FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (23ESCC113) MODULE-4

MODULE – 4
Energy storage and management: types of energy storage, thermal energy storage: sensible
heat storage and latent heat storage (simple numerical on sensible and latent heat storage),
Energy management and principles of energy management.

Steam and Gas Power plant: working principle of steam power plant and gas power plant.

Energy storage and management:

Energy is the capacity for doing work. It may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal, electrical,
chemical, nuclear, heat and work or other various forms.

Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time to reduce
imbalances between energy demand and energy production.

Energy storage is critically important to the success of any intermittent energy source in
meeting demand. For example, the need for storage for solar energy applications is severe,
especially when solar energy is least available in winter.

Classification of energy storage methods

For many energy technologies, storage is a crucial aspect. If we consider the storage of fuels
as the storage of the energy embedded in them, then oil is an excellent example. The massive
amounts of petroleum stored worldwide are necessary for the reliable, economic availability
of gasoline and petrochemicals.

Fig: Classification of energy storage methods

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FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (23ESCC113) MODULE-4

THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE:

Thermal energy storage refers to the process of capturing and storing thermal energy for later
use. It is a technology that allows excess thermal energy, often in the form of heat, to be
collected and stored during periods of low demand or when the energy source is readily
available. This stored energy can then be retrieved and utilized when there is a higher demand
or when the primary energy source is less available.

Thermal energy storage is required for several reasons, and it plays a crucial role in
improving the efficiency, reliability, and sustainability of energy systems.

BENEFITS OF THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE:

Thermal energy storage (TES) offers several benefits in various applications, contributing to
increased energy efficiency, flexibility, and reliability in energy systems.
1) Energy Cost Savings: TES allows for the storage of excess energy during periods of
low demand or when renewable energy sources are abundant and cheap.
2) Load Shifting: TES enables the shifting of energy consumption from high-demand
periods to low-demand periods.
3) Integration of Renewable Energy: TES plays a crucial role in integrating variable
renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, into the grid.
4) Increased Renewable Energy Penetration: By smoothing out the fluctuations in
renewable energy production, TES facilitates a higher penetration of renewable
energy into the grid.
5) Enhanced Grid Stability and Reliability: TES systems can provide a stable and
reliable source of power during grid outages or when there is a sudden increase in
demand.
6) Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The efficient use of stored thermal energy
can lead to a reduction in the reliance on fossil fuel-based power plants, thereby
lowering greenhouse gas emissions associated with electricity generation.
7) Industrial Process Optimization: TES is applied in industrial processes to optimize
energy use, particularly in sectors with fluctuating energy demands.
8) HVAC Systems Efficiency: In buildings, thermal energy storage is used in heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems to store and release energy as
needed, optimizing comfort conditions while minimizing energy consumption and
costs.

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TYPES OF THERMAL STORAGE SYSTEMS:

Thermal Energy can be captured and stored, and to store this energy, several techniques are
adopted. Based on that, the following storage systems are employed:
(As per syllabus, only first two is discussed here)
1. Sensible Heat Storage:
 Water-Based Systems: Sensible heat can be stored in water, where heat is
added or extracted to raise or lower the temperature of the water. Water is a
common and effective medium for sensible heat storage due to its high specific
heat capacity.
 Rock Bed Storage: Heat can be stored in rocks by heating them during periods
of excess energy and extracting the stored heat when needed. This method is
suitable for applications like district heating.
2. Latent Heat Storage:
 Phase Change Materials (PCMs): These materials undergo a phase transition
(solid to liquid or vice versa) at a specific temperature, absorbing or releasing
latent heat. Common PCMs include paraffin wax and certain salt hydrates.
They are useful for storing large amounts of energy at constant temperatures.
3. Thermochemical Storage:
 Chemical Reactions: Thermochemical storage involves storing energy
through reversible chemical reactions. During charging and discharging cycles,
heat is released or absorbed through chemical processes. Common examples
include reactions involving salts or other chemical compounds.
4. Molten Salt Storage:
 High-Temperature Applications: Molten salts, such as a mixture of sodium
nitrate and potassium nitrate, are used to store heat at high temperatures. These
systems are often employed in concentrating solar power plants to store heat
generated by sunlight.
5. Cryogenic Energy Storage:
 Low-Temperature Applications: Cryogenic storage involves cooling and
liquefying gases, such as air or nitrogen, during periods of low energy demand.
When energy is needed, the stored cryogenic fluid is allowed to vaporize,
absorbing heat from the surroundings.
6. Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy Storage (A-CAES):
 Compressed Air: A-CAES systems compress air and store it in underground
caverns. During discharge, the compressed air is expanded, and the released
heat is used to generate electricity. This technology is suitable for large-scale
energy storage.
7. Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage (STES):
 STES systems store thermal energy over longer periods, such as seasons. STES
involves injecting excess heat into an underground aquifer during the summer
and extracting it during the winter for heating purposes.

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8. Solar Thermal Storage:

 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): CSP plants use mirrors or lenses to focus
sunlight onto a receiver, generating high-temperature heat. Thermal storage
systems, often molten salt-based, store this heat for electricity generation when
the sun is not shining.

SENSIBLE HEAT STORAGE:

In sensible heat storage, thermal energy is stored or released by changing the temperature of a
material without undergoing a phase change.

The following systems of Sensible Heat Storage is given below,

1) Water-Based Systems: Sensible heat can be stored in water, where heat is added or
extracted to raise or lower the temperature of the water. Water is a common and effective
medium for sensible heat storage due to its high specific heat capacity.
2) Rock Bed Storage: Heat can be stored in rocks by heating them during periods of excess
energy and extracting the stored heat when needed. This method is suitable for
applications, for instance as process steam in industries or for district heating.

SOLAR POND – An example of Sensible heat storage

• Solar Pond is a mass of water collected in a large collection area to a shallow depth of
about 1 or 2 meters. It is not only collects the solar energy from the sun but also acts
as a heat trap by storing the sensible heat.
• Salt dissolved in water- Magnesium Chloride, Sodium Chloride or Sodium nitrate

Fig. Solar Pond

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ZONES IN TYPICAL SOLAR POND

1) The top zone is called as the surface zone, or UCZ (Upper Convective Zone) contains
less salt content and is at atmospheric temperature.
2) Between the UCZ and LCZ zones is the gradient zone or NCZ (Non-Convective Zone).
In this layer as the depth increases, the salt content also increases and thus creates a
salinity or density gradient.
3) The bottom zone is called the storage zone or LCZ (Lower Convective Zone), which
is very hot and very salty and has a temperature of 70-85˚C. This is the zone which
collects and stores solar energy in the form of heat.

• The layers in the NCZ can neither fall nor rise. They cannot rise because the layer of
water above the NCZ has less salt content and hence is lighter.
• On the other hand water from this layer cannot fall since the water layer below has a
higher salt content and hence is heavier. Thus NCZ acts as a transparent insulator which
allows sunlight to reach LCZ but traps it there.
• This trapped heat (solar energy) in the LCZ is taken off from the pond in the form of
hot brine to an evaporator which acts as a heat exchanger.
• This heat in the form of steam is fed to a turbine and generator coupled to the turbine
generators power.
• Cold water from the UCZ is fed to a condenser where the droplets formed are pumped
to the heat exchanger.
• The cold water is again brought back to the UCZ and loop continues.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR POND

• When water or air is heated, they become lighter and rise upward. In an ordinary pond,
the radiation from the sun in the form of rays heat the water and heated water within pond
rises and reaches the top.
• After reaching the top, it loses the heat into the atmosphere due to convection or
evaporation. Due to loss of heat, the pond water remains at atmospheric temperature.
• The solar pond restricts the tendency by dissolving salt in the bottom layer of the pond
making it too heavy to rise to the surface and cool. The salinity gradient prevents
convection currents thereby preventing the heat to rise to top layers. Thus the solar pond
can store heat in its lower layers.

LATENT HEAT STORAGE

• Latent heat storage refers to the process of storing thermal energy by changing the phase
of a material, typically from solid to liquid or liquid to gas, and vice versa.
• During this phase transition, the material absorbs or releases a significant amount of
energy without a corresponding change in temperature (isothermal). This energy
exchange is known as latent heat.

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Fig. Latent heat storage (for reference only)

Phase Change Materials (PCMs):
• These materials undergo a phase transition (solid to liquid or vice versa) at a specific
temperature, absorbing or releasing latent heat.
• Common PCMs include Common PCMs include paraffin wax, certain salt hydrates
and water/ice. They are useful for storing large amounts of energy at constant
temperatures.

LATENT HEAT STORAGE – An Example

• A heat storage system that uses the energy absorbed or released during a change in
phase, without a change in temperature(isothermal).
• When a material melts or vaporizes, it absorbs heat; when it changes to a solid
(crystallizes) or to a Liquid (condenses), it releases this heat.
• This phase change is used for storing heat in PCMs typical PCMs are water/ice, salt
hydrates, and certain polymers. The eutectic salt does not expand or contract when it
freezes and Melts,

Fig. Principle of use of PCM

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Where, LHTES- Latent Heat Thermal Energy Storage; Hexer – Heat Exchanger

• Solar Plants produce electricity from the sun’s energy. Solar energy is transferred via
collectors and receiver(s) to a power cycle where a working fluid, typically water, is
evaporated under pressure and then expanded in a turbine to drive a generator. Solar
plants can store energy as heat, allowing operation at night, an advantage over
photovoltaic cells that operate only during the day.
• Phase change storage stores more heat in less material, making it an attractive option
for concentrated solar power (CSP). Phase change materials (PCM) undergo melting
and so store heat in the molten material. Solid formation inhibits rapid heat transfer
from the PCM through a heat exchanger to the working fluid. As soon as the PCM has
given up its heat and solidified, a solid “crust” forms that inhibits any further rapid
heat transfer from the hot storage liquid to the working fluid.
Advantages:
1. More compact storage systems as compared to sensible heat storage systems.
2. Energy stored per unit volume is high.
3. Variety of materials are available to suit the applications.

Numerical on latent heat storage systems

PROBLEM 1:
How much water at 50°C is needed to just melt 2.2 kg of ice at 0°C? Take latent heat of
ice as 3.34 × 105 J/kg and specific heat of water as 4200 J/kgK

Given data:
𝑚 = 2.2 kg (Mass of ice)
(∆𝑇) = (50°C + 273) – (0°C+273) = 50°K
𝐿 = 3.34 × 105 J/kg (latent heat of ice)
𝐶 = 4200 J/kgK (specific heat of water)
To find:
How much water required 𝒎𝒘 =?
Solution:
We know that,
For Water, 𝑸𝒘 = 𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (∆𝑻)𝒘 ……. (eq. 1)
Where, 𝑚 = Mass of Water (kg)
𝐶 =specific heat of water (J/kgK)
For ice, 𝑸𝒊 = 𝒎𝒊 𝑳𝒊 ……. (eq. 2)
Where, 𝑚 = Mass of ice (kg)
𝐿 =latent heat of ice (J/kg)
At equilibrium State,
Energy released by water = Energy absorbed by ice
𝑸𝒘 = 𝑸𝒊
𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (∆𝑻)𝒘 = 𝒎𝒊 𝑳𝒊

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FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (23ESCC113) MODULE-4

𝒎𝒘 (𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎) (𝟓𝟎) = (𝟐. 𝟐)(𝟑. 𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 )

𝒎𝒘 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟗 𝒌𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

PROBLEM 2:
How much heat energy is required to convert 2kg of ice at 0°C into water at 20°C. Take
specific heat of water as 4187 J/kgK, latent heat of ice as 334 × 103 J/kg.
Given data:
𝑚 = 𝑚 = 2 kg
(∆𝑇) = (20°C + 273) – (0°C+273) = 20°K

𝐿 = 334 × 103 J/kg (latent heat of ice)

𝐶 = 4187 J/kgK (specific heat of water)

Solution:
Total Heat, 𝑸 = {heat required to convert 2 kg of ice to 2 kg of water at 𝟎°𝑪}
+ {heat required to convert 2 kg of water at 0°C to 2 kg of water at 20°C }
Total Heat, 𝑸 = 𝑸𝒊 + 𝑸𝒘
Total Heat, 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒊 𝑳𝒊 + 𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (∆𝑻)𝒘
𝑸 = (𝟐)(𝟑𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) + (𝟐)(𝟒𝟏𝟖𝟕)(𝟐𝟎)
𝑸 = 𝟖𝟑𝟓𝟒𝟖𝟎 J

PROBLEM 3:
How much water at 55°C is needed to just melt 2.3 kg of ice at 0°C?

Given data:
𝑚 = 2.3 kg (Mass of ice)
(∆𝑇) = (55°C + 273) – (0°C+273) = 55°K
Solution:
Take latent heat of ice as 334 ×103 J/kg and specific heat of water as 4187 J/kgK
𝐿 = 334 × 103 J/kg (latent heat of ice)
𝐶 = 4187 J/kgK (specific heat of water)

We know that,
For Water, 𝑸𝒘 = 𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (∆𝑻)𝒘 ……. (eq. 1)
Where, 𝑚 = Mass of Water (kg)
𝐶 =specific heat of water (J/kgK)
For ice, 𝑸𝒊 = 𝒎𝒊 𝑳𝒊 ……. (eq. 2)
Where, 𝑚 = Mass of ice (kg)
𝐿 =latent heat of ice (J/kg)

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FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (23ESCC113) MODULE-4

At equilibrium State,
Energy released by water = Energy absorbed by ice
𝑸𝒘 = 𝑸𝒊
𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (∆𝑻)𝒘 = 𝒎𝒊 𝑳𝒊
𝒎𝒘 (𝟒𝟏𝟖𝟕) (𝟓𝟓) = (𝟐. 𝟑)(𝟑𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )
𝒎𝒘 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
PROBLEM 4:
How much heat energy is required to convert 3kg of ice at 0°C into water at 25°C.

Given data:
𝑚 = 𝑚 = 3 kg
(∆𝑇) = (25°C + 273) – (25°C+273) = 25°K
Solution:
Take latent heat of ice as 334 ×103 J/kg and specific heat of water as 4187 J/kgK
𝐿 = 334 × 103 J/kg (latent heat of ice)
𝐶 = 4187 J/kgK (specific heat of water)

Total Heat, 𝑸 = {heat required to convert 3 kg of ice to 2 kg of water at 𝟎°𝑪}

+ {heat required to convert 3 kg of water at 0°C to 2 kg of water at 20°C }
Total Heat, 𝑸 = 𝑸𝒊 + 𝑸𝒘
Total Heat, 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒊 𝑳𝒊 + 𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (∆𝑻)𝒘
𝑸 = (𝟑)(𝟑𝟑𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 ) + (𝟑)(𝟒𝟏𝟖𝟕)(𝟐𝟎)
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟓 J
PROBLEM 5:
2 kg of ice melts when water at 100oC is poured in a hole drilled in a block of ice. What
mass of water was used, if specific heat capacity of water =4200 J/kgK,
specific latent heat of ice =336×103 J/kg.

Given data:
𝑚 = 2 kg (Mass of ice)
(∆𝑇) = (100°C + 273) – (0°C+273) = 100°K
𝐿 = 336 × 103 J/kg (latent heat of ice)
𝐶 = 4200 J/kgK (specific heat of water)
To find:
How much water required 𝒎𝒘 =?
Solution:
We know that,
For Water, 𝑸𝒘 = 𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (∆𝑻)𝒘 ……. (eq. 1)
Where, 𝑚 = Mass of Water (kg)

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𝐶 =specific heat of water (J/kgK)

For ice, 𝑸𝒊 = 𝒎𝒊 𝑳𝒊 ……. (eq. 2)
Where, 𝑚 = Mass of ice (kg)
𝐿 =latent heat of ice (J/kg)
At equilibrium State,
Energy released by water = Energy absorbed by ice
𝑸𝒘 = 𝑸𝒊
𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (∆𝑻)𝒘 = 𝒎𝒊 𝑳𝒊
𝒎𝒘 (𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟎) (𝟏𝟎𝟎) = (𝟐)(𝟑𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 )
𝒎𝒘 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝒌𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
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ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Energy management involves the planning and optimization of energy use within an
organization or system to ensure efficient and sustainable energy consumption. The goal is to
minimize energy waste, reduce costs, and enhance overall energy efficiency. Energy
management is applicable in various contexts, including industrial facilities, commercial
buildings, and even at the individual level.

PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT:

1. Energy Planning:
 Develop a comprehensive energy plan that outlines energy goals, targets, and
strategies.
 Identify energy sources, consumption patterns, and potential areas for
improvement.
2. Energy Audits:
 Conduct regular energy audits to assess current energy usage and identify
opportunities for improvement.
 Analyze energy consumption data and identify energy-intensive processes or
equipment.
3. Efficiency Measures:
 Implement energy-efficient technologies and practices to reduce energy
consumption.
 Upgrade equipment and systems to meet higher efficiency standards.
4. Monitoring and Control:
 Install energy monitoring and control systems to track real-time energy usage.
 Implement automated systems that adjust energy consumption based on demand
and usage patterns.
5. Employee Engagement:
 Raise awareness among employees about the importance of energy conservation.
6. Renewable Energy Integration:
 Explore and integrate renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, or geothermal
to reduce reliance on non-renewable resources.
7. Life Cycle Analysis:

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 Consider the entire life cycle of products and processes when evaluating energy
efficiency.
 Assess the environmental impact of energy use from production to disposal.

8. Continuous Improvement:
 Establish a culture of continuous improvement in energy management.
 Regularly review and update energy management plans based on changing needs
and technologies.

By applying these principles, organizations can create a systematic and sustainable approach
to energy management, leading to reduced energy costs, lower environmental impact, and
increased overall operational efficiency.
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STEAM AND GAS POWER PLANT:
STEAM:
The vapour into which water is converted when heated, forming a white mist of minute water
droplets in the air. When water is heated at atmospheric pressure, its temperature rises until it
reaches 100°C, the highest temperature at which water can exist at this pressure. Additional
heat does not raise the temperature, but converts the water to steam.

STEAM POWER PLANT

The working principle is explained with schematic diagram below

Fig. Steam power plant

A steam power plant is used to convert the energy stored in fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or
renewable sources into electricity through the use of steam. The basic components of a steam
power plant include a boiler, turbine, generator, condenser, and various pumps and valves.
Stepwise working principle is explained below:
1) The process begins in the boiler, where fuel is burned to produce high-temperature
and high-pressure steam. Pump is used to transfer water from the condenser to the
boiler.

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2) The high-pressure steam generated in the boiler is directed to a steam turbine. The
steam expands as it passes through the turbine blades, causing the turbine to rotate.
This rotation converts the thermal energy of the steam into mechanical energy.
3) The rotating shaft of the steam turbine is connected to a generator. As the turbine
spins, it drives the generator, converting the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
4) After passing through the turbine, the low-pressure steam is sent to a condenser,
where the steam is condensed back into water by transferring its heat to a cooling
medium. This creates a vacuum, which improves the efficiency of the turbine.
5) The cooling medium used in the condenser is circulated through a cooling system to
dissipate the absorbed heat. In some power plants, cooling towers are used to release
excess heat to the atmosphere.

Steam power has many benefits,

 One such advantage is that water is cheaper than fossil fuel alternatives.
 Steam power is used to spin turbine blades, thereby generating electricity.
 Steam power plants finds applications in chemical industry, oil and gas, waste
plants, sugar Mills etc.

GAS POWER PLANT

Gas power plant is a thermal power station that burns natural gas to generate electricity.
The working principle is explained with schematic diagram below

Fig. Gas power plant

1) The process begins with drawing air from the atmosphere and is compressed to a high
pressure in a compressor.
2) The high-pressure air enters a combustion chamber, in which fuel is sprayed onto the
compressed air, and the fuel-air mixture is burned at constant pressure.
3) The gases leaving the combustion chamber at high pressure and high temperature are
directed towards the turbine blades so as to rotate the turbine shaft.

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4) In general, nearly half of the work output of the rotating turbine shaft is used to rotate
the compressor shaft, and the rest is used to produce electricity. Thus, part of the heat
generated in burning the fuel in the combustion chamber is converted into useful
electrical energy.
5) The gases leaving the turbine are released into the atmosphere. These gases contain
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, sulfur oxides and particulate matter.
6) The temperature of the exhaust gases can also be very high. Before releasing these gases
into the atmosphere, therefore, it is essential to make sure that the polluting potential of
these exhaust gases is reduced to the level set by the environmental authority of the
country concerned.
Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, pumps, gas
compressors, and tanks

Text Books
1. Elements of Mechanical Engineering, K R Gopala Krishna, Subhash Publications, 2008
2. Elements of Workshop Technology (Vol. 1 and 2), Hazra Choudhry and Nirzar Roy,
Media Promoters and Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2010.
Reference Books
1. An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering, Jonathan Wickert and Kemper Lewis,
Third Edition, 2012
2. Manufacturing Technology- Foundry, Forming and Welding, P.N.Rao Tata McGraw
Hill 3rdEd., 2003.
3. Robotics, Appu Kuttan KK K. International Pvt Ltd, volume 1

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