AFRICAN INDIGINOUS EDUCATION

Introduction

The first Europeans, who came to Africa generally, believed that Africans were savages and
pagans who had no history or culture. They thought Africans were primitive people who knew
very little and did not even train their young ones. This mistaken belief displayed the European
ignorance of the African education systems. This explains why the first Europeans assumed that
as they brought western education to Africa, they were introducing something completely new.
They failed to notice the detailed informal education that African children were receiving in their
communities. In their assumption, the Europeans thought that since Africans did not have formal
schools, it meant that they could not read or write, they therefore had no systems, content and
methods of education to pass on to their young ones. They also equated education to western
civilization leading them to ignoring anything that was traditional to Africans because of their
view of the nature of education.

In order to understand that Africans had a well-established system of education, we need to

define education in a more comprehensive way that goes beyond school or literacy. Education
can be defined as ‘the whole process by which one generation transmits its culture to the
succeeding generation’ or better still ‘a process by which people are prepared to live effectively
and efficiently in their environment’. With this sort of definition, it is easy for us to see that there
was an effective education system on the African continent long before the coming of the
Europeans. It was a process of socialization which aimed at initiating and integrating members
into their respective communities. Education was mainly to help young people understand whom
they were, what their role was in the society and what they needed to do in order to be acceptable
members of their society.
It should be pointed out that there has never been any one single indigenous form of education in
Africa. Societies have developed different systems of education to transmit their unique aspects
of knowledge, skills and values. However, education systems in Africa had many similarities
although each ethnic group had its own distinctive features reflecting the particular life and
culture of its people. The basic similarity that ran across all African communities was that
education was strongly adapted to the physical and social environment.

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Our discussion will start by examining the aims, structure, content, and methods of instruction of
African indigenous education. Finally, we shall examine the relevance of this education to our
educational practices today.

Aims of education

The main purpose of African indigenous education was to train the youth for adulthood within
society by preparing them for the various roles. The youth had to position themselves in the
society into which they had been born. They were to explore the world and find their own place
in it. They were expected to cultivate good habits and develop the right attitude to life and work,
develop as good citizens and explore their potentialities to the maximum and acquire knowledge
and training to fit well into the community. African indigenous education was an education for
living which placed emphasis on both the normative and expressive goals. Normative goals were
concerned with accepted standards and beliefs which governed correct behaviour, while
expressive goals were concerned with unity and consensus. The specific aims of this education
were:

a) Education was to conserve the cultural heritage of the family, clan and ethnic group. It
was to preserve, and perpetuate the knowledge, wisdom and culture of the society
handed down through generations.
b) Education was to adapt children to the physical and social environment and teach them
how to use it. Children were to learn the importance of the environment and develop the
correct attitude towards it. They were also equipped with knowledge about the problems
and possibilities of their environment so that they could overcome or exploit it.
c) Education was to give children practical skills and knowledge that would be useful to
them as individuals and to the society.
d) Education was for character building, acquisition of physical attitudes and moral
qualities. It was to develop an individual who was acceptable and useful in society.

The curriculum

The curriculum that African children were exposed just like in any other system of education
was organized around the aims as outlined above. The content of what was learned grew out of
the immediate social-cultural and physical environment. The physical environment was a major

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source of content. Apart from the geographical features, children were also taught climatic
conditions that were relevant to their surroundings. This was because these circumstances
dictated the nature of economic activities to be taught for example, cultivation, hunting, and
pastoralism etc. The elders aimed to adapt their children to their surrounding and to teach them
how to use it.

Another important source of content was the social environment. In African societies, a person
was moulded to be a corporate member of the society as opposed to individualism. Traditionally,
Africans saw themselves as influencing and being influenced by the society. The society for
most of the Africans was composed of the unborn, the living and the dead who were all
interconnected and so could influence each other. It was therefore important to teach children the
right social attitude.

An important characteristic which determined what was taught and learned was gender.
Education was meant to equip boys and girls with appropriate skills in preparation for their
distinctive roles in the society. Education for the males produced farmers, warriors, blacksmiths,
rulers and other male dominated occupations. On the other hand, education for the females
produced future wives, mothers and home makers. There were two aspects of the curriculum for
learners; general and specialized. Let us examine the general curriculum first.

 General curriculum

The general curriculum in African indigenous education addressed the generalized aims of
education which focused on group culture and identity, maintenance of social stability and the
formation of culturally acceptable, men and women. Whereas this curriculum was accessible to
all, the specific content was in most cases tied to the age and gender of the learner. This aspect of
learning was not paid for because educating a child was the responsibility of the entire
community.

In most African communities, the learning of one’s language was key because it is an important
instrument of communication and transmission of culture. The teaching of language placed
emphasis on eloquence in speech and its attainment was also reinforced through the teaching of
literature which involved knowledge of myths, legends, riddles, proverbs and poetry.

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Basic numeracy which involved learning how to count, add, subtract, and multiply was taught
through a variety of methods. The numeration system consisted of counting both by number and
by gesture with each community developing different ways of expressing the same.

Another important area of learning was environmental education. This involved the study of
topography, the flora and fauna as well as terrestrial bodies. The knowledge of the physical
environment was important for all communities. For example, hunters and gatherers who
depended on natural resources, studied the terrain, climatic patterns, habits of animals and
patterns. The plant growth formed an important part of their education. Pastoralists on the other
hand needed a clear knowledge of the physical environment such as; climate, location of water
holes, signs to predict onset of seasons for crop production, among others. Apart from food,
essential commodities were also got from the natural environment. These included the use of
various plants and vegetation, grass for cattle, thatching or for brewing herb for drink, medicine,
among others.

Learning about skills for exploiting and overcoming nature was another important aspect. This
involved the learning and mastery of economic skills such as; farming, hunting, fishing and
herding techniques. Others included house building, mat making, and weaving. The learning of
general technical skills was done according to gender in line with division of labour in a given
society. For example, hunting and grazing were male responsibilities while women handled
agricultural work such as; cultivation, planting, weeding, harvesting, and food processing. It is
important to note that division of labour was not done in a uniform manner across the continent.
For example, among the Maasai, house building was a responsibility for women yet in most
cultures, that role is reserved for men. Farming consisted of knowledge of seasons, crop cycles,
land use, composting and manuring, weeding and harvesting among others.

Knowledge about social skills was an important aspect of learning which enabled people to live
as full members of society. Social education taught about the social norms, values and social
etiquette. The primary duty for the individual was to the community or social group. Other rights
and duties associated with specific roles; spouse, parent, etc. were subordinated to allegiance to
the community. For example, teachings about eating manners reinforced in members the value of
sharing. Respect for all, especially to older members was internalized through learning social

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etiquette and protocols such as greeting rules and terms of address. For example, in some
communities, children were not allowed to call older people by names.

The learning of rights and duties was associated with specific roles – spouse, parent,
grandparent, aunt, child, nephew or niece was an important aspect of social education. The
behaviour pattern of each gender role had to be internalized. Apart from this, social conduct
(morality) was taught. Immoral acts such as theft, assault, rape, treachery, greed laziness,
dishonesty, were discouraged. On the other hand, virtues such as honesty, courage, self-control,
love, and compassion were encouraged. One ought to note that issues of morality were in some
instances not perceived in a uniform manner across the continent. For example, in many African
communities’ cattle raids or acquisition of other property by force just like fighting in wars was a
highly celebrated act. Some of these acts are still present in certain communities in Kenya such
as the Maasai and the Pokot who look at cattle raids in positive terms and not as stealing.

Sex education involved the teaching and learning about bodily functions and hygiene, bedroom
behaviour, male/female relationships as well as methods of family planning. When girls reached
puberty, they were instructed by old women on physiological changes associated with
menstruation and virtues of virginity among others. In many communities across the African
continent, they had lessons on menstruation of girls as they approached puberty mostly by their
grandmothers and included lessons on how to cleanse themselves during periods and a change in
how they related to boys. Among other aspects, the virtue of virginity was impressed upon the
youth in almost all communities. In as much as many children were highly valued the frequency
of child birth was well regulated with teaching on the importance of child spacing in the family.
For example, a pregnancy which occurred before a baby got weaned from the mother’s breast
was in most cases frowned upon.

Religious education was an important area of learning in Africa since “Africans are notoriously
religious” by nature. To the African, life started and ended around religious acts with most
activities being governed by strict religious ethos. For this reason, the knowledge of belief
systems about God and ancestors, religious ceremonies, prayers, sacrifices, appeasements,
specific rites which in most cases were accompanied with music and dance, among others.

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The teaching of history was meant for cultural continuity and therefore held important place in
the curriculum. Key aspects dealt with: origin of the community, the migration history of specific
ethnic group, origin of clans and lineages, family and genealogy, past experiences, important
events and achievements by the community, the heroes and heroines of the group, traditional
friends and enemies among other topics. Some communities like the Luo had formal institutions
for teaching history to boys and girls respectively.

Physical education grew out of various activities and took the form of play, dance, and work.
Dancing which was prominent in social and religious functions was an important aspect of
physical education. Apart from the development of the body - agility, endurance, physical
resistance and ability to use the body in different circumstances and for different purposes were
also developed by various physical exercises.

 Specialized curriculum

The specialized curriculum focused on training individuals in particular trades and vocations. It
was restricted to a few selected individuals in society and access dependent on fulfilment of
specific conditions which included the payment of fees which was done both in labour and kind.
The curriculum also had specific teachers.

The content that was taught was tied to a particular specialization but it generally touched on a
common background of the specialization, history of the profession, genealogy of the specialists,
religious education, music and dance. Apart from these, both the technical and social skills and
promotion of strict professional ethics was imparted. Lastly, a professional oath of secrecy about
the content and methodology of the practice was taken by the specialist.

The mode of training on specialized content mostly relied on non-formal methods of learning
with a lot of practical elements (learning by doing) being infused in the processes. Some of the
professions in traditional Africa which demanded training were; medicine, rain making,
blacksmithing, and healing (doctors), among others.

Methods of instruction

In most African societies, parents played an important role in the education of their children.
There was often a marked division of labour. The mother educated all the children in the early

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years, but as the children grew older, the fathers took over education of the male children while
the mother remained in control of the female children. Other adults were also expected to teach
the young as need arose – the men would guide the boys, as the women would give guidance to
the girls. Regarding the teaching process, various methods of instructions were used. These
methods could be broadly divided into informal and formal methods.

 Informal methods

One of the commonly used informal methods was play. Children were encouraged to play after
work and any child who did not play was assumed sick or abnormal. In play, children took
initiative in making their own toys thus developing creativity and imagination. As well as
general play, children also used play to imitate and practise adult life and hence learning future
roles. Play also helped develop children’s memory and promote their language.

Oral literature was another method that was common. It was a method that was used to teach
behaviour and issues that were beyond human comprehension. It included myths, which were
used to explain such things as creation and death; legends, which were used to teach history of
big happenings or heroes as well as folktales, which were used for ethical teaching. Oral
literature also included proverbs and riddles, which were mainly used to stimulate thought as
well as moral teaching. Young people also participated in music and dance especially during
ceremonies through which they learned many things relating to their traditions.

Traditional learning also involved the use of deterrence or inculcating fear in children. They
were made to confirm to the morals, customs and standards of behaviour inherent in the clan and
ethnic community. Bad habits and undesirable behaviour such as disobedience, cruelty,
selfishness, bullying, aggressiveness, temper tantrums, theft, telling lies and others were not
tolerated. Initially, verbal warnings would be used followed by punishment if behaviour did not
improve. Children who committed offences would be rebuked, smacked or assigned some piece
of work to complete before food. Serious offences, however, resulted in severe beating or other
form of inflicting pain on the body. Such punishment was regarded as reformatory. Sometimes,
children were discouraged from indulging in bad habits through ridicule with a funny or nasty
nickname.

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Informal methods of instruction also included involving children in productive work. This was
learning by doing. Children were involved in productive work as early as possible such that they
learned by being useful. This was generally carried out through imitation by which means they
learned their sex roles. In this way, children learned to participate in a useful way both at home
and in the wider community. This work included such things as carrying out house chores,
looking after babies, farming, hunting, looking after animals and so on. The training was done in
such a gradual manner that no child was given a task that was beyond ability.

 Formal methods

Formal methods of instruction involved theoretical and practical inculcation of skills. One of
such methods of learning was through apprenticeship, where parents who wanted their children
to acquire some occupational training usually sent them to work with craftsmen such as potters,
blacksmiths, basket-makers and others. Parents who had hereditary skills such as herbalists
would also instruct their children from time to time until they too would become proficient.

Formal instructions would also be given in constant corrections and warnings to children in some
aspects of domestic work, herding cattle, cultivation, fishing and others. Formal corrections were
also given in terms of behaviour, for example good manners and social behaviour.

Among most of the African ethnic groups, a lot of formal teaching especially for adult living
took place during the initiation rites, which in many cases took place during puberty. These rites
were regarded as the point of passage into full membership of the community and would often
include sessions of formal teaching especially on issues relating to adult life with all its
expectations. Different groups had different types of rites often known as rites of passage.

Relevance of African indigenous education today

On the question of relevance, the Western influence to cultural undertakings through Christianity
colonialization introduced tremendous changes in the way Africans perceive, think and act. The
Europeans assumed Africans had no education and ignored the traditional education, greatly
watering it down and brought in their type of education and an alien civilization. Although there
is no single place in Africa where one can come across a pure system of this traditional
education, the system has not disappeared completely. The informal aspects of this learning seem
to have persisted more than the formal aspect.

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From the time when African countries started to attain their independence, there has been a great
effort towards the integration of the two systems due to the fact that traditional education can
supplement the western type of education. For example, a number of medical institutes on the
continent have intensified the study of traditional medicine as a way of tapping the rich
indigenous knowledge to complement the modern forms of treating certain diseases. By looking
at our education system in Kenya, one can also see areas where the country has tried to integrate
aspects of the old in the teaching of the new in its schools in the areas of; science, literature,
religion, ethics, family-life education as well as the teaching methodologies especially that of
learning by doing.

Although African indigenous education was quite effective in pre-colonial Africa and served
those societies very well, it also had some major weaknesses. The system may have succeeded
since it served static societies that placed minimal pressure on education. Therefore, adherence
to tradition hindered development. The system placed a lot of emphasis on the group and
community that led to the neglect of individual aspirations. The system was highly authoritarian
as there was no questioning of what was taught. The formal methodology for instance never
explained the why of things but only focused on doctrines and beliefs that were to be accepted
without questioning. In short, the methods could be said to have aimed at compelling rather than
guiding, indoctrinating rather than motivating the learners. Last but not least, the system did not
have figures and letters and therefore lacked records. This in a way partly explains why the
system quickly crumpled when confronted by the Western forms of education.
In brief, the following can be identified as the main limitations in the pre-colonial system of
education in Africa:
 Education was mainly oral and therefore it could easily lead to distortion of facts over a
long period of time.
 It was conservative and did not prepare learners for change. It mostly emphasized on
the past for a static society
 It offered little scope for independent thinking and decision making.
 It emphasized on the group at the expense of the individual.
 It lacked universal approach as it was based on ethnic values.
 It emphasized conformity at the expense of initiative.

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Summary

Our discussion has been on the education that was practised in pre-colonial Africa. The first
Europeans who ventured on the continent were so ignorant of the fact that Africans educated
their people even if they had no formal schools and could not read or write. However, they
simply chose to ignore the extensive informal system of education on display at the time and
only took a very narrow view of education as viewed from Western lenses. African indigenous
education played an important role in socializing members of respective communities as well as
helping them to be acceptable and useful members of society. We have also shown that just like
other systems of education, African indigenous education had; aims, content, structure, teachers
and methods of instruction. Though faced with some challenges, this system of education is still
relevant today and can very well complement modern forms of education.

Revision questions

1. With the use of clear examples from your community, explain the aims of African
indigenous education?
2. Describe the rites of passage in any one African community of your choice.
3. With specific reference to an African community of your choice, examine aspects of the
general curriculum in African indigenous education.
4. Citing relevant examples from your community describe the methods of instruction in
African indigenous education.
5. Explain the relevance of African indigenous education today.
6. Describe the weaknesses in African indigenous education to Africa.

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