POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

STUDY MATERIAL
 INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT
(AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)

Subject Name: Power Plant Engineering

Credit: 3
Lecture Hours: 36

Subject Code: PECME501D

Pre-requisite: Engineering Thermodynamics

Relevant Links: NPTEL

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
The purpose of learning this course is to:
1. To provide an overview of power plants and the associated energy conversion issues

COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of this course students will demonstrate the ability to
1. To understand the principles of operation for steam and gas thermal power plants.
2. To understand the principles of operation for hydro power plants and nuclear power
plants.
3. To understand the principles of operation for solar, wind and geothermal energy power
plants.
4. To understand the economics of power generation and the environmental aspect of power
generation.

Mod Topic Sub-topics Mapping with Lect Correspondin

ule Industry and ure g Assignment
num International Hou
ber Academia rs
1 Introdu Power plants – International 5 1. Usin
ction types and Standard: g
classification https://ocw.mit.edu/ Matl
based on courses/2-60j- ab,
energy sources. fundamentals-of- devel
 Fundamentals advanced-energy- op a
of conversion-spring- code
thermodynami 2020/pages/syllabus to
cs, chemistry, / calcu
and transport late
applied to https://www.uprm.e the
energy du/inme/wp- gross
systems. content/uploads/site powe
s/96/2019/03/INME r
-4027-Power-Plant- gener
Engineering.pdf ation
for a
AICTE-prescribed given
syllabus: powe
https://www.aicte- r
india.org/download plant,
s/MODEL_SYLLA provi
BI_FOR_UG_%20 ded
Mech_%20Engg.pd the
f fuel
and
Industry Mapping: air
MATLAB flow
rate.
2 Coal based Basic Rankine International 5 1. Using
Thermal cycle and its Standard: Matla
Power modifications; https://ocw.mit.edu/ b,
Plants Rankine cycle courses/2-60j- develo
efficiency; fundamentals-of- p a
Cogeneration; advanced-energy- code
Layout of modern conversion-spring- to
coal power plant; 2020/pages/syllabus calcul
Super critical / ate
boilers, FBC efficie
boilers; Turbines, https://webapp4.asu ncy
condensers, steam .edu/bookstore/view and
and heating rates; syllabus/2207/8139 power
Subsystems of 5 output
thermal power of a
plants; Fuel and steam
ash handling; AICTE-prescribed power
Draught system; syllabus: plant
Feed water https://www.aicte- operat
treatment; Binary india.org/download ed on
cycles and s/MODEL_SYLLA reheat
cogeneration BI_FOR_UG_%20 regene
systems. Mech_%20Engg.pd rative
f Ranki
ne
cycle
 Industry Mapping: with
MATLAB closed
cycle
feedw
ater
heater.
Plot
the
chang
es in
power
output
and
efficie
ncy
for
param
etric
variati
on of
regene
rator
effecti
veness
.

3 Gas Turbine International 5 1. Using

and Standard: Matla
Combined https://ocw.mit.edu/ b,
Cycle courses/2-60j- develo
Power fundamentals-of- p a
Plants Brayton cycle advanced-energy- code
analysis and conversion-spring- to
optimization; 2020/pages/syllabus calcul
Components of / ate
gas turbine efficie
power plants; ncy
Combined https://webapp4.asu and
cycle power .edu/bookstore/view power
plants; syllabus/2207/8139 output
Synthetic fuels; 5 of a
Integrated coal gas
gasification turbin
combined AICTE-prescribed e
cycle. syllabus: power
https://www.aicte- plant
india.org/download which
s/MODEL_SYLLA is
BI_FOR_UG_%20 having
a 90%
 Mech_%20Engg.pd efficie
f ncy of
the
Industry Mapping: compr
MATLAB essor
and
turbin
e.
4 Nuclear Basics of nuclear International 5
Power energy conversion; Standard: 1. Deve
Plants Reactor heat https://ocw.mit.edu/ lop a
generation; courses/22-312- stead
Thermal design engineering-of- y-
principles; Layout nuclear-reactors- state
and subsystems of fall- contr
nuclear power 2015/pages/syllabus ol
plants; Boiling / progr
Water Reactor am
(BWR); for a
Pressurized Water AICTE-prescribed nucle
Reactor (PWR); syllabus: ar
CANDU Reactor; https://www.aicte- react
Pressurized Heavy india.org/download or
Water Reactor s/MODEL_SYLLA using
(PHWR); Fast BI_FOR_UG_%20 Matl
Breeder Reactors Mech_%20Engg.pd ab/
(FBR); Gas cooled f SIM
and liquid metal ULI
cooled reactors; Industry Mapping: NK.
Safety measures MATLAB
for nuclear power
plants.
5 Hydroelectr Classification; International 5 1. Deve
ic Power Typical layout and Standard: lop a
Plants components. https://ocw.mit.edu/ gener
Hydroelectric courses/2-60j- alize
power; Pumped fundamentals-of- d
storage. advanced-energy- mode
conversion-spring- l to
2020/pages/syllabus simul
/ ate a
hydr
o
https://webapp4.asu powe
.edu/bookstore/view r
syllabus/2207/8139 plant
5 using
MAT
LAB/
SIM
 AICTE-prescribed ULI
syllabus: NK
https://www.aicte-
india.org/download
s/MODEL_SYLLA
BI_FOR_UG_%20
Mech_%20Engg.pd
f

Industry Mapping:
MATLAB
6 Renewable Principles of wind, International 5 1. Usin
Power tidal, solar photo- Standard: g
Systems voltaic, solar https://ocw.mit.edu/ MA
thermal, courses/2-60j- TLA
geothermal, biogas fundamentals-of- B,
and fuel cell power advanced-energy- deve
systems. Ocean conversion-spring- lop a
power: thermal 2020/pages/syllabus code
and wave. Ocean / to
power: tidal and calc
current. https://webapp4.asu ulate
.edu/bookstore/view the
syllabus/2207/8139 effic
5 ienc
y of
AICTE-prescribed a
syllabus: wind
https://www.aicte- pow
india.org/download er
s/MODEL_SYLLA plant
BI_FOR_UG_%20 .
Mech_%20Engg.pd
f

Industry Mapping:
MATLAB
7 Energy Economic and International 5 1. Usin
Econom environmental Standard: g
ics and issues; Power https://ocw.mit.edu/ MAT
Environ tariffs; Load courses/2-60j- LAB/
distribution fundamentals-of- SIM
ment
parameters; Load advanced-energy- ULI
curve; Capital and conversion-spring- NK,
operating cost of 2020/pages/syllabus perfo
different power / rm
plants; Pollution the
control load
technologies flow
including waste AICTE-prescribed analy
syllabus:
 disposal options https://www.aicte- sis of
for coal and india.org/download a
nuclear plants. s/MODEL_SYLLA series
BI_FOR_UG_%20 of
Mech_%20Engg.pd ther
f mal
powe
Industry Mapping: red
MATLAB plant
s and
mini
mize
the
powe
r
tariff.

TEXT BOOK:

1. Nag P.K., Power Plant Engineering, 4th ed., Tata McGraw Hill, 2014.

2. El Wakil M.M., Power Plant Technology, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010.

3. Elliot T.C., Chen K and Swanekamp R.C., Power Plant Engineering, 2nd
ed., McGraw Hill, 1998.

ONLINE RESOURCES:

Solar energy basics Solar energy system design Renewable

energy technology fundamentals
 This study material is only for use of IEM & UEM students.

Module I: Introduction

A power plant is an industrial facility used to generate electric power with the help of one or
more generators which converts different energy sources into electric power. A power plant
or a power generating station, is basically an industrial location that is utilized for the
generation and distribution of electric power in mass scale, usually in the order of several
1000 Watts. These are generally located at the sub-urban regions or several kilometers away
from the cities or the load centers, because of its requisites like huge land and water demand,
along with several operating constraints like the waste disposal etc.

Electricity is produced at an electric power plant. Some fuel source, such as coal, oil, natural
gas, or nuclear energy produces heat. The heat is used to boil water to create steam. The
steam under high pressure is used to spin a turbine.

For this reason, a power generating station has to not only take care of efficient generation
but also the fact that the power is transmitted efficiently over the entire distance and that’s
why, the transformer switch yard to regulate transmission voltage also becomes an integral
part of the power plant.

At the center of it, however, nearly all power generating stations has an AC generator or an
alternator, which is basically a rotating machine that is equipped to convert energy from the
mechanical domain (rotating turbine) into electrical domain by creating relative motion
between a magnetic field and the conductors.

Different types of power plants are possible for example, thermal power plant, geothermal
plant, solar power plant, biomass power plant, wind turbine power plant, magneto-
hydrodynamic power plant, hydro-electric power plant etc.

Thermal power plant

A thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is the most conventional method
of generating electric power with reasonably high efficiency. It uses coal as the primary fuel
to boil the water available to superheated steam for driving the steam turbine.

Fig. A typical thermal power plant

 Fig. Layout of a basic thermal power plant

The layout of the steam power plant consists of four main circuits. These are:
1. Coal and ash circuit
2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Water and steam circuit and
Cooling water circuit

Assignment Questions:
1. Discuss the principle of geothermal energy. Assuming suitable parameters for a
geothermal power plant, comment on the maximum plant efficiency possible.
[BL5]
2. Discuss the principle of solar energy. Assuming suitable parameters for a solar power
plant, comment on the maximum plant efficiency possible.
[BL5]
3. Discuss the principle of biomass power plant. Assuming suitable parameters for a
biomass power plant, comment on the maximum plant efficiency possible.
[BL5]
 4. Discuss the principle of wind turbine power plant. Assuming suitable parameters for a
wind turbine power plant, comment on the maximum plant efficiency possible.
[BL5]
5. Discuss the principle of magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) power plant. Assuming
suitable parameters for a MHD power plant, comment on the maximum plant efficiency
possible. [BL5]

Module II: Coal based Thermal Power Plants

Coal based thermal power plant employs the Rankine cycle. The Rankine cycle is a model
used to predict the performance of steam turbine systems. It was also used to study the
performance of reciprocating steam engines. The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic
cycle of a heat engine that converts heat into mechanical work while undergoing phase change.

Fig. Rankine cycle

Thermodynamic analysis:

1-2: Isentropic compression process in the pump 2-3:

Isobaric heat absorption process in the evaporator.

3-4: Isentropic expansion process in the expander.

4-1: Isobaric heat rejection process in the condenser.

Classifications or Types of Boiler:

There are large number of boiler designs, but they may be classified according to the
following ways:

According to the circulation of gases:

• Fire-tube boiler

• Water-tube boiler
Fig. Water Tube Boiler Schematic Diagram
Fig. Babcock and Wilcox boiler schematics
FBC Boiler (Fluidized Bed Combustion)

Fig. FBC Boiler (Fluidized Bed Combustion)

Assignment Questions:
1. A simple Rankine cycle works between the boiler pressure of 3 MPa and condenser
pressure of 4 kPa. The steam is dry saturated before the throttling in the turbine.
Determine (i) Rankine cycle efficiency (ii) work ratio (iii) specific steam consumption.
[BL4]
Hint: 3.83 kg/kWh
2. A steam turbine receives steam at 15 bar and 300°C and leaves the turbine at 0.1 bar
and 4% moisture. Determine (i) Rankine efficiency (ii) steam consumption per kW per
hour if the efficiency ratio is 0.70 (iii) Carnot cycle efficiency for the given temperature
limits (iv) change in Rankine efficiency and specific consumption if the condenser
pressure is reduced to 0.04 bar. [BL4]

Hint: specific fuel consumption, m = 16.77 kg/kWh

3. A steam power plant incorporates an ideal reheat cycle to improve the existing
efficiency. Steam at 30 bar and 250°C is supplied at the HPT inlet and expands till it is
dry saturated at 3 bar. Now the steam is taken to a reheater and its temperature is again
increased to 250°C at constant pressure reheating process. The reheated steam expands
in the LPT to a condenser pressure of 0.04 bar. Determine the cycle efficiency. [BL4]

Hint: Thermal efficiency=27.9%

 4. A simple Rankine cycle works between pressures 28 bar and 0.06 bar, the initial
condition of steam being dry saturated. Comment on the specific steam consumption.
[BL4]

Hint: Specific steam consumption = 4.049 kg/kWh.

5. In a Rankine cycle, the steam at inlet to turbine is saturated at a pressure of 35 bar and
the exhaust pressure is 0.2 bar. Comment on the Rankine efficiency of the cycle.
[BL4]

Hint: Thermal efficiency: 30.93%

Module III: Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle Power Plants

Brayton cycle

The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle named after George Brayton that describes the
workings of a constant-pressure heat engine. The original Brayton engines used a piston
compressor and piston expander, but more modern gas turbine engines and air breathing jet
engines also follow the Brayton cycle.

Fig. Schematic for Brayton cycle

Gas turbine power plant

The gas turbine is the engine at the heart of the power plant that produces electric current.
 A gas turbine is a combustion engine that can convert natural gas or other liquid fuels to
mechanical energy. This energy then drives a generator that produces electrical energy. It
is electrical energy that moves along power lines to homes and businesses.

To generate electricity, the gas turbine heats a mixture of air and fuel at very high
temperatures, causing the turbine blades to spin. The spinning turbine drives a generator
that converts the energy into electricity.

The gas turbine can be used in combination with a steam turbine— in a combined-cycle
power plant—to create power extremely efficiently.

1. Air-fuel mixture ignites.

The gas turbine compresses air and mixes it with fuel that is then burned at extremely high
temperatures, creating a hot gas.

2. Hot gas spins turbine blades.

The hot air-and-fuel mixture moves through blades in the turbine, causing them to spin
quickly.

3. Spinning blades turn the drive shaft.

The fast-spinning turbine blades rotate the turbine drive shaft.

4. Turbine rotation powers the generator.

The spinning turbine is connected to the rod in a generator that turns a large magnet
surrounded by coils of copper wire.

5. Generator magnet causes electrons to move and creates electricity.

The fast-revolving generator magnet creates a powerful magnetic field that lines up the
electrons around the copper coils and causes them to move.
The movement of these electrons through a wire is electricity.
Layout

Fig. Layout of an open cycle gas turbine power plant

Fig. Schematic of open and closed cycle gas turbine power plants

Components of the gas turbine plant

The gas turbine is made up of the following components:

• An air compressor.
 • A combustor.
• A power turbine, which produces the power to drive the air compressor and the
output shaft.

Combined cycle power plants

A combined cycle power plant is an assembly of heat engines that work in tandem from the
same source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy. On land, when used to make
electricity the most common type is called a combined cycle gas turbine plant.

A combined-cycle power plant uses both a gas and a steam turbine together to produce up to
50 percent more electricity from the same fuel than a traditional simple-cycle plant. The waste
heat from the gas turbine is routed to the nearby steam turbine, which generates extra power

A Combined Cycle Power Plant produces high power outputs at high efficiencies (up to 55%)
and with low emissions. In a Conventional power plant we are getting 33% electricity only
and remaining 67% as waste.

The major components of a combined cycle plant are a gas turbine, a heat recovery steam
generator, a steam turbine, and balance of plant systems.

Fig. Schematic for a combined-cycle power plant

A combined-cycle power plant uses both a gas and a steam turbine together to produce up to
50 percent more electricity from the same fuel than a traditional simple-cycle plant. The waste
heat from the gas turbine is routed to the nearby steam turbine, which generates extra power.
Co-generations uses waste heat for many different processes, such as space heating or drying.
Combined-cycle power generation is a twocycle electricity generation process that uses the
heat from the first cycle to run a second cycle.

Assignment Questions:
1. The air enters the compressor of an open cycle constant pressure gas turbine at a
pressure of 1 bar and temperature of 20°C. The pressure of the air after compression
is 4 bar. The isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 80% and 85%
respectively. The air-fuel ratio used is 90 : 1. If flow rate of air is 3.0 kg/s, find : (i)
Power developed. (ii) Thermal efficiency of the cycle. Assume cp = 1.0 kJ/kg K
and cp/cv = 1.4 for air and gases. Calorific value of fuel = 41800 kJ/kg. [BL4]

Hint: Thermal efficiency=18.14%

2. A gas turbine unit has a pressure ratio of 6 : 1 and maximum cycle temperature of
610°C. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.80 and 0.82
respectively. Calculate the power output in kilowatts of an electric generator geared
to the turbine when the air enters the compressor at 15°C at the rate of 16 kg/s. Take
cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K and cp/cv = 1.4 for the compression process, and take cp = 1.11
kJ/kg K and cp/cv = 1.333 for the expansion process. [BL4]

Hint: Power in kilowatts= 48.2 × 16 = 771.2 kW.

3. In a constant pressure open cycle gas turbine air enters at 1 bar and 20°C and leaves
the compressor at 5 bar. Using the following data; Temperature of gases entering
the turbine = 680°C, pressure loss in the combustion chamber = 0.1 bar, efficiency
of compressor = 85%, turbine thermal efficiency = 80%, thermal efficiency of
combustion = 85%, cp/cv = 1.4 and cp = 1.024 kJ/kg K for air and gas, find: (i) The
quantity of air circulation if the plant develops 1065 kW. (ii) Heat supplied per kg
of air circulation. (iii) The thermal efficiency of the cycle. Mass of the fuel may be
neglected. [BL4]

Hint: Thermal efficiency=14.34%

4. Air is drawn in a gas turbine unit at 15°C and 1.01 bar and pressure ratio is 7:1. The
compressor is driven by the H.P. turbine and L.P. turbine drives a separate power
shaft. The isentropic efficiencies of compressor, and the H.P. and L.P. turbines are
0.82, 0.85 and 0.85 respectively. If the maximum cycle temperature is 610°C,
comment on the thermal efficiency and net power developed for the unit. Neglect
the mass of fuel and assume the following: For compression process cpa = 1.005
kJ/kg K and = 1.4 For combustion and expansion processes: cpg =1.15 kJ/kg K and
cp/cv = 1.333. [BL4]
 Hint: Thermal efficiency=18%. Net power developed= 72.1 kW

Module IV : Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear power is a clean and efficient way of boiling water to make steam, which turns
turbines to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants use lowenriched uranium fuel to produce
electricity through a process called fission— the splitting of uranium atoms in a nuclear
reactor.

Fig. Schematic of a fission reaction

Introduction to Nuclear Reactor

A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used to initiate and control a
self-sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear reactors are used at nuclear power plants for
electricity generation and in nuclear marine propulsion.

Before we start with the nuclear reactor, a basic understanding of nuclear fission is necessary.
 Fig. Schematic for fission reaction

Consider a general energy-producing plant, for example, a plant that burns coal to generate
heat energy, which probably runs turbines to generate mechanical energy that can be
converted to electricity.

The same thing happens in a nuclear reactor, with the difference that nothing is burnt over
here. The reactor is powered using continuous fission reactions to generate a continuous flow
of energy.

Fig. Main Components of a Nuclear Reactor:

Main Components of a Nuclear Reactor

The Core: It contains all the fuel and generates the heat required for energy production.
The Coolant: It passes through the core, absorbing the heat and transferring into turbines
The Turbine: Transfers energy into the mechanical form
The Cooling Tower: It eliminates the excess heat that is not converted or transferred
The Containment: The enveloping structure that separated the nuclear reactor from the
surrounding environment.

Components of a nuclear reactor

• Fuel. Uranium is the basic fuel.

• Moderator. Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from
fission so that they cause more fission.
• Control rods.
• Coolant.
• Pressure vessel or pressure tubes.
• Steam generator.
• Containment.
• Nuclear power plants in commercial operation or operable.

Types of Reactors

Fig. Pressurized Water Reactor

More than 65% of the commercial reactors in the United States are pressurizedwater reactors
or PWRs. These reactors pump water into the reactor core under high pressure to prevent the
water from boiling.
Boiling Water Reactor
CANDU Reactor

Liquid metal cooled reactor

Assignment Questions:
1. Evaluate the following :
(i) The fission rate of U235 for producing a power of one watt.
(ii) The energy released in the complete fissioning of 1 kg of U235.
Consider that 200 MeV are released per fission of the uranium nucleus. [BL4]
[Hint : (i) 3.1 × 1010 fission/second (ii) 8.2 × 1013]

2. A nuclear reactor consumes 10 kg of U235 per day. Comment on the power output if the
average energy released per U-235 fission is 200 MeV. [BL4]
[Hint : 9.48 × 109 W]

3. During a 10-hour run from one station to another, a railway engine develops an average
power of 1200 kW. If the engine is driven by an atomic power plant of 20% efficiency,
comment on the U235 consumption on the run? Each U235 atom on fission releases 180 MeV of
energy. [BL5]
[Hint : 2.928 gm]

4. The motors of an atomic ice-breaker deliver 30000 kW. Calculate the fuel consumption of
reactor per day if its efficiency is 22%. Average fission energy release of U235 nuclide is 200
MeV. Comment on the daily coal consumption to obtain the same power if the efficiency now
is 78%. Given that calorific value of coal is 29300 kJ/kg. [BL4]
[Hint : (i) 0.1436 kg. (ii) 113.4 tonnes]

Module V: Hydroelectric Power Plants

STRENGTHS OF HYDRO POWER

• Environmental friendly, clean renewable

• High degree of flexibility
• Part of multipurpose project with additional benefits.
• Pumped storage for optimal integrate operation of grid
• Least operational and maintenance cost
• Additional benefits of Flood control, Tourism, fishery.
• Well recognized for obtaining financial support.
WEAKNESS OF HYDRO POWER

• Mainly depends on rainfall/snowmelt.

• Remotely located
• High capital intensive
• Gestation period is very large.
• Relatively smaller units.
• Nonstandard occurrence.

Working principle of hydro- electric power plant

In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water due to its high location is
converted into electrical energy. The total power generation capacity of the hydroelectric
power plants depends on the head of water and volume of water flowing towards the
water turbine. The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy:
• The kinetic energy due to flow of water and • Potential energy due to the height of
water.

In hydroelectric power and potential energy of water is utilized to generate electricity.

The formula for total power that can be generated from water in hydroelectric power
plant due to its height is given

P= q*h*g Where,

“p” is the power produced in “watt”

“Q” is the rate of flow of water which in cubic meter/second

“h”= height of water which is measured in “meter” It’s also head of water. The difference
between source of water (from where water is taken) and the water’s outflow (where the
water is used to generate electricity, it is the place near the turbines).

“g” is the gravity constant 9.81 m/second square.

 Fig. Schematic of a hydroelectric power plant

Components of hydroelectric power plants

Hydroelectric power plant requires various components for generating electrical power.
Some of the major components in hydroelectric power plants are: Reservoirs, Dam, Trash
Rack, Fore bay, Surge Tank, Penstock, Spillway, Prime Mover and Generator, Draft
Tube. The functions of all major components are discussed.

The basic requirement of a hydroelectric power station is a reservoir where large quantity
of water is stored during rainy season and used during the dry season. The reservoir is
built by constructing a dam across the river. The water from the reservoir is drawn by the
fore bay through an open canal or tunnel. The water from the fore bay is supplied to the
water prime mover through the penstock which is located at the much lower level than
the height of the water in the reservoir. Thus potential energy of water stored in reservoir
is converted into kinetic energy and made to rotate the turbine. Turbine shaft is connected
to synchronous generator or alternator for generating electricity. This generated power is
stepped up using stepup transformer and delivered to load centers or grid. The regulation
of water flow to the turbine depending on the electrical load demand is carried out by the
governor system.
 Fig. Components of hydroelectric power plants

Assignment Questions:

1. A penstock is working under a water head of 210 metres. Its diameter is 2.4 metres.
Comment on the thickness if the joint efficiency is 82 per cent and allowable stress in
the material is 105 MN/m2. [BL4]

Hint: Thickness of the penstock = 28.7 mm

2. A Pelton wheel is receiving water from a penstock with a gross head of 510 m. One-
third of gross head is lost in friction in the penstock. The rate of flow through the nozzle
fitted at the end of the penstock is 2.2 m3/sec. The angle of deflection of the jet is 165°.
Comment on the hydraulic efficiency of the Pelton wheel. Take Cv (co-efficient of
velocity = 1.0) and speed ratio = 0.45. [BL4]

Hint: Hydraulic efficiency of the turbine= 0.973 or 97.3%.

3. A Pelton wheel is to be designed for the following specifications: Power 9650 kW Head
350 metres Speed 750 r.p.m. Overall efficiency 85% Jet diameter not to exceed 1/6 th
of the wheel diameter Comment on the diameter of the jet that will be produced. [BL4]

Hint: Diameter of the jet, d = 0.158 m.

 4. Comment on the efficiency of a Kaplan turbine developing 2850 kW under a head of
5.2 m. It is provided with a draft tube with its inlet (diameter 3 m) set 1.8 m above the
tailrace level. A vacuum gauge connected to the draft tube indicates a reading of 5.2 m
of water. Assume draft tube efficiency as 75 per cent. [BL4]

Hint: Overall efficiency=83%

Module VI: Renewable Power Systems

Role and potential of new and renewable source

India has a vast supply of renewable energy resources, and it has one of the largest programs
in the world for deploying renewable energy products and systems. Indeed, it is the only
country in the world to have an exclusive ministry for renewable energy development, the
Ministry of Non- Conventional Energy Sources (MNES).

Concerning the environment, the use of solar energy has positive implications such as:

I. Reduction of the emissions of the greenhouse gases (mainly CO2,NO x) and prevention
of toxic Gas emissions (SO2,particulates)
II. Reclamation of degraded land;
III. Reduction of the required transmission lines of the electricity grids; and
IV. Improvement of the quality of water resources

Solar Radiation

Solar energy, received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or

indirectly in to other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity. The major
drawbacks of the extensive application of solar energy of

1. The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earth’s surface
and
2. The large area require to collect the energy at a useful rate.

Energy is radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99% have wave
lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4.0 micro meter (1 micro meter = 10-6 meter) . Solar
energy reaching the top of the earth’s atmosphere consists of about 8% ultra violet
radiation [short wave length >0.39 micrometer], 46% visible light [0.39 to 0.78
micrometer] and 46 % infrared [0.78 micro meter above].
Solar constant

The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various
kinds of fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39 X 106 km while that of earth is 1.27
X 104 km. the mean distance between the two is 1.5 X 108 km. although the sun is
large, its subtends angle of only 32 min. at the earth’s surface. The brightness of
the sun varies from its center to its edge. However the calculation purpose the
brightness all over the solar disc is uniform. The graph below is a composite graph
produced by the World Radiation Centre and shows that our Sun is actually a
(slightly) variable star. The variation in the solar constant can be seen to be about
0.1% over a period of 30 years. Some researchers have tried to reconstruct this
variation, by correlating it to sunspot numbers, back over the last 400 years, and
have suggested that the Sun may have varied in its power output by up to one
percent. It has also been suggested that this variation might explain some terrestrial
temperature variations. It is interesting to note that the average G-type star (the
class of star the Sun falls into) typically shows a much larger variation of about
4%.

Fig. Variation of solar irradiation with time

Solar radiation on tilted surface:

The rate of receipt of solar energy on a given surface on the ground depends on
the orientation of the surface with reference to the sun. A fully sun – tracking
surface that always faces the sun receives the maximum possible solar energy at
the particular location.
A surface of the same area oriented in any other direction will receive a smaller
amount of radiation because solar radiation is such a dilute form of energy, it is
desirable to capture as much as possible on a ground area. Most of the solar
collectors or solar radiation collecting devices are tilted at an angle to horizontal
surface with Y=0 facing south for tilted surface.

Cosθ = Sinδ Sin (ф – s) + Cos δ Cos ω Cos (ф – s)

For horizontal surfaces Cos θZ= Sin ф Sin δ + Cos ф Cos δ Cos ω

Tilt factor for beam radiation

WIND ENERGY
A typical modern windmill looks as shown in the following figure. The wind-mill contains
three blades about a horizontal axis installed on a tower. A turbine connected to a generator
is fixed about the horizontal axis.

Fig. A horizontal wind turbine

Like the weather in general, the wind can be unpredictable. It varies from place to place, and
from moment to moment. Because it is invisible, it is not easily measured without special
instruments. Wind velocity is affected by the trees, buildings, hills and valleys around us.
Wind is a diffuse energy source that cannot be contained or stored for use elsewhere or at
another time.

Classification of Wind-mills:
Wind turbines are classified into two general types: Horizontal axis and Vertical axis. A
horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis parallel to the ground as shown in
the above figure. A vertical axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis perpendicular to
the ground. There are a number of available designs for both and each type has certain
advantages and disadvantages. However, compared with the horizontal axis type, very few
vertical axis machines are available commercially.

Horizontal Axis:
This is the most common wind turbine design. In addition to being parallel to the ground, the
axis of blade rotation is parallel to the wind flow. Some machines are designed to operate in
an upwind mode, with the blades upwind of the tower. In this case, a tail vane is usually used
to keep the blades facing into the wind. Other designs operate in a downwind mode so that the
wind passes the tower before striking the blades. Without a tail vane, the machine rotor
naturally tracks the wind in a downwind mode. Some very large wind turbines use a motor-
driven mechanism that turns the machine in response to a wind direction sensor mounted on
the tower. Commonly found horizontal axis wind mills are aero-turbine mill with 35%
efficiency and farm mills with 15% efficiency.

Vertical Axis:
Although vertical axis wind turbines have existed for centuries, they are not as common as
their horizontal counterparts. The main reason for this is that they do not take advantage of
the higher wind speeds at higher elevations above the ground as well as horizontal axis
turbines. The basic vertical axis designs are the Darrieus, which has curved blades and
efficiency of 35%, the Giromill, which has straight blades, and efficiency of 35%, and the
Savonius, which uses scoops to catch the wind and the efficiency of 30%. A vertical axis
machine need not be oriented with respect to wind direction. Because the shaft is vertical, the
transmission and generator can be mounted at ground level allowing easier servicing and a
lighter weight, lower cost tower. Although vertical axis wind turbines have these advantages,
their designs are not as efficient at collecting energy from the wind as are the horizontal
machine designs. The following figures show all the above mentioned mills.
Fig. Schematic of vertical axis wind turbine

Fig. Main components of a wind turbine

Betz Limit:
It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that makes a wind turbine
function. The wind turbine extracts energy by slowing the wind down. The theoretical
maximum amount of energy in the wind that can be collected by a wind turbine's rotor is
approximately 59%. This value is known as the Betz limit. If the blades were 100%efficient, a
wind turbine would not work because the air, having given up all its energy, would entirely
stop. In practice, the collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as 59%.A more typical
efficiency is 35% to 45%. A complete wind energy system, including rotor, transmission,
generator, storage and other devices, which all have less than perfect efficiencies, will deliver
between 10% and 30% of the original energy available in the wind.

Fig. relationship between wind speed in KMPH and the power density.

BIOMASS:

Introduction:

Biomass is the term used to describe all the organic matter, produced by photosynthesis that
exists on the earth’s surface. The source of all energy in biomass is the sun, the biomass acting
as a kind of chemical energy store. Biomass is constantly undergoing a complex series of
physical and chemical transformations and being regenerated while giving off energy in the
form of heat to the atmosphere. Traditionally the extraction of energy from biomass is split
into 3 distinct categories:

1. Solid biomass
2. Biogas
3. Liquid Biofuels

Aerobic Digestion

Aerobic digestion of waste is the natural biological degradation and purification

process in which bacteria that thrive in oxygen-rich environments break down and
digest the waste.

Biological and chemical oxygen demand

Aerobic bacteria demand oxygen to decompose dissolved pollutants. Large amounts of

pollutants require large quantities of bacteria; therefore the demand for oxygen will be high.
The Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the quantity of dissolved organic
pollutants that can be removed in biological oxidation by the bacteria. It is expressed in mg/l.
The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) measures the quantity of dissolved organic pollutants
than can be removed in chemical oxidation, by adding strong acids. It is expressed in mg/l. The
BOD/COD gives an indication of the fraction of pollutants in the wastewater that is
biodegradable.

Aerobic bacteria are very efficient in breaking down waste products. The result of this is;
aerobic treatment usually yields better effluent quality that that obtained in anaerobic processes.

Fig. Path of Aerobic Digestion

 Fig. Basic function of a fixed-dome biogas plant, 1 Mixing pit, 2 Digester, 3
Gasholder, 4 Displacement pit, 5 Gas pipe

Geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is defined as heat from the Earth. It is a clean, renewable resource that
provides energy in the United States and around the world.

Converting Geothermal Energy into Electricity

Heat emanating from the Earth’s interior and crust generates magma (molten rock).Because
magma is less dense than surrounding rock, it rises but generally does not reach the surface,
heating the water contained in rock pores and fractures. Wells are drilled into this natural
collection of hot water or steam, called a geothermal reservoir, in order to bring it to the
surface and use it for electricity production. The three basic types of geothermal electrical
generation facilities are binary, dry steam (referred to as steam), and flash steam (referred to
as flash).
 Fig. Flash and dry steam power plant

Fig. Binary Power Plant

In the binary process, the geothermal water heats another liquid, such as isobutene, that boils
at a lower temperature than water. The two liquids are kept completely separate through the
use of a heat exchanger used to transfer the heat energy from the geothermal water to the
.working-fluid." The secondary fluid vaporizes into gaseous vapor and (like steam) the force
of the expanding vapor turns the turbines that power the generators. If the power plant uses
air cooling (see next paragraph) the geothermal fluids never make contact with the atmosphere
before they are pumped back into the underground geothermal reservoir, effectively making
the plant emission free.
Ocean thermal energy conversion

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) generates electricity indirectly from solar energy
by harnessing the temperature difference between the sun-warmed surface of tropical oceans
and the colder deep waters.

Their designs are known, respectively, as closed cycle and open cycle OTEC.

Closed Cycle OTEC

D’Arsonval’s original concept employed a pure working fluid that would evaporate at the
temperature of warm sea water. The vapor would subsequently expand and do work before
being condensed by the cold sea water. This series of steps would be repeated continuously
with the same working fluid, whose Sow path and thermodynamic process representation
constituted closed loops and hence, the name ‘closed cycle.’ The specific process adopted for
closed cycle OTEC is the Rankine, or vapor power, cycle. Below we represent a simplified
schematic diagram of a closed cycle OTEC system. The principal components are the heat
exchangers, turbo generator, and seawater supply system, which, although not shown,
accounts for most of the parasitic power consumption and a significant fraction of the capital
expense. Also not included are ancillary devices such as separators to remove residual liquid
downstream of the evaporator and subsystems to hold and supply working fluid lost through
leaks or contamination.

Fig. Closed cycle OTEC

In this system, heat transfer from warm surface sea water occurs in the evaporator, producing
a saturated vapor from the working fluid. Electricity is generated when this gas expands to
lower pressure through the turbine. Latent heat is transferred from the vapor to the cold sea
water in the condenser and the resulting liquid is pressurized with a pump to repeat the cycle.
The success of the Rankine cycle is a consequence of more energy being recovered when the
vapor expands through the turbine than is consumed in re-pressurizing the liquid. In
conventional (e.g., combustion) Rankine systems, this yields net electrical power. For OTEC,
however, the remaining balance may be reduced substantially by an amount needed to pump
large volumes of sea water through the heat exchangers. (One misconception about OTEC is
that tremendous energy must be expended to bring cold sea water up from depths approaching
1000 meters. In reality, the natural hydrostatic pressure gradient provides for most of the
increase in the gravitational potential energy of a fluid particle moving with the gradient from
the ocean depths to the surface.)

Irreversibilities in the turbo machinery and heat exchangers reduce cycle efficiency below the
Carnot value. Irreversibilities in the heat exchangers occur when energy is transferred over a
large temperature difference. It is important, therefore, to select a working fluid that will
undergo the desired phase changes at temperature established by the surface and deep sea
water. Insofar as a large number of substances can meet this requirement (because pressures
and the pressure ratio across the turbine and pump are design parameters), other factors must
be considered in the selection of a working fluid including: cost and availability, compatibility
with system materials, toxicity, and environmental hazard. Leading candidate working fluids
for closed cycle OTEC applications are ammonia and various fluorocarbon refrigerants. Their
primary disadvantage is the environmental hazard posed by leakage; ammonia is toxic in
moderate concentrations and certain fluorocarbons have been banned by the Montreal
Protocol because they deplete stratospheric ozone.

The Kalina, or adjustable proportion fluid mixture (APFM), cycle is a variant of the OTEC
closed cycle. Whereas simple closed cycle OTEC systems use a pure working fluid, the Kalina
cycle proposes to employ a mixture of ammonia and water with varying proportions at
different points in the system. The advantage of a binary mixture is that, at a given pressure,
evaporation or condensation occurs over a range of temperatures; a pure fluid, on the other
hand, changes phase at constant temperature. This additional degree of freedom allows heat
transfer-related irreversibilities in the evaporator and condenser to be reduced. Although it
improves efficiency, the Kalina cycle needs additional capital equipment and may impose
severe demands on the evaporator and condenser. The efficiency improvement will require
some combination of higher heat transfer coefficients, more heat transfer surface area, and
increased seawater Sow rates. Each has an associated cost or power penalty. Additional
analysis and testing are required to confirm whether the Kalina cycle and assorted variations
are viable alternatives.

Open Cycle OTEC

Claude’s concern about the cost and potential bio-fouling of closed cycle heat exchangers led
him to propose using steam generated directly from the warm sea water as the OTEC working
fluid. The steps of the Claude, or open, cycle are: (1) flash evaporation of warm sea water in
a partial vacuum; (2) expansion of the steam through a turbine to generate power; (3)
condensation of the vapor by direct contact heat transfer to cold sea water; and (4)
compression and discharge of the condensate and any residual non condensable gases. Unless
fresh water is a desired by-product, open cycle OTEC eliminates the need for surface heat
exchangers. The name ‘open cycle’ comes from the fact that the working fluid (steam) is
discharged after a single pass and has different initial and final thermodynamic states; hence,
the Sow path and process are ‘open.’ The essential features of an open cycle OTEC system
are presented below.

Fig. Open cycle OTEC

The entire system, from evaporator to condenser, operates at partial vacuum, typically at
pressures of 1-3% of atmospheric. Initial evacuation of the system and removal of non
condensable gases during operation are performed by the vacuum compressor, which, along
with the sea water and discharge pumps, accounts for the bulk of the open cycle OTEC parasitic
power consumption. The low system pressures of open cycle OTEC are necessary to induce
boiling of the warm sea water. Flash evaporation is accomplished by exposing the sea water to
pressures below the saturation pressure corresponding to its temperature.

This is usually accomplished by pumping it into an evacuated chamber through spouts designed
to maximize heat and mass transfer surface area. Removal of gases dissolved in the sea water,
which will come out of solution in the low-pressure evaporator and compromise operation,
may be performed at an intermediate pressure prior to evaporation.

Vapor produced in the flash evaporator is relatively pure steam. The heat of vaporization is
extracted from the liquid phase, lowering its temperature and preventing any further boiling.
Flash evaporation may be perceived, then, as a transfer of thermal energy from the bulk of the
warm sea water of the small fraction of mass that is vaporized. Less than 0.5% of the mass of
warm sea water entering the evaporator is converted into steam.

The pressure drop across the turbine is established by the cold seawater temperature. At 43C,
steam condenses at 813 Pa. The turbine (or turbine diffuser) exit pressure cannot fall below
this value. Hence, the maximum turbine pressure drop is only about 3000Pa, corresponding to
about a 3:1 pressure ratio. This will be further reduced to account for other pressure drops along
the steam path and differences in the temperatures of the steam and seawater streams needed
to facilitate heat transfer in the evaporator and condenser.

Condensation of the low-pressure steam leaving the turbine may employ a direct contact
condenser (DCC), in which cold sea water is sprayed over the vapor, or a conventional surface
condenser that physically separates the coolant and the condensate. DCCs are inexpensive and
have good heat transfer characteristics because they lack a solid thermal boundary between the
warm and cool fluids. Surface condensers are expensive and more difficult to maintain than
DCCs; however, they produce a marketable freshwater by-product.

Effluent from the condenser must be discharged to the environment. Liquids are pressurized to
ambient levels at the point of release by means of a pump, or, if the elevation of the condenser
is suitably high, can be compressed hydrostatically. As noted previously, non condensable
gases, which include any residual water vapor, dissolved gases that have come out of solution,
and air that may have leaked into the system, are removed by the vacuum compressor. Open
cycle OTEC eliminates expensive heat exchangers at the cost of low system pressures.

Partial vacuum operation has the disadvantage of making the system vulnerable to air in-
leakage and promotes the evolution of non condensable gases dissolved in sea water. Power
must ultimately be expended to pressurize and remove these gases. Furthermore, as a
consequence of the low steam density, volumetric Sow rates are very high per unit of electricity
generated. Large components are needed to accommodate these Sow rates. In particular, only
the largest conventional steam turbine stages have the potential for integration into open cycle
OTEC systems of a few megawatts gross generating capacity. It is generally acknowledged
that higher capacity plants will require a major turbine development effort.

The mist lift and foam lift OTEC systems are variants of the OTEC open cycle. Both employ
the sea water directly to produce power. Unlike Claude’s open cycle, lift cycles generate
electricity with a hydraulic turbine. The energy expended by the liquid to drive the turbine is
recovered from the warm sea water. In the lift process, warm seawater is flash evaporated to
produce a two-phase, liquid}vapor mixture and either a mist consisting of liquid droplets
suspended in a vapor, or a foam, where vapor bubbles are contained in a continuous liquid
phase. The mixture rises, doing work against gravity. Here, the thermal energy of the vapor is
expended to increase the potential energy of the fluid. The vapor is then condensed with cold
sea water and discharged back into the ocean. Flow of the liquid through the hydraulic turbine
may occur before or after the lift process. Advocates of the mist and foam lift cycles contend
that they are cheaper to implement than closed cycle OTEC because they require no expensive
heat exchangers, and are superior to the Claude cycle because they utilize a hydraulic turbine
rather than a low pressure steam turbine.
MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMIC GENERATOR (MHD)

A magneto-hydrodynamic generator (MHD generator) is a magneto-hydrodynamic device that

transforms thermal energy and kinetic energy into electricity. MHD generators are different
from traditional electric generators in that they operate at high temperatures without moving
parts. MHD was developed because the hot exhaust gas of an MHD generator can heat the
boilers of a steam power plant, increasing overall efficiency. MHD was developed as a topping
cycle to increase the efficiency of electric generation, especially when burning coal or natural
gas. MHD dynamos are the complement of MHD propulsors, which have been applied to pump
liquid metals and in several experimental ship engines.

Fig. A MHD generator

Principle of MHD Generation

The power generated per unit length by MHD generator is approximately given by,

Where, u is the fluid velocity, B is the magnetic flux density, σ is the electrical conductivity

of conducting fluid and P is the density of fluid.

Open Cycle MHD System

In open cycle MHD system, atmospheric air at very high temperature and pressure is passed
through the strong magnetic field. Coal is first processed and burnet in the combustor at a high
temperature of about 2700oC and pressure about 12 ATP with pre-heated air from the plasma.
Then a seeding material such as potassium carbonate is injected to the plasma to increase the
electrical conductivity. The resulting mixture having an electrical conductivity of about 10
Siemens/m is expanded through a nozzle, so as to have a high velocity and then passed through
the magnetic field of MHD generator. During the expansion of the gas at high temperature, the
positive and negative ions move to the electrodes and thus constitute an electric current. The
gas is then made to exhaust through the generator. Since the same air cannot be reused again
hence it forms an open cycle and thus is named as open cycle MHD.
Closed Cycle MHD System
As the name suggests the working fluid in a closed cycle MHD is circulated in a closed loop.
Hence, in this case inert gas or liquid metal is used as the working fluid to transfer the heat.
The liquid metal has typically the advantage of high electrical conductivity, hence the heat
provided by the combustion material need not be too high. Contrary to the open loop system
there is no inlet and outlet for the atmospheric air. Hence, the process is simplified to a great
extent, as the same fluid is circulated time and again for effective heat transfer.

Assignment Questions:
1. The area of the solar array installed on Juno orbiting Jupiter is 72 m2. Comment on the
solar radiation intercepted by this satellite when it orbits Jupiter. What if it orbits Earth,
Mars, or Saturn? The Sun releases 3.828 × 1026 W of radiation. The average distance
between the Sun and Jupiter, Earth, Mars, and Saturn is 5.2, 1, 1.52, and 9.5 AU,
respectively. [BL4]

Hint: Solar radiation intercepted by solar array = 1086.4W

2. Five series strings each containing four similar solar cells are connected in parallel. If each
cell has the current and voltage of 8.5 A and 0.55 V, respectively. Comment on the power
generation of the entire system. [BL4]

Hint: Psystem = 93.5W

3. A thermoelectric generator is to be used as a topping unit for a steam power plant. The
thermoelectric generator producing 100 kW at 115 V operates between an output
temperature of 1500 K and exit temperature of 1000 K. A steam turbine and generator unit
operating at an input temperature of 1000 K and an ambient temperature of 350 K has a
thermal efficiency of 30% and a generator efficiency of 92%. The properties of
thermoelements are given below: ap,n at 1250 K = 0.0012 V/K, kp = 0.20 W/cm-K, kn =
0.030 W/cm-K, rp = 0.010 ohm-cm, rn = 0.012 ohm-cm, The current density in the
thermoelements is limited to 20 A/cm2 and the thermoelectric generator is aimed to operate
at maximum thermal efficiency. Calculate (a) the thermal efficiency of the thermoelectric
generator, (b) the number of thermal couples in series, (c) the sizes of thermal elements, (d)
the open-circuit voltage, (e) the heat input and heat rejected from the thermoelectric
generator at both full load and no-load conditions, and (f) the overall efficiency of the
combined thermoelectric–steam power plant. [BL4]

Hint: Overall efficiency: 34.2%

4. For a combined MHD-steam plant, 30% of the total energy of fuel is directly converted to
electricity in the MHD duct and the remaining fuel energy is utilized in the steam plant. If
the steam plant cycle efficiency is 40%, comment on the efficiency of the combined plant.
[BL4]

Hint: Overall efficiency is 58%

Module VII : Energy Economics and Environment
Before passing on to the subject further, it is desirable that the readers get themselves
acquainted with the following terms much used in the economics of power generation :
(i) Interest. The cost of use of money is known as interest.
A power station is constructed by investing a huge capital. This money is generally borrowed
from banks or other financial institutions and the supply company has to pay the annual interest
on this amount. Even if company has spent out of its reserve funds, the interest must be still
allowed for, since this amount could have earned interest if deposited in a bank. Therefore,
while calculating the cost of production of electrical energy, the interest payable on the capital
investment must be included. The rate of interest depends upon market position and other
factors, and may vary from 4% to 8% per annum.
(ii) Depreciation. The decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and building due to
constant use is known as depreciation.
If the power station equipment were to last for ever, then interest on the capital investment
would have been the only charge to be made. However, in actual practice, every power station
has a useful life ranging from fifty to sixty years. From the time the power station is installed,
its equipment steadily deteriorates due to wear and tear so that there is a gradual reduction in
the value of the plant. This reduction in the value of plant every year is known as annual
depreciation. Due to depreciation, the plant has to be replaced by the new one after its useful
life. Therefore, suitable amount must be set aside every year so that by the time the plant
retires, the collected amount by way of depreciation equals the cost of replacement. It becomes
obvious that while determining the cost of production, annual depreciation charges must be
included. There are several methods of finding the annual depreciation charges and are
discussed in Art. 4.4.
4.2 C ost of Electrical Energy
The total cost of electrical energy generated can be divided into three parts, namely ;
(i) Fixed cost; (ii) Semi-fixed cost ; (iii) Running or operating cost.
(i) Fixed cost. It is the cost which is independent of maximum demand and units
generated.
The fixed cost is due to the annual cost of central organisation, interest on capital cost of land
and salaries of high officials. The annual expenditure on the central organisation and salaries
of high officials is fixed since it has to be met whether the plant has high or low maximum
demand or it generates less or more units. Further, the capital investment on the land is fixed
and hence the amount of interest is also fixed.
(ii) Semi-fixed cost. It is the cost which depends upon maximum demand but is
independent of units generated.
The semi-fixed cost is directly proportional to the maximum demand on power station and is
on account of annual interest and depreciation on capital investment of building and equipment,
taxes, salaries of management and clerical staff. The maximum demand on the power station
determines its size and cost of installation. The greater the maximum demand on a power
station, the greater is its size and cost of installation. Further, the taxes and clerical staff depend
upon the size of the plant and hence upon maximum demand.
(iii) Running cost. It is the cost which depends only upon the number of units generated.
The running cost is on account of annual cost of fuel, lubricating oil, maintenance, repairs and
salaries of operating staff. Since these charges depend upon the energy output, the running
cost is directly proportional to the number of units generated by the station. In other words, if
the power station generates more units, it will have higher running cost and vice-versa.

Exp re ssions for C ost of Ele c tric a l Ene rg y

The overall annual cost of electrical energy generated by a power station can be expressed in
two forms viz three part form and two part form.
(i) Three part form. In this method, the overall annual cost of electrical energy generated
is divided into three parts viz fixed cost, semi-fixed cost and running cost i.e.
Total annual cost of energy = Fixed cost + Semi-fixed cost + Running cost
= Constant + Proportional to max. demand + Proportional to kWh generated.
= Rs (a + b kW + c kWh)
where a= annual fixed cost independent of maximum demand and energy output. It is on
account of the costs mentioned in Art. 4.2.
b= constant which when multiplied by maximum kW demand on the station gives the
annual semi-fixed cost.
c= a constant which when multiplied by kWh output per annum gives the annual
running cost.

(ii) Two part form. It is sometimes convenient to give the annual cost of energy in two part
form. In this case, the annual cost of energy is divided into two parts viz., a fixed sum per kW
of maximum demand plus a running charge per unit of energy. The expression for the annual
cost of energy then becomes :
Total annual cost of energy = Rs. (A kW + B kWh)
where A = a constant which when multiplied by maximum kW demand on the station gives
the annual cost of the first part.
B = a constant which when multiplied by the annual kWh generated gives the annual running
cost.
It is interesting to see here that two-part form is a simplification of three-part form. A little
reflection shows that constant “a” of the three part form has been merged in fixed sum per kW
maximum demand (i.e. constant A) in the two-part form.

Methods of Determining Depreciation

There is reduction in the value of the equipment and other property of the plant every year due
to depreciation. Therefore, a suitable amount (known as depreciation charge) must be set aside
annually so that by the time the life span of the plant is over, the collected amount equals the
cost of replacement of the plant.
The following are the commonly used methods for determining the annual depreciation charge
: (i) Straight line method ; (ii) Diminishing value method ; (iii) Sinking fund method.

I. Straight line method

The straight line method is extremely simple and is easy to apply as the annual depreciation
charge can be readily calculated from the total depreciation and useful life of the equipment.
Below figure shows the graphical representation of the method.

Fig. The straight line method

II. Diminishing value method.

Let P = Capital cost of equipment

n = Useful life of equipment in years S = Scrap

value after useful life
 Suppose the annual unit* depreciation is x. It is desired to find the value of x in terms of P, n
and S.
Value of equipment after one year

= P − Px = P (1 − x)
Value of equipment after 2 years

= Diminished value − Annual depreciation

= [P − Px] − [(P − Px)x]
= P − Px − Px + Px2
= P(x2 − 2x + 1)
= P(1 − x)2

∴ Value of equipment after n years

= P(1 − x)n

But the value of equipment after n years (i.e., useful life) is equal to the scrap value S.

∴ S = P(1 − x)n or (1 − x)n = S/P

Or, 1 − x = (S/P)1/n
Or, x = 1 − (S/P)1/n
From exp. (i), the annual depreciation can be easily found. Thus depreciation to be made for the
first year is given by :

Depreciation for the first year = xP

= P[1 − (S/P)1/n]
Similarly, annual depreciation charge for the subsequent years can be calculated.

Fig. Diminishing value method

 III. Sinking fund method

Assignment Questions:
1. An electrical system experiences linear changes in load such that its daily load curve is
defined as follows :
 Time Load (MW)
12 PM 24
2 AM 12
6 AM 12
8 AM 60
12 AM 60
12.30PM 48
1 PM 60
5 PM 60
6 PM 84
12 PM 24
Comment on the utilization factor of the plant serving this load if its capacity is 120 MW
[BL4]
Hint: 0.70 or 70%

2. The yearly duration curve of a certain plant can be considered as a straight line from
300 MW to 80 MW. Power is supplied with one generating unit of 200 MW capacity
and two units of 100 MW capacity each. Comment on the utilization factor. [BL5]
Hint : 0.75

3. A generating station has a maximum demand of 30 MW, a load factor of 0.6, a plant
capacity of 0.48, and a plant use factor of 0.82. Comment on the energy that can be
produced if the plant is operating on maximum capacity: [BL5]

Hint : 5.286 X 105

4. The following data relates to a steam power plant: Maximum demand = 30000 kW.
Load factor = 0.42 Coal consumption = 1.1 kg/kWh Boiler efficiency = 84%. Turbine
efficiency = 88% Price of coal = 70 per tonne. Comment on the coal bill of the plant
for one year. [BL5]
Hint: Coal bill = Rs. 8498952.