

* Note that the references to digit placement are relative to zero, that is
fifth digit is actually the sixth digit from the right.

You Try It...

4. 2010 = __________ 2
5. 8710 = __________ 2
6. 14610 = __________ 2

The Hexadecimal Number System

Working with binary numbers can be very tedious: the numbers are long and are prone to errors.
The hexadecimal, or base 16, number system is commonly used in place of binary numbers.

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Copyright © 2009 by Bill Qualls – All Rights Reserved
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Just as the base 10 system has 10 digits, and the base 2 system has 2 digits, the base 16 system has
16 digits. They range in value from 0 to 15 inclusive. But 15 cannot be a digit, as it would be
confused with a 1 and a 5. So to avoid such confusion, we use the letters A-F for the digits 10-15.
The complete hexadecimal digits are as follows:

Hex Digit Decimal Binary

0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
A 10 1010
B 11 1011
C 12 1100
D 13 1101
E 14 1110
F 15 1111

To be effective in assembler, you must commit this table to memory.

Note that each hexadecimal digit uses four bits. Therefore, two hexadecimal digits are necessary
to indicate the value of a single byte (eight bits).

As before, there is the possibility of confusion over the base of a number. The number 2A7F can
only be a hexadecimal number, but 10110 is a valid binary, decimal, and hexadecimal number!
When the base is not obvious, we use a subscript of 16 to indicate hexadecimal, for example,
10110 16.

Hexadecimal-to-Decimal Conversion

Using the same technique as was used with the base 10 and base 2 numbering systems, the value
of a hexadecimal number can be found by multiplying each digit by a successive power of sixteen
and summing these products. For example,

2A7F
::::
::::.... F x 16 0 = 15 x 1 = 15
:::..... 7 x 16 1 = 7 x 16 = 112
::...... A x 16 2 = 10 x 256 = 2560
:....... 2 x 16 3 = 2 x 4096 = 8192
10879

So we see that 2A7F16 = 10879 10

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Copyright © 2009 by Bill Qualls – All Rights Reserved
CHAPTER 5 5.7

DATA REPRESENTATION
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You Try It...

7. 6D16 = ______ 10
8. A516 = ______ 10
9. 2FE16 = ______ 10

Decimal-to-Hexadecimal Conversion

The process of converting a decimal number to its hexadecimal equivalent is similar to the process
of converting a decimal number to its binary equivalent: subtract the highest multiple of a power
of 16 which is less than or equal to the number. Continue until the difference is equal to zero.
Those multiples of powers of 16 which were subtracted become the digits in the hexadecimal
number. All other digits will be 0. For example, to find the hexadecimal equivalent to 748:
748
-512 512 = 2 x 16 2 --> the second digit is 2
236
-224 224 = 14 x 16 1 --> the first digit is E (for 14)
12
- 12 12 = 1 x 16 0 --> the zeroth digit is C (for 12)
0

Answer: Hexadecimal number is 2EC

The following table will simplify the conversion process:

third digit second digit first digit zeroth digit

hex decimal hex decimal hex decimal hex decimal
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 4,096 1 256 1 16 1 1
2 8,192 2 512 2 32 2 2
3 12,288 3 768 3 48 3 3
4 16,384 4 1,024 4 64 4 4
5 20,480 5 1,280 5 80 5 5
6 24,576 6 1,536 6 96 6 6
7 28,672 7 1,792 7 112 7 7
8 32,768 8 2,048 8 128 8 8
9 36,864 9 2,304 9 144 9 9
A 40,960 A 2,560 A 160 A 10
B 45,056 B 2,816 B 176 B 11
C 49,152 C 3,072 C 192 C 12
D 53,248 D 3,328 D 208 D 13
E 57,344 E 3,584 E 224 E 14
F 61,440 F 3,840 F 240 F 15

You Try It...

10. 31210 = _____ 16

11. 70810 = _____ 16
12. 77810 = _____ 16
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Copyright © 2009 by Bill Qualls – All Rights Reserved
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DATA REPRESENTATION
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Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion

You will need to be able to convert a hexadecimal number to its binary equivalent and vice-versa.
This is very easy to do.

To convert a hexadecimal number to its binary equivalent, simply replace each hexadecimal digit
with its four bit equivalent as per the above table. For example, to convert 5E16 to binary, replace
5 with 0101 and E with 1110 giving 01011110 2.

You Try It...

13. 4A16 = ____________ 2

14. B1716 = ____________ 2

Binary-to-Hexadecimal Conversion

To convert a binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent, simply divide the bits into groups of
four. Start from the right, and add extra zeroes on the left if necessary so the total number of bits
is a multiple of four. Then replace each group of four with a single hexadecimal digit. For
example, to convert 10010010110111 2 to hexadecimal, rewrite it as |10|0100|1011|0111| , add
two leading zeroes giving |0010|0100|1011|0111| , then replace each four-bit string by its
equivalent hexadecimal digit, giving 24B716.

You Try It...

15. 10111001001 2 = ______ 16

16. 10011010100100 2 = ______ 16

Sample Program

We have seen that when the EBCDIC collating sequence is used, the letter A is equivalent to a
decimal 193. This value (193) is also equal to 11000001 2 or C116. This is shown in the following
program:

A:\MIN>type data5a.mlc
PRINT NOGEN
START 0
BEGIN BEGIN
MVI LETTER,W
WTO MESSAGE
MVI LETTER,X
WTO MESSAGE
MVI LETTER,Y
WTO MESSAGE
MVI LETTER,Z
WTO MESSAGE

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Copyright © 2009 by Bill Qualls – All Rights Reserved
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RETURN

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MESSAGE DS 0CL24
DC CL22'DATA5A ... Letter is <'
LETTER DC CL1' '
DC CL1'>'
W EQU C'A'
X EQU X'C1'
Y EQU B'11000001'
Z EQU 193
END BEGIN

A:\MIN>m370 data5a

A:\MIN>a370 data5a/lx

A:\MIN>l370 data5a/lx

A:\MIN>data5a
DATA5A ... Letter is <A>
DATA5A ... Letter is <A>
DATA5A ... Letter is <A>
DATA5A ... Letter is <A>

Binary Arithmetic

Binary arithmetic (we look at addition only) is really quite simple. It's a lot like decimal addition,
except you have to remember that, just as you "carry the one" every time you reach ten in decimal
addition, you will "carry the one" every time you reach two in binary addition. For example:

1. 11010
+ 1011
1 0 + 1 = 1 --> no overflow

1
2. 11010
+ 1011
01 1 + 1 = 2 --> 2 is not a valid digit,
enter 0 and carry the 1.
(Recall 2 10 = 102)
1
3. 11010
+ 1011
101 1 + 0 + 0 = 1 --> no overflow

1 1
4. 11010
+ 1011
0101 1 + 1 = 2 --> enter 0 and carry the 1.

1 1
5. 11010
+ 1011
100101 1 + 1 = 2 --> enter 0 and carry the 1.

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Copyright © 2009 by Bill Qualls – All Rights Reserved
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DATA REPRESENTATION
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The answer is 11010 2 + 1011 2 = 100101 2. If you convert these values to decimal, you'll see this is
equivalent to 26 + 11 = 37 .

You Try It...

17. 10101 2 + 1101 2 = ____________ 2

18. 11011 2 + 11011 2 = ____________ 2
19. 10011011 2 + 11110001 2 = ____________ 2

Hexadecimal Arithmetic

Hexadecimal arithmetic (addition only) isn't as easy as binary arithmetic, but it's not so bad once
you get used to it. There will be occasions when you need to use hexadecimal arithmetic in BAL,
such as when debugging your program. During such times you will probably want to use a
calculator. Nevertheless, some understanding of simple hexadecimal arithmetic will improve your
effectiveness as an assembler programmer.

As you might imagine, with hexadecimal addition you will "carry the one" every time you reach
sixteen. Consider the following example:

1
1. ADE
+ C7
5 E + 7 = 14 + 7 = 21 = 16 + 5
enter the 5 and carry the 1 (for 16)

11
2. ADE
+ C7
A5 1 + D + C = 1 + 13 + 12 = 26 = 16 + 10
enter A (for 10) and carry the 1
(for 16)
11
3. ADE
+ C7
BA5 1 + A = 1 + 10 = 11
enter B (for 11)

The answer is ADE16 + C7 16 = BA5 16. If you convert these values to decimal, you'll see this is
equivalent to 2782 + 199 = 2981 .

You Try It...

20. 28916 + 3A5 16 = ______ 16

21. 4A816 + DD7 16 = ______ 16
22. 32FE 16 + 722 16 = ______ 16

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Copyright © 2009 by Bill Qualls – All Rights Reserved
CHAPTER 5 5.12

DATA REPRESENTATION
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Exercises

1. True or false.
T F a. The base 2 number system is also known as the binomial number system.
T F b. The base 2 number system has two digits: 1 and 2.
T F c. 1011 is a valid base 2, base 10, and base 16 number.
T F d. A subscript may be used to indicate the base of a number when the base is
unclear.
T F e. The binary equivalent of the letter R is 11011001 when using the EBCDIC
collating sequence.
T F f. A bit consists of eight bytes.
T F g. The hexadecimal equivalent for the decimal number 13 is C.
T F h. A byte has 255 possible values.
T F i. 26 = 64 .
T F j. 20 = 16 0.
T F k. 21 = 16 1.
T F l. 12 = 116.
T F m. 11101111 2 = EF 16.

2. Find the binary equivalent of 11, 23, 26, and 30. What can you conclude about the binary
representation of any odd decimal number? Even decimal number?

3. Complete the following:

a. 10111 2 = ________ 10 = ________ 16
b. 11101111 2 = ________ 10 = ________ 16
c. ________ 2 = 31 10 = ________ 16
d. ________ 2 = 240 10 = ________ 16
e. ________ 2 = ________ 10 = 8316
f. ________ 2 = ________ 10 = AE16

4. Complete the following:

a. 11101 2 = ________ 10 = ________ 16
b. 10101011 2 = ________ 10 = ________ 16
c. ________ 2 = 48 10 = ________ 16
d. ________ 2 = 221 10 = ________ 16
e. ________ 2 = ________ 10 = 7F16
f. ________ 2 = ________ 10 = BC16

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Copyright © 2009 by Bill Qualls – All Rights Reserved
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DATA REPRESENTATION
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Exercises

5. Complete the following:

a. 11010 2 = ________ 10 = ________ 16
b. 10100001 2 = ________ 10 = ________ 16
c. ________ 2 = 67 10 = ________ 16
d. ________ 2 = 234 10 = ________ 16
e. ________ 2 = ________ 10 = ED16
f. ________ 2 = ________ 10 = 6A16

6. Perform the following base 2 additions:

a. 10110011 b. 10001111
+ 111001 + 1011101

c. 10011100 d. 11010001
+ 10101110 + 11101101

e. Find the decimal equivalent to each of the sums in parts a-d.

7. Perform the following base 16 additions:

a. CA18 b. 7EFA
+ 797 + 322

c. 2DB2 d. DEAD
+ 693 + ACE

e. Find the decimal equivalent to each of the sums in parts a-d.

8. This chapter includes a table showing the EBCDIC representation of all upper case letters.
Take the decimal numbers for the letters A, B, R, S, and Z and find their binary
equivalents. The decimal numbers for the lower case equivalents for these letters are 129,
130, 153, 162, and 169 respectively. Find the binary equivalents for these numbers as well.
Use these binary numbers to answer the following question: In EBCDIC , what is the
difference between an upper case letter and its lower case equivalent?

9. This chapter includes a table showing the EBCDIC representation of all numbers, 0 through
9 inclusive. Find the hexadecimal equivalents for each of these numbers. Use these
hexadecimal numbers to answer the following question: In EBCDIC , what do all numbers
have in common?

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Copyright © 2009 by Bill Qualls – All Rights Reserved