DISASTER

MANAGEMENT
M.M. Sulphey
 DISASTER
MANAGEMENT

M.M. SULPHEY
Dean (Academics, Research and Consultancy)
TKM Institute of Management
Musaliar Hills
Kollam, Kerala

Delhi-110092
2016
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
M.M. Sulphey

© 2016 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
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publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-5220-9

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Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
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 Dedicated to
the fond memory of my beloved father
Janab A. Mohammed Ismail
 Contents

Preface .............................................................................................................................................. xvii

Part I
SYSTEMS OF EARTH
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
Ecosystem ................................................................................................................................. 3
Constituents of Ecosystem ....................................................................................................... 3
Questions ................................................................................................................................... 7

2. Lithosphere ......................................................................................................................... 8
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 8
Composition of Lithosphere .................................................................................................. 9
Rocks ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Weathering ................................................................................................................................ 10
Soil ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Functions of Soil ....................................................................................................................... 13
Questions ................................................................................................................................... 14

3. Atmosphere ......................................................................................................................... 15
Layers of Atmosphere based on Temperature Variation .................................................. 15
Depletion of Ozone Layer ...................................................................................................... 16
Ozone–oxygen Cycle ................................................................................................................ 16
Green House Effect ................................................................................................................. 17
Incoming Solar Radiation ......................................................................................................... 18
Outgoing Radiation ................................................................................................................... 18
v
vi  Contents

Weather .................................................................................................................................... 19
Temperature .............................................................................................................................. 19
Wind .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Cyclone ..................................................................................................................................... 22
Atmospheric Circulations ......................................................................................................... 22
The Indian Monsoon .............................................................................................................. 24
South–West Monsoon ............................................................................................................... 24
North–Eastern Monsoon ........................................................................................................... 24
Humidity ................................................................................................................................... 25
Questions ................................................................................................................................... 26

4. Hydrosphere ....................................................................................................................... 27
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 27
Water in Oceans ..................................................................................................................... 28
Oceanic Circulations ................................................................................................................. 28
Oceans as Moderator of Climate .............................................................................................. 30
Oceans as Heat Reservoir ......................................................................................................... 30
Oceans as Carbon Reservoir .................................................................................................... 30
Oceans and Sea Ice ................................................................................................................... 31
Water on Land ........................................................................................................................ 31
Questions ................................................................................................................................... 32

5. Biosphere .............................................................................................................................. 33
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 33
Components of Biosphere....................................................................................................... 34
Terrestrial Ecosystem ............................................................................................................... 34
Aquatic Ecosystem ................................................................................................................... 34
Evolution of Biota ................................................................................................................... 35
Questions ................................................................................................................................... 36

Part II
DISASTER AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
6. Disaster .................................................................................................................................. 39
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 39
Disasters ................................................................................................................................... 39
Hazard ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Classification of Hazard ........................................................................................................... 41
Magnitude of Disasters ............................................................................................................. 42
Vulnerability ............................................................................................................................ 42
Categorisation of Vulnerabilities .............................................................................................. 43
Coping Capacity ...................................................................................................................... 43
 Contents  vii
Risk ........................................................................................................................................... 44
Disaster Risk Management ....................................................................................................... 44
Risk Formula ............................................................................................................................. 44
References ................................................................................................................................. 46
Questions ................................................................................................................................... 46

7. Characteristics of Hazards ......................................................................................... 47

Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 47
Permanent Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 47
Hazard Identity ......................................................................................................................... 47
Nature ........................................................................................................................................ 48
Intensity ..................................................................................................................................... 48
Extent ........................................................................................................................................ 48
Predictability ............................................................................................................................. 48
Manageability ............................................................................................................................ 49
Temporal Characteristics ....................................................................................................... 49
Frequency .................................................................................................................................. 49
Duration .................................................................................................................................... 50
Speed of Onset .......................................................................................................................... 50
Forewarning .............................................................................................................................. 50
Questions ................................................................................................................................... 51

8. Categorisation of Disasters ........................................................................................ 52

Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 52
Types of Disasters ................................................................................................................... 52
Natural Disasters ..................................................................................................................... 53
Geological Hazards ................................................................................................................. 53
Earthquakes ............................................................................................................................... 53
Geological Faults and Folds ..................................................................................................... 55
Tsunami ..................................................................................................................................... 60
Hydro-Meteorological Disasters ............................................................................................ 61
Storms, Cyclones, Hurricanes or Typhoons ............................................................................. 61
Multiple Hazards .................................................................................................................... 73
References ................................................................................................................................. 73
Questions ................................................................................................................................... 74

9. Biological Hazard ............................................................................................................ 75

Infectious Diseases .................................................................................................................. 75
Outbreak .................................................................................................................................. 75
Epidemic Diseases .................................................................................................................. 75
viii  Contents

Pandemic ................................................................................................................................. 76
Bioterrorism ............................................................................................................................ 78
Extensive Infestations ........................................................................................................... 80
Locusts .................................................................................................................................... 80
Ant Infestation ........................................................................................................................ 84
Epidemics Associated with Disasters .................................................................................. 85
References ............................................................................................................................... 86
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 86

10. Anthropogenic/Technological Hazards ............................................................ 87

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 87
Chemical Disaster ................................................................................................................. 87
Industrial Wastes .................................................................................................................. 89
Problems Created by Industrial Wastes ................................................................................. 89
Hazardous Wastes ................................................................................................................. 90
International Movement of Hazardous Wastes ...................................................................... 92
Basel Convention .................................................................................................................... 93
Approach for Identifying Hazardousness of E-waste ............................................................ 97
Radioactivity .......................................................................................................................... 98
Sources of Radioactivity ......................................................................................................... 99
Traffic Disasters .................................................................................................................... 103
Cyber Infrastructure Failure and Cyber Attacks .................................................................... 103
Reference ................................................................................................................................. 104
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 104

11. Environmental Degradation: Land and Soil Degradation ................... 105

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 105
Land Degradation ................................................................................................................. 105
Soil Erosion ............................................................................................................................. 106
Soil Degradation .................................................................................................................... 108
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 110

12. Environmental Degradation: Air and Water ............................................... 111

Degradation of Air ................................................................................................................ 111
Vehicular Emission Load ....................................................................................................... 113
Industrial Sector Growth ........................................................................................................ 113
Power Sector ........................................................................................................................... 114
Certain Agricultural Practices ................................................................................................ 114
Domestic Sector ...................................................................................................................... 114
 Contents  ix
Atmospheric Dispersion ....................................................................................................... 115
Plume Behaviour ..................................................................................................................... 116
Effects of Air Pollution .......................................................................................................... 116
Effects on Human Beings ....................................................................................................... 116
Effects on Plants ..................................................................................................................... 117
Effects on Animals ................................................................................................................. 118
Effects on Materials ................................................................................................................ 118
Economic Losses .................................................................................................................... 119
Other Effects of Air Pollution ............................................................................................. 119
Acid Rain ..................................................................................................................................119
Depletion of Ozone Layer .................................................................................................... 121
Global Warming ................................................................................................................... 121
Effects of Global Warming .................................................................................................... 122
Climate Change ..................................................................................................................... 125
Causes of Climate Change ..................................................................................................... 126
Effects of Climate Change ..................................................................................................... 126
Degradation of Water ........................................................................................................... 128
Water Pollution ....................................................................................................................... 131
Pressures to Water Resources ................................................................................................ 133
Case Study: The Desiccation of the Aral Sea ........................................................................ 134
Realisation of the Problem ..................................................................................................... 137
References ............................................................................................................................... 143
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 144

13. Environmental Degradation: Deforestation,

Desertification and Others ..................................................................................... 145
Deforestation .......................................................................................................................... 145
Direct Causes of Deforestation ............................................................................................ 145
Expansion of Farming Land ................................................................................................... 145
Forest and other Plantations ................................................................................................... 146
Logging and Fuel Wood ......................................................................................................... 146
Overgrazing ............................................................................................................................. 146
Fires ...........................................................................................................................................146
Mining .......................................................................................................................................147
Urbanisation ..............................................................................................................................147
Industrialisation and Infrastructure ......................................................................................... 147
Air Pollution ........................................................................................................................... 147
Tourism ................................................................................................................................... 148
Wars ........................................................................................................................................ 148
Indirect Causes of Deforestation ......................................................................................... 148
Colonialism ............................................................................................................................. 149
Corruption and Politics ........................................................................................................... 149
Overpopulation and Poverty ................................................................................................... 149
x  Contents

Exploitation by Industrialised Countries ................................................................................ 150

Debt Burden ............................................................................................................................ 150
Land Rights and Tenure ......................................................................................................... 150
Economic Causes .................................................................................................................... 150
Undervaluing the Forest ......................................................................................................... 151
Uses of Forests ....................................................................................................................... 151
Effects of Deforestation ........................................................................................................ 152
Global Warming ..................................................................................................................... 152
Climate Change ....................................................................................................................... 152
Water and Soil Loss and Flooding ......................................................................................... 153
Human–Animal Conflict due to Habitat Loss ....................................................................... 153
Decreased Biodiversity ........................................................................................................... 154
Economic Losses .................................................................................................................... 154
Social Consequences ............................................................................................................... 154
Desertification ........................................................................................................................ 154
Loss of Biodiversity .............................................................................................................. 156
Values of Biodiversity ............................................................................................................ 158
Threats to Biodiversity ........................................................................................................... 160
Conservation of Biodiversity .................................................................................................. 161
Approaches of Conservation .................................................................................................. 161
Thermal Pollution ................................................................................................................. 163
Effects of Thermal Pollution .................................................................................................. 163
Control of Thermal Pollution ................................................................................................. 164
Sea Level Rise ....................................................................................................................... 164
Reasons for Sea Level Rise .................................................................................................... 165
Problems Associated with Rising Sea Level ......................................................................... 166
Responses to Rising Sea Levels ............................................................................................. 167
Human Inducted Disaster .................................................................................................... 168
References ............................................................................................................................... 168
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 170

14. Risk ....................................................................................................................................... 171

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 171
Classification of Risk ............................................................................................................ 172
Ways of Handling Risk ........................................................................................................ 173
Risk Management ................................................................................................................... 173
Disaster Risk ........................................................................................................................... 176
The UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction ......................................................... 179
Disaster Risk Governance .................................................................................................... 181
Disaster Risk Management and Insurance ........................................................................ 183
References ............................................................................................................................... 184
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 185
 Contents  xi
15. Vulnerability ................................................................................................................... 186
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 186
Factors of Vulnerability ....................................................................................................... 187
Evaluation of Resource Requirement ..................................................................................... 193
Decision Making ..................................................................................................................... 193
Models of Vulnerability ......................................................................................................... 194
References ............................................................................................................................... 195
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 195

16. Impact of Disasters ..................................................................................................... 196

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 196
Effects on Current Development ........................................................................................ 196
Effects on Long-Term Development ................................................................................... 197
Attitude of Disaster Victims ................................................................................................ 198
References ............................................................................................................................... 199
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 199

Part III
DISASTER MITIGATION

17. Disaster Management ............................................................................................... 203

Evolution of Disaster Management .................................................................................... 203
Social Science Perspective ..................................................................................................... 204
Natural Science Perspective ................................................................................................... 204
Modern Perspective about Disaster ........................................................................................ 204
Disaster Management ........................................................................................................... 205
Monitoring and Evaluation ..................................................................................................... 206
Disaster Management Cycle ................................................................................................... 206
Stakeholders .......................................................................................................................... 209
References ............................................................................................................................... 212
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 213

18. Mitigation ......................................................................................................................... 214

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 214
Principles of Mitigation ........................................................................................................ 215
Mitigation Measures ............................................................................................................. 215
Hazard Mitigation Practices ................................................................................................ 216
Mitigation Strategies ............................................................................................................... 217
Requirements for Effective Mitigation .................................................................................. 219
References ............................................................................................................................... 219
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 219
xii  Contents

19. Response to Natural Disasters .............................................................................. 220

Reducing Deforestation ........................................................................................................ 220
Reduction in Population Growth and Increase in Per Capita Income .................................. 220
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation ........................................ 220
Increase in the Area and Standards for the Management of Protected Areas ...................... 221
Increase in the Area of Forest Reserved for Timber Production/Forest Plantation .............. 221
Increase in the Value of Forests ............................................................................................. 221
Sustainable Forest Management ............................................................................................. 221
Encouraging Substitutes ......................................................................................................... 222
Participatory Forest Management and Rights ........................................................................ 222
Strengthening of Government and Non-government Institutions and Policies ..................... 222
Increase Investment in Research, Education and Extension ................................................. 222
Improvement in the Information Base and Monitoring ......................................................... 222
Compliance of Policy and Regulatory Measures ................................................................... 223
Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) ............................................................................. 223
SFM in India ........................................................................................................................... 224
Joint Forest Management Programme .............................................................................. 226
How JFM Works .................................................................................................................... 227
Growth of JFM ....................................................................................................................... 227
Climate Change ..................................................................................................................... 227
Dealing with the Effects of Climate Change ......................................................................... 228
Mitigation of Floods ............................................................................................................. 231
Zoning ..................................................................................................................................... 232
Delineation of Flood Areas .................................................................................................... 234
Measures to Combat Flooding ............................................................................................... 234
Supportive Technologies ........................................................................................................ 237
Guidelines for Management of Floods in India ..................................................................... 238
Drought ....................................................................................................................................239
Measures for Combating Drought .......................................................................................... 239
Earthquake ............................................................................................................................ 240
During an Earthquake ............................................................................................................. 242
After an Earthquake ................................................................................................................ 242
Storms ......................................................................................................................................242
Measures for Combating Damages from Storms ................................................................... 243
Landslide ................................................................................................................................ 243
Measures for Combating Landslides ...................................................................................... 244
Tsunami ....................................................................................................................................244
Measures for Combating Tsunamis ........................................................................................ 245
References ............................................................................................................................... 245
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 245
 Contents  xiii
20. Mitigation of Manmade Disasters ....................................................................... 246
Control of Gaseous Contaminants ...................................................................................... 246
Physical Adsorption ................................................................................................................ 246
Chemical Adsorption .............................................................................................................. 247
Adsorption Equipment ............................................................................................................ 247
Approaches to Control of Noise ............................................................................................. 247
Mitigation of Environmental Noises ...................................................................................... 250
Mitigation of Thermal Pollution ......................................................................................... 251
Strategies for Managing E-wastes ...................................................................................... 252
Recycling, Reuse and Recovery ............................................................................................. 252
Treatment and Disposal of E-wastes ...................................................................................... 253
Environmentally Sound Treatment of E-waste ...................................................................... 253
Bio Weapons .......................................................................................................................... 255
Important Measures and Handling of Biological Weapon .................................................... 255
Reference ................................................................................................................................. 256
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 256

21. Evacuation ........................................................................................................................ 257

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 257
Reference ................................................................................................................................. 259
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 259

22. Recovery ............................................................................................................................ 260

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 260
Pillars of Recovery Action ................................................................................................... 261
Reference ................................................................................................................................. 261
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 261

23. International Disaster Assistance ...................................................................... 262

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 262
Types of International Assistance ....................................................................................... 263
Reception and Utilisation of International Assistance ..................................................... 264
Problems Arising out of International Assistance ............................................................ 264
Octopus Effect ........................................................................................................................ 265
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 265

24. Disaster Preparedness ............................................................................................. 266

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 266
Components of Preparedness .............................................................................................. 267
Formulation of Preparedness Plans .................................................................................... 268
Types of Disaster Preparedness .......................................................................................... 270
xiv  Contents

Units of Analysis in Disaster Preparedness ....................................................................... 271

Principles of Preparedness ................................................................................................... 272
Problems Associated with Preparedness ............................................................................ 272
References ............................................................................................................................... 273
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 273

25. Disaster Resilience ...................................................................................................... 274

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 274
Benefits of Disaster Resilience .............................................................................................. 277
Community Disaster Resilience ........................................................................................... 277
Challenges of Forming a Disaster Resilient Community ................................................. 278
Measuring Disaster Resilience ............................................................................................. 280
Criticisms of Disaster Resilience ......................................................................................... 281
References ............................................................................................................................... 281
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 282

26. Disaster Management in India ............................................................................. 283

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 283
History of Disaster Management (DM) in India ............................................................... 284
Disaster Risk Management Programme (DRMP) ............................................................ 285
Institutional Arrangement in India .................................................................................... 285
Present DM Structure ............................................................................................................. 286
The Disaster Management Act, 2005 .................................................................................. 286
Authorities Under the Act ...................................................................................................... 286
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) ............................................................. 287
National Executive Committee (NEC) ................................................................................... 288
State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMA) ................................................................. 289
State Executive Committee (SEC) ......................................................................................... 289
District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) ............................................................... 289
Local Government Bodies ...................................................................................................... 290
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) ............................................................. 290
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) ........................................................................... 291
State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) ................................................................................. 291
Certain Other Associated Institutions .................................................................................... 291
National Disaster Mitigation Fund ..................................................................................... 293
State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) .................................................................................. 293
National Policy on Disaster Management .......................................................................... 294
Categorisation of Disasters .................................................................................................. 295
National Action Plan on Climate Change .......................................................................... 295
Reference ................................................................................................................................. 296
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 296
 Contents  xv
27. Response to Disasters ............................................................................................... 297

Land Degradation ................................................................................................................. 297

Watershed Management Programme ................................................................................. 297
Joint Forest Management Programme (JFM) .................................................................. 298
Desert Development Programme (DDP) ............................................................................ 298
The Programme for Reclamation of Alkali Soil (RAS) ................................................... 298
Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas ..................................... 299
Degradation of Air ................................................................................................................ 299
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 .................................................... 299
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAQMP) ..................................................... 301
Degradation of Water ........................................................................................................... 302
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 ....................................................... 302
River Boards Act, 1956 .......................................................................................................... 304
Inter-State Water Disputes (ISWD) Act, 1956 ...................................................................... 304
National Water Quality Monitoring Programme (NWMP) ................................................... 305
National Water Policy ............................................................................................................ 305
International Treaties .............................................................................................................. 306
Vehicular Pollution Control Measures ............................................................................... 307
Vehicular Emission Norms ..................................................................................................... 307
Fuel Quality Specifications .................................................................................................... 307
Traffic Management ............................................................................................................... 308
Public Transport Systems ....................................................................................................... 308
Reduction of Emissions by Using Lubricants ........................................................................ 309
Technology .............................................................................................................................. 309
Alternate Fuels ........................................................................................................................ 309
Control of Pollution from In-use Vehicles ............................................................................ 309
Hazardous Waste Management .......................................................................................... 309
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 310

28. International Frameworks in Disaster Management ............................. 312

International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) .................................... 312

International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (ISDR) ........................................... 313
The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) for a Safer World ......................................... 313
The Earth Summit ................................................................................................................ 314
Kyoto Protocol ........................................................................................................................ 314
World Bank ............................................................................................................................. 315
Asian Development Bank ....................................................................................................... 315
United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction ....................................... 316
Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction .......................................................................... 316
United Nation Disaster Management Team ........................................................................... 317
United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination ........................................................ 317
xvi  Contents

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs .................................. 317
International Search and Rescue Advisory Group ................................................................. 318
Asian Disaster Reduction Centre ........................................................................................... 318
SAARC Disaster Management Centre ............................................................................... 319
Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response ........................................................ 319
Questions ................................................................................................................................. 320

Index ................................................................................................................................................. 321

 Preface

It is indeed with great pleasure and a sense of satisfaction that I am presenting this book
‘Disaster Management’. I have put in extra effort to see that the book is comprehensive
and up-to-date. Disaster Management (DM) is now being accorded prime importance by all
welfare states.
The field of Disaster Management has of late undergone major changes. These changes
have occurred at various levels—policy, institutional, etc.; impacting various macro-level
societal factors. This has placed immense challenges before the civil society organizations.
These organizations are expected to comprehend the various changes and challenges, and come
up with strategies and action plans for the benefit of the society. Such plans should ensure that
democratic governance is adhered to; based on the changing perspectives, policies, and practices
of disaster management. The net result should be social justice, equality and gender equity.
This book deals with various aspects of Disaster Management. It has 28 chapters under
three parts. Part I is titled as ‘Systems of Earth’which deals with Atmosphere, Lithosphere,
Hydrosphere and Biosphere. Part II is titled as ‘Disasters’. It has chapters like Introduction
to Disasters, Characteristics of Hazards, Categorization of Hazards, Natural Disasters,
Anthropogenic/Technological Hazard, and Constituents of Vulnerability. This part gives a fair
view about disasters to the readers. Part III is titled as ‘Disaster Management’. The chapters
included are Mitigation of Natural Disasters, Mitigation of Anthropogenic Disasters, Disaster
Management in India, Response to Disasters, International Framework in Disaster Management,
and Disaster Risk Management and Insurance. I hope this book will provide the reader with
almost all the required information about Disaster Management.
This book is written in a student-friendly manner. It will help graduate and postgraduate
students to acquire a fair knowledge about DM. Enough materials are provided in the boxes
and illustrations, which will supplement the main body of the book. I firmly believe that no
work is ever complete. I would request those who use this book to provide me with constructive
criticisms, inputs and suggestions to make further improvements.
xvii
xviii  Preface

Many colleagues, friends, relatives and students have helped me in the preparation of
this book. I am thankful to Dr. Jayant Sonwalkar, Dean, Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya, Indore
who introduced me to this field. Valson, Babita Mishra, Ruchira, Lakshmi, Ajai, and Mini of
PHI Learning, who were patient enough to help me at all times throughout the completion
of this book required special mention. I am also thankful to the management, faculty, students
and non-teaching staff of TKM Institute of Management, without whose active help, I would
not have completed this book. I also thank my wife Sameera, children Safeer and Swalih,
mother Alima Beevi, and all other family members for having encouraged me and provided
me with an ideal atmosphere that enabled the timely completion of the book.
Overall I thank Lord Almighty for all the unlimited blessings he has showered on me.

M.M. SULPHEY
[email protected]
 Part I
SYSTEMS OF EARTH
 1
Introduction

ECOSYSTEM
The science of ecology involves the study of organisms, their relationship and interactions
with the physical environment, and among organisms. Ecosystem, a concept in ecology was
first defined by Tansley (1935) as a system that combines living organisms (biomes) with the
physical environment. Though the term was coined in 1935, it attained prominence only in
the 1970s. It was later defined as ‘the system resulting from the integration of all living and
non-living factors of the environment’. Thereafter, it has been defined by a number of experts.
For instance, it is defined as ‘a community of organisms and populations interacting with
one another and with the chemical and physical components of the environment’. However,
an all-encompassing definition is still elusive. All the definitions show that ecosystem is a
community of living things, the environment of which consists of non-living things, and the
complex interdependency that the living things have with the environment.
In ordinary parlance, it can be said to be a place where nature has created a unique mixture
of air, water, soil, and a variety of living organisms that interact and support each other. The
living (biotic) and the non-living (abiotic) interact with each other in such a manner that it
results in the flow of energy between them. In any ecosystem, the biotic community consists
of a host of individuals that include birds, reptiles, mammals, insects and other invertebrates,
bacteria, plants, and other living organisms. The abiotic parts include the atmospheric gases,
all forms of water, and sediment.

Constituents of Ecosystem
The constituents of an ecosystem include both the species that inhabit the area and the physical
environment. An ecosystem can exist only in any place where there are varied forms of life.
The life can sustain only when there is transfer of energy within the system. The energy that
3
4  Disaster Management

is produced in the ecosystem can occur only with the consumption of matter. A large and
complex exchange of energy, gases, water and minerals occur amongst the biotic and the abiotic
components of any ecosystem. Small, self-contained ecosystems are known as microcosms.
They represent miniature systems in which most of the ecological processes that are available
in a larger ecosystem operate. For instance, an aquarium or a small pond is a classic example
of a microcosm. The largest and the only complete ecosystem is the biosphere (a term coined
in the year 1875 by a geologist Eduard Suess). The biosphere is supported by a host of aspects
like climate (temperature and precipitation), soil formation, hydrology (surface water, aquifers,
and soil moisture), solar energy input, and the cycling of energy and nutrients through food
webs. It is the global sphere where the biota interacts with the lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere. The 28 chemical elements that are required by living organisms are contained
in these three interconnected physical spheres. The three physical spheres are now discussed.

Lithosphere
The upper oceanic and continental layer of the solid earth that comprises all the crustal rocks
and the brittle part of the uppermost mantle is known as lithosphere.
On the lithosphere, the area where the soil envelops Earth and the soil forming process
is active is known as Pedosphere. The pedosphere forms when there is contact and interaction
of lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Pedology is the science that studies
about soil. Soil is the biologically active, structured porous medium that has developed on the
surface of the land. The constitution of soil varies widely with the proportions of the spheres
and the physical, chemical and biological processes that occur in the particular area. There
would be the domination of atmosphere in dry soils, lithosphere in mineral soil, biosphere in
organic soil, and hydrosphere in wet soils. The fundamental components of soil are minerals,
organic materials, water and air. Soil is the product of the interaction between the above four
components. The lithosphere is discussed in detail in Chapter 2.

Atmosphere
Atmosphere is the various gases that encircle earth. The gases contained in the atmosphere
include nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen,
etc. The per cent composition of the gases is presented in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Per cent Composition of Gases in the Atmosphere
S. No. Gas Per cent
1 Nitrogen 78.80
2 Oxygen 20.95
3 Argon 0.93
4 Carbon dioxide 0.03
5 Neon 0.0018
6 Helium 0.00052
7 Methane 0.00015
8 Krypton 0.00011
9 Hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ozone, etc. Less than 0.0001
 Chapter 1 Introduction  5
The atmosphere also contains water vapour, certain other fine particulate materials, like
soot, dust of rock and soil, salt grains from sea water, spores, pollen, etc. Atmosphere is divided
into a number of concentric layers that extend from sea level to about 64,000 km into the outer
space, based on various methods. A diagrammatic representation of the various ways in which
the atmosphere is classified is presented in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Classification of atmosphere.

Each of the classification is now discussed.

Based on chemical reaction the atmosphere is divided into:
1. Homosphere: Homosphere extends to a distance of about 88 km from the surface of
earth. It consists of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide. Homosphere
is more or less homogeneous in composition.
2. Heterosphere: The atmosphere that lies above homosphere is termed heterosphere.
It starts from 88 km above the surface of the earth. The air composition in
heterosphere is not uniform. The molecules and atoms found in this region tend
to separate and arrange themselves in layers with distinct composition. While
the lowest layer of heterosphere is composed of the heaviest of molecules, the
uppermost layers has the lightest of elements. The heterosphere has four regions—
the first one is the molecular nitrogen layer that encircles the earth from 88 km to
about 200 km, followed by oxygen layer which stretches from about 200 km to about
1125 km. The next is helium layer that consists of helium atoms. This layer extends
from 1125 km to 3540 km. This layer is followed by heterosphere, which consists
of atomic hydrogen. It extends from 3540 km to about 9660 km. Beyond this layer
is the exosphere. Atmosphere is extremely rare in exosphere. At this layer molecule
having sufficient velocity escape from the gravitational force of the earth.
Based on temperature, atmosphere is divided into Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere,
Thermosphere and Exosphere. Each of them is now discussed in detail.
1. Troposphere: This is the lowest zone of the atmosphere. 75 per cent of the total
gaseous mass of the atmosphere is found in this zone. Water vapour exists only
6  Disaster Management

in troposphere. Weather phenomena occur in this zone. The temperature gradually

decreases at the rate of 6.5°C per km height. The lowest layer of troposphere (upto
1.5 km to 2 km) is known as the friction layer, with the topography influencing the
wind speed and circulation. The next layer known as the convective layer has wind
speeds gradually increasing and attaining the maximum. This region holds all the
atmospheric pollutants, and the turbulence is very high.
2. Stratosphere: Stratosphere extends from the troposphere to about 50 km over the
earth’s surface. This zone is stratified, stable and is extremely dry with sparse clouds.
Stratosphere is very important as it contains much of ozone which supports life on
earth. Ozone filters the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. This layer protects earth
by burning the falling meteoritic fragments. The temperature in the lower levels of
stratosphere increases gradually with the height. This temperature rise occurs due to
the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone. The low density of the air in this
zone tends to increase the temperature to a very large extent. The particles found in
the stratosphere occur as a result of volcanic eruption as well as nuclear weapons
detonation.
3. Mesosphere: The zone above stratosphere upto the height of about 80 km is known
as mesosphere. The temperature in mesosphere decreases uniformly with height
and could reach as low as –100°C. The atmosphere pressure is also very low in
mesosphere.
4. Thermosphere: In thermosphere the atmospheric density is extremely low, and
the temperature increases rapidly. The temperature at 350 km is 1200°C and may go
over 1000°C. The lower portion of thermosphere consists of nitrogen and oxygen in
molecular and atomic forms. Only atomic oxygen is found over the height of 200 km.
5. Exosphere: The region beyond thermosphere, extending upto 32,190 km is called
exosphere. It consists only of the atoms of hydrogen and helium. This region has
very high temperature due to the solar radiation.
Based on the chemical reaction, atmosphere is classified into two:
1. Chemosphere: This is the area where certain chemical effects are produced due
to solar radiation. Chemosphere extends from troposphere to an altitude of about
50 km, and overlaps with homosphere and heterosphere.
2. Ozonosphere: In ozonosphere intense chemical reactions take place with the help
of oxygen. This is made possible by presence of certain shortwave electromagnetic
radiations present in the region. At the lower levels of ozonosphere, atmosphere is
dense. In this area molecular oxygen (O2) collides with atomic oxygen (O) forming
ozone. Ozone filters the ultraviolet radiation and makes life possible in earth.
The layers of the atmosphere above 80 km, extending upto 300 km is known as Ionosphere.
The layer is named as ionosphere based on the ionisation produced by solar radiation. When
the atoms of nitrogen and oxygen absorb X-rays, Gamma rays and ultra violet rays; the input
of energy causes the atoms to lose electrons, and they become positively charged atoms called
Ions. The electrons ejected from the nitrogen and oxygen atoms travel free as electric currents
giving this region a high electrical conductivity.
 Chapter 1 Introduction  7
Hydrosphere
Earth is supposed to be the only planet in the universe where water exists. Life is possible
on earth solely due to the availability of water. Water is the only inorganic liquid that occurs
naturally on earth. It also has the property of being a universal solvent. It is the only compound
that is found in all three physical states—solid (ice), liquid, and gas (vapour). It has high specific
heat, latent heat and relatively high freezing point. Water is of great significance as it is through
this medium that the chemical constituents and mineral nutrients of earth are transported from
one part of the ecosystem to another. Water contains a variety of organic matter and mineral
nutrients. The large population of microorganisms that dwell in water feed on these organic
matter and mineral nutrients.
The water portion of the earth’s surface, excluding the solid part (lithosphere) and the
gaseous layer (atmosphere), is known as hydrosphere. 2/3rd or roughly 70.8 per cent (about
3,62,000 km2 of area) of the earth’s surface constitutes hydrosphere. The hydrosphere consists
of water contained in the oceans, glaciers, polar regions, rivers, lakes, other water bodies,
the water vapour in the atmosphere, etc. The major portion of the hydrosphere is the marine
ecosystem in the ocean. Water in the oceans is saline in nature. The mean depth of the
world oceans is 3700 m. The total volume of water in the ocean is estimated to be about
1.35 × 109 km3. Fresh water forms only a minor portion and is found in rivers, lakes and
glaciers. The estimated quantity of water in lakes and other reservoirs is about 1,90,000 km3.
The water that is in frozen state on Earth amounts to around 24.4 × 106 km3.
Hydrosphere has a direct influence on the earth’s temperature, weather and climate
conditions. This influence is maintained by the worldwide oceanic circulation. It prevents
Earth’s temperature from getting too hot or too cold. While lands absorb and release the heat
quickly, water bodies absorb and release heat slowly. This phenomenon enables the sea breeze
to bring warmth to the land in winter and coolness in summer. Hydrosphere is considered to
be the cradle of the first life on Earth. It is an essential prerequisite for the existence of life
in the biosphere. It also provides an indispensable habitat for numerous organisms.

Questions

1. Write brief notes on:

(a) Lithosphere
(b) Atmosphere
(c) Hydrosphere
2. What do you know about the composition of gases in the atmosphere?
3. Classify the atmosphere based on chemical composition and temperature.
 2
Lithosphere

INTRODUCTION
Earth has four concentric zones. The innermost zone is the ‘Inner core’. This zone is a solid
mass of iron which has a radius of about 1,216 km, covering the inner core is the outer core.
This is a layer of molten liquid containing nickel and iron. It is about 2,270 km thick. The
outer core is covered by solid ‘Mantle’, which is about 2,900 km thick. The outermost hardened
exterior zone is known as ‘Crust’. The crust varies in thickness from about 5 km to 50 km.
The crust and the mantle which is hard and brittle is lithosphere.
Lithosphere is the outer layer (oceanic and continental) of earth that includes the crust
and solid part of the mantle. Lithosphere interacts with atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere
and forms Pedosphere. Pedosphere has both biotic and abiotic components. There are two types
of lithosphere: the oceanic lithosphere which is about 5 km to 8 km thick composed of basalt;
and the continental lithosphere which is 30 km to 40 km thick.
Earth has seven major plates, which includes Africa, Antarctica, Australia, Eurasia, North
America, South America and Pacifica; and a number of minor ones. A few important minor
plates include Adria, Arabia, Caribbean, Nazca, Philippines, etc. These plates are composed
of oceanic and continental lithosphere. They move independently over the mantle relative
to one another, below the outer rigid lithosphere. This area known as asthenosphere is about
100 km to 200 km thick. They move with a restricted independence from the seven large plates.
The plates periodically reorganise themselves with new plate boundaries being formed, while
certain others closing up. In addition to these movements, the plates also change in shape. The
plates have three different motions. They are:
1. Moving apart, thereby creating divergent boundaries,
2. Gliding horizontally along each other, thereby creating wrench and transform
boundaries, and
3. Moving towards one another, and creating convergent boundaries.
8
 Chapter 2 Lithosphere  9
These movements may also combine based on the overall plate interactions. For instance,
an oblique convergence of plates could produce a ‘transpressive deformation’. An oblique
divergence could result in the production of ‘transtension’. A ‘convergence’ could be the effect
of the descent of one plate beneath the other, deep into the asthenosphere.
Due to the plate movements three types of boundaries are found to occur:
1. sliding towards each other (subduction zones),
2. sliding away (ridge axes), and
3. sliding along (transform faults)

COMPOSITION OF LITHOSPHERE
The lithosphere contains minerals, rocks and soil. It has more than 100 chemical elements, but
most of them are rare. More than 99 per cent of the volume includes elements, like oxygen,
silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. The composition of the
elements in the crust is presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Elements of Earth’s Crust

S. No. Elements Per cent

1 Oxygen 46.6
2 Silicon 27.7
3 Aluminum 8.1
4 Iron 5.0
5 Calcium 3.6
6 Sodium 2.8
7 Potassium 2.6
8 Magnesium 2.1

Only a few elements are present in pure forms in the earth’s crust. Called native elements,
they include copper, gold, lead, mercury, nickel, platinum, and silver. These elements contained
in ores are found in different combinations as minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring,
inorganic, crystalline solids that have definite chemical compositions. Certain minerals are
composed of single element. For instance, diamond and graphite are composed of only carbon.
There are a number of minerals that are formed by more than one element.

ROCKS
Lithosphere has various types of rocks. Rocks are naturally occurring hard and consolidated
inorganic materials, composed of one or a large number of minerals. Certain other materials,
like coal and limestone are developed from plant and animal remains. There are various types
of rocks. They are:
10  Disaster Management

1. Igneous: These rocks are formed by solidification of magma in the interior, or

lava on the surface of earth. Igneous rocks are composed of primary minerals, which
are predominantly silicates. Igneous rocks sometimes overlap with sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks.
2. Sedimentary: Sedimentary rocks are formed by the precipitation from solutions,
and consolidation of remnants of biotic components like plants and animals. These
rocks contain both original primary minerals and altered as well as newly synthesised
secondary minerals. While sedimentary rocks dominate the petrological composition
of the surface, igneous rocks are abundant in the entire crust of the earth.
3. Metamorphic: Also known as Thermal rocks they are formed from preexisting
rocks (igneous or sedimentary) due to change in the temperature and pressure in
solid state is known as metamorphic rocks. These rocks are formed when magma
intrudes through preexisting igneous or sedimentary rocks. All types of preexisting
rocks could undergo metamorphism. Further, igneous and metamorphic rocks get
weathered and form sediments. These sediments get deposited and ‘lithified’ into
sedimentary rocks.

Weathering

Weathering is the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals.

Disintegration can take place due to fragmentation, splitting, detachment, etc. Decomposition
could occur as a result of chemical changes that could lead to the formation of simpler products.
Weathering could occur as a result of natural forces, like heat, water, wind, micro-organisms,
the action of glaciers, chemical reactions, and so on. The resulting changes could be physical,
chemical, or even both. Based on the manner of occurrence weathering can be classified as
under (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Weathering of rocks.

Physical weathering
Changes occurring only to the physical form of the rocks are known as physical weathering.
Physical weathering may occur as a result of heat, water, wind, microorganisms, etc. Most of
the physical weathering is caused due to the action of temperature. This weathering is termed
as Thermal weathering. All other physical weathering processes are considered as Mechanical
weathering.
 Chapter 2 Lithosphere  11
1. Thermal weathering: This weathering is caused by the expansion (when heated
due to solar radiation at day time) and contraction (when cooled at night) of rocks
as a result of fluctuation in temperature. Expansion of rock is more in summer than
in winter. Further, different parts of rocks and different varieties of rocks expand and
contract at different rates. Pressure is created within the rocks when they expand or
contract, due to which the rock on the surface is fragmented. They ultimately break
down into smaller parts. Another weathering process, known as exfoliation, occurs
in layered rocks, rocks with homogenous composition at different zones, and rocks
that expand at similar rates up to certain depth. In such rocks the outer part expands
and contracts at higher rates. Due to this, a thin layer of rock gets detached and form
smaller parts.
2. Mechanical weathering: There are various types of mechanical weathering. Many
types of rocks absorb water and swell when wetted, and shrink when dried. This
expansion and contraction of rocks due to alternate wetting and drying break the
rocks into pieces. Water also gets accumulated in fractures and joints of rocks. When
the temperature goes below the freezing point, this water becomes ice. Since ice
have the property to increase in volume, it exerts tremendous lateral pressure on the
surrounding rocks. Due to this pressure, the fractured rocks get broken up into several
fragments. This is known as ‘frost wedging’. Another type of mechanical weathering
is ‘frost heaving’. In this weathering, flowing water and rock fragments contained
in it disintegrate while colliding with each other as well as while rolling on the bed
of rocks. The ‘cutting action’ of water and the suspended materials accelerate this
disintegration. Another form of weathering happens in glaciers. Glaciers are large
bodies of ice that slowly move along the mountain slopes. The glaciers that form on
already weathered surfaces would contain different sizes of rock fragments. When
the glaciers flow down the slope the ice melts, and the rocks contained in it smash
and shatter against one another. The fast flowing glacier smashes against the rocks
that obstruct their way. As the overlying rock gets removed, the underlying rocks
expand and split due to the release of pressure.
Certain other weathering agents include wind, gravity, plants, etc. Suspended particles
in the wind have abrasive power, and over a period of time it could weather rock surfaces.
When large masses of rocks get detached and fall down due to gravity, they get broken into
pieces at the foothills. The roots of plants enter the rock fractures and crevices exerting lateral
pressure and get broken in course of time.

Chemical weathering
Alterations to the chemical or mineralogical composition of rocks are known as chemical
weathering. During chemical weathering, minerals are decomposed into soluble and insoluble
products. Due to this weathering different minerals may occur. This weathering occurs as a
result of reaction with water, acids, bases, salts, etc.; as well as due to the action of organisms.
While the former is known as Geochemical weathering, the latter is known as Biochemical
weathering. Chemical weathering can occur as a result of processes, like dissolution, hydration,
hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, carbonation, and other acid reactions.
12  Disaster Management

Minerals are not ordinarily soluble in water. However, due to hundreds of years of wetting
in the presence of certain natural acids in water, the process of dissolution is accelerated. Due
to this minerals slowly dissolve in water. Hydration is the binding of water to the molecules
of minerals like iron and aluminium oxides. Hydrolysis is a process in which minerals get
decomposed effectively. During hydrolysis, water molecule gets splits into hydrogen and
hydroxyl ions. The hydrogen then replaces a cation from the mineral structure, whereby the
particular mineral becomes easily susceptible to decomposition by further hydrolysis or other
reactions. Oxidation and reduction are other process wherein certain minerals are weathered.
Carbonation is a biochemical weathering process. In this process, carbonic acid is
produced by the dissolution of CO2 in water. For this the CO2 available in the atmosphere,
or from microbial or root respiration process is made use of. The carbonic acid so produced
has the property of dissolving many minerals. Certain other inorganic and organic acids also
cause weathering. For instance, nitric acid is present in rainwater, and sulfuric acid is produced
through oxidation and hydrolysis of pyrites. Further, certain plants and their associated micro-
biota also cause weathering by modifying surrounding pH through the production of CO2 and
organic acids.
Different minerals weather at different speeds. Complex minerals weather easily. The
climatic conditions also influence weathering process. Chemical weathering is usually low in
areas having low water and temperature, as against warmer and moister areas. In humid tropical
areas the rate of weathering is high with weathered products lost quickly by leaching. This is
a continuous process and occurs even after formation of the parent material.

SOIL
In ordinary parlance soil is the surface layer of the land. It is a natural body that contains a
variable mixture of broken and weathered materials and decaying organic matter, which covers
the earth in a thin layer. It takes long period of time for the soil to form through the natural
process. The formation takes place from the weathering and decomposition of rocks and
minerals. Soil is a dynamic layer of earth’s crust which is constantly changing and developing.
The upper limit of soil is air or water and its lateral margins grade to deep water or barren
areas of rock or even ice. The lower limit is thought to be the lower limit of the common
rooting depth of respective native perennial plants. This lower limit is shallow in the deserts
and the tundra; and deep in humid tropics.
Soil develops from rocks and minerals, which can be considered as parent materials.
Rocks and minerals influences and determines the characteristics of the resulting soils. Soils
that are likely to develop from different rocks are provided in Table 2.2.
Soil is a natural resource that is renewable in nature. It serves as a natural medium,
wherein microbial activity happens. Soil provides nutrients for the growth of plants. Properties,
like texture, structure, permeability, water porosity, soil pH, nutrient (organic and inorganic)
contents, microbial property, etc. determines the fertility and the resultant productivity of the
soil. In addition to this, the topography, climate, biotic factors, etc. too contribute to the fertility.
Soil fertility is the quality of a soil that enables it to provide nutrients in adequate amounts
and balance, for the growth of plants. Soil fertility also plays a vital role in the determination
of the quality and composition of the biosphere (Sulphey and Safeer, 2015).
 Chapter 2 Lithosphere  13
Table 2.2 Different Types of Soil

S. No. Soil Details

1 Volcanic ash Volcanic ash is fine grained, and has the property of weathering relatively
easily. Plants invade a new deposit of volcanic ash quickly and colonise
it very fast. This could happen even within a few years’ time. The soils
that result from volcanic ash, known as Andisols, are fine textured. It
is fertile and normally rich in organic matter and plant nutrients. These
soils are likely to be found in places where there are active and recently
extinct volcanoes. It is estimated that these soils cover approximately
124 million ha of land (0.84 per cent of earth’s surface).
2 Granite Granite is a coarse-grained rock. It has about 25 per cent quartz and 65 per
cent orthoclase. It may also have small amounts of mica and hornblende.
Soils that develop from granite are usually sandy in nature. They are
normally low in nutrient content, with characteristics like being friable,
permeable, acidic, and low in base status. This soil has very little cohesion
or consolidation, and is highly susceptible to erosion.
3 Limestone Limestone rocks mainly contain calcite. They also have considerable
quantities of impurities of other carbonates, silt, clay, quartz, iron, and
so on. Soils that result from limestone are clayey. It could also be in the
form of clay loams and sandy loams.
4 Sandstone Sandstone mostly consists of sand sized quartz. It could also have impurities
such as feldspar and mica, and other agents, like silica, iron, and lime.
Soils that are formed from sandstone are not fertile, usually coarse textured
and acidic in nature. However, the characteristics of sandstone soils are
dependent on the particular type of sandstone—whether grain size or
mineralogical composition.
5 Basalt Basalt is fine textured in nature. It is rich in ferromagnesian and calcic
plagioclase minerals. Basalt gets weathered relatively easily to form fine-
grained clay minerals. The soils that originate from Basalt are fine textured
in nature. It has good amount of the minerals and has a high base status.

Functions of Soil

Soil accomplishes various functions, which include the following:

1. It provides mechanical support to the plant
2. It has the ability of holding water as it has the property of porosity. This ability
makes soil a reservoir of water.
3. Soil provides micro and macro nutrients, as well as ideal pH required for the growth
of the micro-organisms, plants and animals.
4. Soil prevents excessive leaching of nutrients.
5. Soil houses bacteria that fix nitrogen and other elements; fungi, protozoa and other
micro-organisms. These organisms aids in the decomposition of organic matter.
14  Disaster Management

Questions

1. Write an essay about plate movements.

2. Write a brief note about the composition of lithosphere.
3. Describe the weathering process.
4. What is soil? Write down the different types of soil.
5. What are the functions of soil?
 3
Atmosphere

LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE BASED ON

TEMPERATURE VARIATION
Based on the temperature, the atmosphere is divided into four parts:
1. Troposphere: The bottom dense part, containing 70 per cent of the mass, close to
the ground is troposphere. It reaches up to 11 km from the ground. Clouds, storms,
fog and haze are found only in troposphere. The temperature in this layer decreases
at about –6.4°C/km with height. This decrease of temperature with altitude is called
lapse rate. The boarder of troposphere is called Tropopause. Tropopause acts like a
lid over troposphere. Temperature stops decreasing with height from tropopause.
2. Stratosphere: This is a clear layer above troposphere that extends to a height of
about 50 km from earth’s surface. This layer does not have clouds, storms or dust.
Clouds are not formed since water vapour is absent. Ozonosphere is an important
layer found within stratosphere. Ozone (O3) is found in this layer. Ozone absorbs and
prevents the harmful ultraviolet radiations from reaching earth, thereby protecting life.
But for the ozone layer, life would not have been possible on earth. The maximum
concentration of ozone occurs at 22 km from the ground level.
Pollutants like Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used widely in refrigerators, air conditioners,
aerosol spray, and in the making of foam plastic containers can escape into the atmosphere
and destroy ozone, creating problems of untold proportions. It is estimated that one chlorine
molecule can destroy around 1,00,000 ozone molecules during its stay in the stratosphere. As
on date CFCs have created enough problems, whereby the ozone layer has been weakened
considerably.
The temperature increases with height in stratosphere. Due to this, vertical winds seldom
occur and only horizontal winds parallel to earth’s surface are seen. This property leads to
15
16  Disaster Management

absence of turbulence in this layer. This absence of turbulence and clouds ensures good visibility
and smooth travel for jet planes. It is often said that the flying of jet planes in this layer is partly
responsible for the destruction of sizable quantities of ozone. Above the stratosphere, there is a
small layer called Stratopause where temperature neither decreases nor increases with height.
3. Mesosphere: The portion of the atmosphere above stratosphere, between 50 km
and 80 km is known as mesosphere. It starts from the edge of Stratopause. Though
the temperature in mesosphere near stratosphere is higher by about 10°, it falls to
–75°C at 80 km. The density of air at this height is about 1/1000 as that of sea level.
Mesosphere plays a crucial role in radio communication as ionisation occurs here.
The sunlight passing through this layer converts individual molecules to charged
ions. These ionised particles are concentrated as a zone in this layer, which is named
D-layer. The D-layer reflects radio waves transmitted from earth. Just above the
mesosphere is a small layer called Mesopause, where temperature is stable.
4. Thermosphere: Thermosphere extends from 80 km to about 60,000 km from
earth. Here the temperature increases to about 2000°C. The property of thermosphere
is radically different from the others. Ions are abundant in thermosphere. It is in
thermosphere that most of the approaching meteoroids burn up before reaching earth.
Ionisation takes place in this layer also. Ionisation of molecules results in individual
charged ions, producing two ionised layers—E and F layers. These layers also have an
influence over ratio communication as it reflects radio waves. In the upper thermosphere, due
to higher concentration of ions, it is called Magnetosphere. Thermosphere has no definable
upper boundary and it gradually blends with the outer space.

DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER

Due to human activities ozone layer is becoming thin. The thinning of this layer is called ozone
depletion. Before detailing about depletion of ozone layer, it is imperative to know more about
Ozone-oxygen cycle.

Ozone-oxygen Cycle

The ozone layer is located in the lower part of the stratosphere between 15 km and 35 km.
Concentration of ozone is the maximum at about 25–30 km. At this altitude, it is 10 ppm.
Beyond this, it ranges between two to eight ppm. The level of ozone is maintained at this
level by Ozone-Oxygen Cycle. When ultra-violet radiation that emanates from the sun strikes
the oxygen molecule (O2), it splits the molecule into two individual oxygen atoms (O + O). The
oxygen atoms, thus produced, combines with O2 molecule and produce ozone molecule (O3).
This reaction is aided by either Nitrogen (N2) or Oxygen, which absorbs the excess energy that
is liberated. Ozone thus formed will be split by ultra-violet rays into a molecule of oxygen (O2)
and an atom of oxygen (O). It is through this repeated circular ozone and oxygen formation
that the concentration of ozone is maintained in the stratosphere. The concentration of ozone
in the atmosphere is determined by the rate of its formation and destruction in the above
 Chapter 3 Atmosphere  17
manner. Due to severe depletion of ozone in the atmosphere ‘ozone holes’ are created. Ozone
holes, which were discovered in 1985, are overhead areas having less than 220 Dobson Units
(DU). The chemistry of ozone depletion by CFCs, BFCs and Nitric oxides are now discussed.

Depletion by CFCs and BFCs

CFCs and BFCs are stable compounds in the atmosphere that have the property of living longer
(50 to 100 years). Due to their long life, they rise up to the stratosphere. Through the action
of UV radiation from the Sun on these compounds, Chlorine (Cl) and Bromine (Br) radicals
are released. These radicals act as catalysts, and initiate breaking down of ozone molecules.
It is estimated that a single such radical of either Cl or Br is capable of breaking down over
a lakh of ozone molecules. Due to this action, Ozone concentration is decreasing at a drastic
rate of four per cent per decade. As a result of the inherent long life of CFCs and BFCs, they
continue to deplete ozone layer in a recurrent manner. As more and more of such materials
are released Ozone depletion occurs at a much faster pace.
Realising the seriousness of the problems created by CFCs and BFCs, countries initiated
steps to either completely ban or phase out their use. Sweden was the first country to ban
aerosol sprays that contained CFCs, as early as in 1978. Certain other countries also voluntarily
emulated Sweden. On discovering the Ozone hole in 1985, countries came together and signed
an international treaty at Montreal, in 1987. This treaty, known as Montreal Protocol, decided
to completely phase out CFCs by the year 1996. It also set the goal of cutting emissions of
CFCs by about 35 per cent between 1989 and 2000. The Montreal Protocol was followed
up by Copenhagen Protocol. Representatives of large number of countries met in 1992 at
Copenhagen in Denmark, and agreed to phase out ozone depleting chemicals. This treaty is
known as Copenhagen Protocol. In this protocol they decided to completely eliminate CFCs
from all over the globe including developing countries by the year 2010. The positive result of
the various efforts by the world community was evident by 2003, and scientists could announce
that the depletion of ozone layer has slowed down considerably due to the ban on CFCs. This
announcement by the scientists was done on August 2, 2003.

Depletion by Nitric Oxide

It is worth noting the chemistry as to how Nitric oxides deplete Ozone. One molecule of nitric
oxide (NO) combines with ozone (O3); it gets oxidised to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Oxygen
(O2). This NO2 combines with another O3 molecule to become NO3 (Nitrate) and O2. The
NO2 and NO3 then combine to form N2O5 (Dinitrogen pentoxide). Even the atomic oxygen
(O) readily combines with NO2 to yield NO3. Thus, due to this series of actions and reactions
ozone is completely utilised, and thereby depleted. Large quantities of nitrogen are emitted
by aircrafts that fly near stratosphere. Realising the seriousness of the issue, the international
community decided to withdraw the operation of jet aircrafts that emit oxides of nitrogen. This
step has also helped in reducing the depletion of ozone to a very large extent.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Certain physical processes that take place in the troposphere are responsible for the weather
18  Disaster Management

and climate of that particular place. These processes are studied in Meteorology. For a better
understanding of Green House Effect a few basic principles of Meteorology is dealt with in
the following sections. Of particular interest is the incoming and outgoing solar radiation.

Incoming Solar Radiation

Atmosphere behaves like a complex mega heat engine. A large number of processes like air
movements (storms and cyclones), evaporation and formation of clouds, precipitation, etc. take
place in the atmosphere. The incoming solar radiation (insolation) supplies the required energy
and drives these processes. Only two-billionth of the solar energy reaches Earth, of which
only a small portion is responsible for the physical and biological processes. Sun also emits
solar winds consisting of charged particles like plasma, magnetic fields, etc. Solar winds could
interfere with radio communication, disturb magnetic field of earth, and knock out power grids.
Insolation contains X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet (UV) rays, visible light, infrared
rays, microwaves, radio waves, and the like. Of all the energy received by earth; UV, visible
and infrared portions constitute over 95 per cent. The harmful UV radiation is prevented
from reaching earth by the ozone layer. Parts of the long waves within the solar radiation are
absorbed in the troposphere. The solar radiation which ultimately reaches the earth comprises
mainly of visible light, which is composed of seven colours.
The radiation can be incoming solar radiation as well as the outgoing radiation emitted
by the earth’s surface. While travelling through the atmosphere, a portion of the radiation
energy is reflected by clouds, and some are scattered and absorbed by gases and particles.
The scattered radiation that reaches earth is called diffuse radiation. Of the diffuse radiation
that finally reaches earth’s surface, based on the surface characteristics, substantial quantity is
reflected back. The solar radiation that is reflected back is called albedo. As stated earlier, the
albedo is based on the surface characteristics. For instance, the albedos of a water body, land
area, forest area, desert area, built area, etc. vary significantly. The emission and the reemission
constitute something called radiation balance.
It is estimated that on average, only 31 per cent directly reaches the earth’s surface
through direct radiation. Out of this about 30 per cent is reflected by the atmosphere to the
outer space. Clouds and dust particles reflect approximately 25 per cent and about 5 per cent
respectively. Around 17 per cent of the energy is absorbed by clouds and gaseous molecules.
Only a small quantity of the scattered radiation (22 per cent) reaches earth’s surface. This
radiation is called diffuse radiation. Thus, on an average, 53 per cent of the solar radiation
(both direct and diffuse) reaches earth.

Outgoing Radiation
If the entire energy that is received by earth is retained in its surface, the planet would be
very hot and would become an inhabitable place. The earth, after heating up of its surface,
reflects a certain amount of energy. Some of this heat energy is transmitted to the upper layers
of air through conduction. The conduction will in turn initiate convection in the air above the
earth’s surface. The heat energy so emitted from the earth’s surface is in the form of long
wave radiation, and is called outgoing radiation.
 Chapter 3 Atmosphere  19
While a portion of the outgoing radiation is absorbed by certain gases in the atmosphere
and retained as heat energy, the remaining energy escapes into the outer space. Gases capable
of absorbing outgoing radiation are CO2, CO, water vapour, etc. They are called Green House
Gases (GHG). The amount of radiation absorbed is in direct proportion to the concentration of
gases. Due to the effect of GHGs Earth is prevented from cooling down drastically. GHGs thus
act like a blanket and provide earth with an ideal climate for life to flourish. This process is
known as Green house effect. But for this effect, life would not have been possible on Earth.
The intensity of Green house effect varies from place to place depending upon the concentration
of GHGs. For instance, the quantity of vapour and carbon dioxide is less in dry places like
deserts. The usage of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen is high in places were like
forests where trees are in abundance.

WEATHER
When radiation from insolation strikes earth, its top layer gets heated. The heat energy so
created through the interplay of insolation and outgoing radiation is transferred to the overlying
areas through activities like conduction and convection. Due to this, as well as the movement
of earth, air moves in all directions—both horizontally and vertically. This movement of air is
the basis of weather. Weather is the atmospheric conditions that exist for a short duration which
can span over few hours to a number of days. Weather conditions can fluctuate very often.
The average weather or atmospheric conditions over a fairly long period of time like months,
years or even decades; in a particular area is called climate. Before discussing in detail about
climate, certain other phrases, like temperature, humidity, precipitation, etc. that are important
in the knowledge of climate are presented in the following sections.

Temperature

Temperature is the index of heat that is sensible. It indicates the kinetic energy of molecules,
or the speed at which the molecules moves. While in air and water molecules keep on moving
and change their location very often, in solids the molecules involve in a vibration movement
it their place. The speed at which this vibration takes place is described as temperature. A
body having higher temperature has the property of transmitting it to another one having lower
temperature. Temperature is measured using thermometer, and is reported in either Celsius,
Kelvin or Fahrenheit scales.

Temperature variations in troposphere

The earth’s temperature varies in an altitudinal and horizontal manner in the troposphere. A
fair knowledge about this variation is ideal to understand more about weather and climates.
1. Altitudinal variation: In the troposphere, temperature decreases with height. It
decreases at a rate of –6.4°C/km. This rate at which temperature decreases with
height is called lapse rate. The lapse rate is not uniform and it varies due to different
conditions like pollution in the atmosphere.
20  Disaster Management

2. Horizontal temperature variation: Temperature varies at different times of the day

at different locations due to various reasons and factors. It also varies at different
months and seasons of the year. A few reasons for this variation are discussed as
follows:
(a) The hour of the day: More solar energy is received during the noon, when sun’s
rays strike vertically overhead; than hours in the morning hours, when the rays
strike at angles.
(b) Insolation: The phenomenon of day and night occurs as a result of the revolution
and rotation of earth. Due to revolution one half of the globe is exposed to sunlight
and the other half is in darkness. The area illuminated by sunlight keeps changing
as earth rotates on its axis. Thus, the quantum of insolation or incoming solar
radiation is based on rotation and revolution. The temperature of any given area
is based on the insolation of that area. The length of daylight and the angle at
which the rays fall on earth also determine the amount of insolation and hence
the temperature of that particular area.
(c) Distance from the equator: The sun rays strike in perpendicular manner on the
equator. Near to the poles it strikes at an angle. Due to this, areas farther away
from equator will experience lesser temperature as compared to the areas near
the equator.
(d) The tilt of the axis: The earth’s axis is tilted at angle of 66½ degrees to the plane
of the ecliptic. This tilt is maintained throughout its orbit. This tilting of the axis
leads to seasonal variations. The northern hemisphere tilts maximum towards the
sun on June 22. Due to this, the months closer to June are summer months in this
hemisphere. During this period, the northern hemisphere receives greater amount
of solar energy, and hence, higher temperature. On December 22, the reverse
occurs, and the southern hemisphere is tilted to the maximum towards the sun.
As a result of this, the southern hemisphere will receive maximum amounts of
solar energy. This variation determines the length of the daytime over a particular
place. Places near to the equator receive more solar energy resulting in higher
temperature.
(e) The surface: The heating of earth’s surface differs according to the type of the
surface in an area. For instance, rocky surfaces get heated rapidly, while water
takes considerably long time to get heated up. In the same way, rocky surfaces
loose heat rapidly as against water which loose heat slowly. In any given place,
different types of surfaces exist. Hence, there will be a mixture of heating and
cooling properties.
The weather of a place at any given point of time is determined based on the above
conditions.

Wind
Wind is the movement of air. Wind is generated through a complex process that includes
conduction, convection and the rotation of earth.
 Chapter 3 Atmosphere  21
Conduction and convection
Air in the surroundings is heated due to the solar energy received by the surface. When the
overlying air molecules are heated, it becomes less dense and move upward. This is called
conduction. As the heated air moves up the relatively cool air in the surroundings move in
to occupy the space vacated by the hot air. In this way, the heat energy is transferred by air
currents. This process is known as convection.

Wind formation
As seen in the earlier sections, the solar radiation received by earth is not uniform. The radiation
and the consequent temperature are dependent on the altitude, latitude, type of surface, etc.
Through the variations in the reception in solar radiation, and the interplay between conduction
and convection, air gets either heated or cooled differently at different areas. This difference
in heating also leads to varying pressures. As the surface gets heated, the heat is transferred to
the overlying air, and it becomes light. The light air tends to move upward, and the pressure in
the area becomes low. Air from high pressure area moves in to occupy the low pressure area.
At this point of time, the overlying air will sink. The ascended air will then move towards
the area from where the air is sinking. These movements make possible the circulation of air
vertically. Further, the air over water surfaces will be cooler than that of land surfaces. Due
to this temperature difference, air over the water will be denser than that of land. This will
trigger a movement of air from water surface towards the land surfaces. Since land gets cooled
faster during night time, the opposite will occur and air from land will move towards areas
where there is water. As stated earlier, the variations in the surface make the air to be heated
differently depending on the surface characteristics. The temperatures will also vary accordingly,
generating horizontal movement of air. Large scale horizontal movement of air is called wind.
Wind is a medium by which the higher amount of solar energy received in the lower
altitudes are transferred to higher altitudes where the reception of energy is less. In addition
to this the rotation of earth on its axis also aid in the formation of winds and its circulation.
Winds are of different types. They include sea-land breeze, mountain-valley winds, and other
local winds.
1. Sea-land breeze: The solar radiation heats the water surface and land surface
differently. The insolation heats both the land surface and water surface during day
time. However, due to the peculiar heating property of the land and water surface,
the air over water surfaces will be cooler than that of land surfaces. Due to this
temperature difference, air over the water will be denser than that of land. This will
trigger a movement of air from water surface towards the land surfaces. Since land
gets cooled fast, during night time, the opposite will occur and air from land will
move towards areas where there is water. This movement of air is called sea-land
breeze.
2. Mountain-valley winds: When there is a clear night sky on the mountains, lands
in high altitude cools down. This leads to cooling or the overlying air. This cool air
which is dense in nature tends to slide down the slopes towards the valleys and other
low lands surrounding the mountains. This flow of air is called mountain breeze. Due
22  Disaster Management

to the action of mountain breeze, the mornings in the valley bottom becomes colder
than the hillsides. During the day time, the mountain slopes, and consequently the
overlying air gets heated up. The heated air will move up the mountain slope towards
the top. This flow of air from the slopes to the top of the mountains is called valley
breeze. The slopes are subsequently replaced by the cooler air from the valley.
3. Gravity winds: These winds occur on steep mountain slopes. Due to the action of
gravity, the dense cold air from higher altitudes moves down steep slopes. Known
as gravity winds, they could be prominent during clear conditions, when there is a
steep low lying terrain over edges of highlands. Gravity winds could be destructive
at times.
There are various other types of local winds. For instance, winds are generated when air
passes through mountain terrains. When the air moves up the terrain, the moister content is
lost. When the dry warm wind that has lost its moister crosses and slides down the other side
of the mountain, it gathers relatively high velocities and could reach over 100 km/hour. Such
winds are found to occur in many places in India including Western Ghats.

Cyclone

The atmospheric pressure in a given area has an important role to play with respect to the
formation of a cyclone. When a flow of air moves along curved isobars,1 a net centripetal
acceleration pulls it toward the centre of a curvature, making the air to rotate. Such wind (called
gradient wind) is called cyclone. If the movement of the gradient wind is in the anticlockwise
direction in the northern hemisphere, it is called cyclone and anticyclone in southern hemisphere.
In the southern hemisphere, the clockwise motion of gradient wind is called cyclone and
anticyclone in northern hemisphere. During a cyclone, the surface air moves towards the centre
having low pressure and hence converges. The converged air has the property of ascending in
the centre within the low pressure area. The reverse happens in a high pressure area. Air tends
to sink in the centre of a high pressure area during anticyclones. Thus, while during cyclones
air rises at the centre, air descends at the centre during an anticyclone.

Atmospheric Circulations

When Earth rotates on its axis, the rotation causes the deflection in the wind flow due to
Coriolis force.2 In addition to this a low pressure belt is formed over the tropical regions,
since the equatorial region is heated throughout the year. This belt is called the Inter-Tropical

1. The atmospheric pressure keeps varying either little by little or drastically while moving from place to
place. The line that connects the areas having equal pressure is known as isobar. A wider area could have
several isobars, with each isobar denoting a particular pressure value. The position of these isobars may
also vary over a wide area.
2. The Coriolis force is an apparent curving of a wind flow. The earth spins counterclockwise when viewed
from the North Pole and clockwise when viewed from the South Pole. Due to this difference, the Coriolis
deflection is opposite in the different hemispheres. This Coriolis force is a maximum at the poles and is
minimum at the equator.
 Chapter 3 Atmosphere  23
Convergent Zone (ITCZ). This zone is also known as doldrums. This is not a conspicuous
belt, but a discontinuous one that fluctuates in its position and intensity, where air rises due
to low pressure. Though the air that rises from this belt flows towards the pole, it descends
at around latitudes of 30° N and 30° S. Two high pressure belts called Subtropical Highs are
created at these latitudes due to the descending air. This descended air diverges, with one
part of air flowing towards ITCZ and the other flowing towards the poles. This air that flows
towards the equator is deflected to its right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere. These airflows are termed northeast trade winds and southeast trade
winds, respectively.
The air that flows toward the poles from subtropical highs are deflected by Coriolis
force and become west to east blowing winds (also known as Westerlies). These winds then
form broad mid-latitude belts between 30° and 60° in both the hemispheres. Since in the
Polar Regions the air is dense and cool, there are high pressure areas centering over these
regions. This is known as Polar Highs. Air from the high pressure areas of polar highs move
towards the equator. This air is deflected by Coriolis force, and they flow from east to west.
This west flowing wind is called Polar Easterlies. The Easterlies meet the Westerlies near the
60° latitude in both the hemispheres, converge and ascend. The converging area is known as
Polar Front. When the winds ascend, it creates a low pressure belt in the region. This low
pressure area is known as Upper-Mid Latitude Low. Though the above circulation pattern is
the idealised model, the actual circulation pattern is complex in nature. This complexity arises
due to various factors. While the northern hemisphere is occupied by two massive land masses,
the southern hemisphere is mostly ocean. The land masses exposed to solar radiation will be
heated up rapidly. This difference in temperature will result in the production of individual
pressure cells, rather than the uniform low and high pressure belts that circle the globe. These
individual pressure cells are termed ‘semi-permanent highs and lows’. There are five semi-
permanent highs—two over northern hemisphere and three over southern hemisphere. The highs
on the northern hemisphere are Bermuda High (over Atlantic Ocean) and Hawaiian high (over
Pacific Ocean). Those in the southern hemisphere are over South Pacific Ocean, South Atlantic
Ocean and the Indian Ocean. Due to the change in solar heating over continents and oceans,
the semi-permanent highs also shift their position with the sun.
Further, the ITCZ also does not exist as a continuous belt. It keeps on shifting with
the vertical position of the sun. This shift may not be prominent over the oceans as water
bodies tend to respond slowly to solar heating. While the ITCZ is located near 25° N in July
over the continents, the shift may not occur over oceans. The migration of ITCZ to southern
hemisphere occurs in January. Since this hemisphere is predominantly water, the migration
to the south is less pronounced. The migration of ITCZ is severe over Africa and Australia,
as compared to South America. The migration is very less over the oceans of the southern
hemisphere.
The Polar Regions have a contrasting picture. Land masses are not found on the Arctic
region, while it is present in the Antarctic region. The Arctic is an ocean that is covered with
ice. Since the water responds slowly to solar heat, the land masses near to the Arctic region
(Eurasia and North America) cool down faster than the North Pole. Due to this cooling, two
highs exist over the land masses during winter—the Canadian High over north-western Canada
and the Siberian High over northern Asia. However, since the South Pole is dominated by the
24  Disaster Management

land mass of Antarctica, the polar high exists over this region as in the idealised model. Two
cells of Upper-Mid Latitude Lows exist in Northern Hemisphere during January—the Aleutian
Low over the north-eastern Pacific off Alaska and the Icelandic Low over North Atlantic.
These cells disintegrate during summer. However, in the southern hemisphere, the Upper-Mid
Latitude Lows exist both in winter and in summer.

THE INDIAN MONSOON

Monsoon is a regional wind that blows towards land at a certain season and blow from the
landmasses during other season. These wind blows in the opposite direction in summer and
winter. Though monsoon winds blow over all parts of the world, it is well-developed over
India and the South-east Asian regions. It would be ideal to understand this phenomenon. The
Indian subcontinent has two monsoons—the South West and the North East.

South-West Monsoon

The south-east trade winds originate from the southern hemisphere in the Indian Ocean. When
these winds cross the equator, they get deflected towards the right by the Coriolis force,
becoming the south-west trade winds. These winds gather large quantities of moisture as they
pass over the Indian Ocean. As the SW monsoon winds approaches the Indian Peninsula, they
are diverted into two—the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch. When the
moisture laden Arabian Sea branch reaches the south-western side of India, they are blocked by
the Western Ghats. When the mountain range blocks the horizontal flow, the wind ascends along
the slope of the mountain range, gets cooled down and form clouds. These clouds then results
in precipitation. Kerala gets the south-west monsoon mostly during early June every year. The
advancing Arabian Sea branch gradually reaches north up to Maharashtra and Gujarat coastal
regions gradually. The Bay of Bengal branch reaches north and encounters the Himalayan
Mountains. These winds then take a west turn and continue their journey, and spread over the
northern parts of India bringing in rains to these areas. Monsoon winds normally reach Delhi
in the first week of July and could last till end September/early October.

North-Eastern Monsoon

The ITCZ moves to the south of the equator, when the position of the sun shifts to the
southern hemisphere. This leads to the reversal of winds, and the winds start blowing from the
northeastern direction towards the ITCZ. These winds are known as the north-east monsoon
winds or the north-east trade winds. Since North-East winds originate mainly from the land
masses of the north-east region of India, they are relatively dry. When these winds pass over
the Bay of Bengal towards south, they gather moisture and cause rainfalls over parts of Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Cyclone formation is common over Bay of Bengal during the
north-east monsoon season. The cyclones also bring in abundant rainfall over Odisha, Andhra
Pradesh, Telengana and Tamil Nadu.
 Chapter 3 Atmosphere  25
Humidity

The amount of water vapour available in the air is called humidity. The level of humidity will
be high in places near water bodies. When water in liquid form becomes gaseous and enters
the atmosphere from water bodies or from subsoil, the process is known as evaporation. The
rate of evaporation is determined by the vapour pressure, the temperature and the movement of
air. Water also enters the atmosphere through the process of transpiration by plants. Humidity
has an important role to play in determining the weather of an area. High level of humidity
will lead to a kind of discomfort in humans known as sultry. Discomfort is also caused if the
atmosphere is dry with little or no humidity as in the case of deserts.
The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere varies depending on a number of factors
like the place, the time of the day, the season, and so on. The quantity of water vapour also
varies according to the temperature and pressure in the area. The amount of water vapour
present in the atmosphere is expressed in various ways. Some of them are:
1. Specific humidity: The ratio of the mass of water vapour in the air to a unit mass
of air, including the water vapour, is known as specific humidity. For instance, the
specific humidity is 10 g/kg if one kg of air contains 10 g of water vapour.
2. Relative humidity: Relative humidity is the ratio of water vapour present in a
unit mass of air to the maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold. For
instance, if one kg of air contains nine g of water vapour, with a maximum holding
capacity of 12 g at a given temperature and pressure, then the relative humidity is
75 per cent.
3. Mixing ratio: The amount of water vapour in one unit mass of dry air (including
the vapour) is known as mixing ratio. For example, if 10 g of water vapour is present
in one kg of dry air, then the mixing ratio is 10 g per kg.
The water vapour, on being lifted to higher altitudes form clouds. When the clouds gain
more and more vapour they get saturated, and beyond a point of time the water will start
falling down. The changing of water from its vapour state to liquid, it is called condensation.
The process of condensed water falling down is called precipitation. Precipitation can be solid
or liquid.
Precipitation occurs in various forms like rain, drizzle, snow, hail, etc. Certain portion of
the precipitated water runs as streams and ultimately reaches the ocean. Certain other portion
infiltrates into the ground to and is known as groundwater. A portion is also stored in natural
or artificial reservoirs like dams, lakes, ponds, tanks, etc. The various forms of precipitation
as presented above are different from each other. They include:
1. Rain: Precipitation having large liquid water droplets is known as rain. The diameter
of rain drops normally range from less than 1 mm to 5 mm.
2. Drizzle: Precipitation of minute droplets of water, which is uniform in diameter of
less than 0.5 mm is known as drizzle.
3. Snow: Precipitation formed when the temperature is extremely low, with large
crystals of ice called snow-flakes is known as snow. Due to extremely low temperature,
these crystals do not have the required time to melt before reaching ground.
26  Disaster Management

4. Hail: Hail is precipitation in the form of ice pellets, formed by a complex process.
These ice pellets are known as hail stones.
5. Sublimation: The process wherein water bypasses the liquid state and become
vapour directly from ice or vice versa is called sublimation. Sublimation will require
specific conditions to occur. For instance, sublimation occurs when dry air having
temperature below the freezing point comes in contact with ice and some molecules
of water from ice directly becomes vapour. When this vapour comes in contact with
cold surface, which is below the freezing point, the vapour would become ice.
The complex process wherein water is evaporated, clouds are formed, precipitated, the
subsequent runoff, and its collection in various natural or artificial reservoirs is known as
the hydrological cycle.

Questions

1. Detail the layers of atmosphere based on temperature.

2. What do you know about Ozone layer?
3. Write a note about CFCs and BFCs.
4. What is Green House Effect?
5. What is radiation balance?
6. Write a short note about temperature.
7. How does temperature vary in the troposphere?
8. Write an essay about conduction and convection.
9. What do you know about wind formation?
10. What are atmospheric circulations?
11. Write a short note about cyclone.
12. Write about the phenomenon of Indian monsoons.
13. Write a detailed note about humidity.
 4
Hydrosphere

INTRODUCTION
As mentioned in Chapter 1, hydrosphere forms over 70 per cent of the earth’s surface. In
terms of area, it comes to 3,62,000 km2. Water is found in the oceans as well as on land.
Life is made possible on earth due to the availability of water. The hydrosphere has a direct
influence on weather and climate conditions on Earth. This occurs due to the important role
played by the worldwide oceanic circulations. The oceanic circulations as discussed in detail
elsewhere in this chapter.
The ocean bottom slopes gradually downward from the shore to a depth of about
130 m before dropping more rapidly. This sharp change in steepness marks the change from
the continental shelf to continental slope. The average depth of oceans is around 3.7 km. The
floor of the oceans has mountain ranges and valleys, isolated volcanic peaks, and vast plains.
Many of these mountain ranges and valleys exceed in size of their counterparts on land. As
on date, less than 10 per cent of the ocean floor has been surveyed.
Water has a number of unique properties like high heat capacity, dissolving capacity, etc.
These properties are made possible due to its molecular structure. A water molecule consists
of two atoms of Hydrogen that are bound to an oxygen atom. These three atoms are aligned
in such a way that they form a triangle. The charge of each molecule of water is not evenly
distributed. It is a sort of polar in nature, and acts as a dipole with the negative end closer to
the oxygen atom and the positive end between the two hydrogen atoms. This structure is the
reason for water having unusual properties like high heat capacity, the high heat of evaporation,
and the density maximum above its freezing point of pure water. It has much higher freezing
as well as boiling point. Water has the highest heat capacity of all solids and liquids, next
only to liquid NH3. Due to these properties water has a large thermal buffer capacity. It is this
capacity that helps the oceans to act as a climate thermostat, and enable them to absorb and
carry huge amounts of heat. Further, water is capable of dissolving many substances, thereby
making the basic chemical reactions that make life possible.
27
28  Disaster Management

WATER IN OCEANS
Water in oceans is saline in nature. This salinity occurs due to the dissolved materials (mainly
salts) contained in it. The mean salinity of seawater is around 34.7 g kg–1. The lowest value
being 33 and highest being 36 g kg–1. Though sea water contains a mixture of several dissociated
salts, NaCl is the most important one. Additional salts are always added to the oceans through
various processes. However, seawater salinity is stable due to various mechanisms that remove
salt from the oceans. Salt is lost to the atmosphere when wind blows sprays of sea water.
The salt particles in the atmosphere enable water molecules to stick to it, and this falls on
the land with rain and snow. Salinity is also reduced through the incorporation of its various
compounds in the shells of marine organisms, which later become part of the sediments that
cover ocean floors. An interaction of all these processes helps in maintaining the stability of
sea water salinity.
It is estimated that sea water has been saline since millions of years (residence time1).
However, there are significant local variations of salinity due to various reasons. This could
include conditions like evaporation of water (wherein salinity would be high), precipitations
and arrival of fresh water from land (wherein salinity would be reduced), ice freezing, etc.
The oceans of the hydrosphere provide the reservoir from which water is evaporated
into the atmosphere. This water precipitates as rain and snow, and falls on land. The oceans
also participate in the complex oxygen–carbon dioxide cycle. Oceans also influence climates
through their ability to absorb solar energy and transfer it around the world through ‘oceanic
circulations’.

Oceanic Circulations

Water in oceans is constantly in movement in regular patterns due to the activity of winds.
These movements of water in oceans are called ocean circulations or ocean currents. These
currents arise due to the interplay of wind and water. The speed of ocean currents is much
slower than air currents (the maximum speed that a current can reach is about 10 km/h). Most
of the wind-driven surface currents occur parallel to the major wind systems. For instance, the
northeast and southeast trade winds drive water westward along the equator. This is known as
the equatorial current. In the Atlantic Ocean, the equatorial current flows into South America.
In the Pacific Ocean this current flows into the East Indies. On reaching these places both
these currents divide into two parts, with one flowing south and the other north. These currents
move away from the equator through the continental edges. These currents are then influenced
by the westerlies, and due to this they flow eastward across the oceans. Due to this movement
gigantic whirlpools occur in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans on both sides of the equator.
These whirlpools are influenced by aspects, like the presence of islands, continental projections,
undersea mountains and valleys.

1. Residence time is an estimated average time that a salt ion that has entered the ocean remains in it before
it leaves it again. Salt can leave oceans either by the formation of salt deposits or as salt spray through
the action of winds.
 Chapter 4 Hydrosphere  29
The pace and direction of the circulations are determined by various factors. They
include the structure and strength of the wind systems, the regional distribution of precipitation
patterns, the heat exchange with the atmosphere and the shape of the sea floor. These factors
are instrumental in the stratification, circulation and the formation of global water masses.
Stratification and circulation in the upper areas are crucial for the penetration of heat into the
ocean. Formation of water mass in the higher latitudes works to control the oceanic uptake
of CO2 through the sea surface. This process directly influences the radiative forcing in the
atmosphere.
Globally, ocean currents can be divided into large horizontal gyres, circulating in the
ocean basins, and an overturning vertical circulation in the meridional realm. A combination
of these circulations act like a huge conveyor belt that constantly distributes heat, nutrients,
sediments and traces of chemicals around the world ocean.
The ocean currents are known by some specific names. Some of them are as follows:

Gulf Stream
Gulf Stream is an intense, warm ocean current in the western North Atlantic Ocean. It starts
in the Gulf of Mexico, and flows into the Atlantic at the tip of Florida. It accelerates while
moving along the eastern coastlines of US and Newfoundland. This ocean current moves
north along the coast of Florida, and then turns eastward of North Carolina, flowing northeast
across the Atlantic. It transports significant amount of warm water towards the pole. This
current affects the climate of the areas closest to it by transferring tropical heat to the northern
latitudes. Scientists fear that global warming would severely affect the Gulf Stream. They fear
that melting glaciers will pass on cold water into the current and disrupt its flow. In the event
of the Gulf Stream not delivering the warmth, Northern Europe could enter into a new ice age.

The Canary Current

The Canary Current, named after the Canary Islands (which block its flow) is part of a
clockwise-setting ocean-current system of the Northern Atlantic. It is a wind-driven surface
current, which is part of the North Atlantic Gyre. It branches in a southward direction from the
North Atlantic Current, flowing south-westward through the north-west coast of Africa. As the
current flows around the Canary Islands, it helps in lessening the heating effect of Sahara to
the east. On reaching Senegal it turns westward to join the Atlantic North Equatorial Current.

North equatorial current

North equatorial current is a Pacific and Atlantic ocean current that flows east-to-west across
the Pacific, just North of the equator. It is the southern side of a clockwise subtropical gyre.

South equatorial current

South equatorial current is an equatorial current that flows west across the Pacific Ocean, at
about 20° south of the equator. It extends from the surface of the ocean to a nominal depth
of about 100 m.
30  Disaster Management

West wind drift

The west wind drift is a current that flows clockwise from west to east around Antarctica.
This current is also known as Antarctic Circumpolar Current. This is one of the largest ocean
current, connecting Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans; serving as a pathway of exchange.

Oceans as Moderator of Climate

Oceanic circulations have a profound and significant influence in heating up the globe, and
hence, its climate. When water moves up from the colder and deeper parts of the ocean to the
warmer surface, the heat is carried with it. Due to the interplay of various factors, the ocean
water moves around the globe, and with it the heat or cold is transferred. This heat transfer
plays a major role in impacting earth’s climate. When extremes of incidents, like rainfall or
droughts occur, the normal path of the ocean current can be disturbed and climate change
could occur. The phenomenon of El Niño is a classic example of the impact of changes in the
path of ocean currents. The oceans play a multifold role in the Earth’s climate system. It plays
both short- and long-term roles on the climate system. The short-term role is evident in the
close correspondence that oceans have between the surface temperature and the air temperature
close to the ground. The so called thermal inertia’ of the great water masses also works to
slow down climatic changes. The long-term role played by the oceans is evident from the heat
distributions around the globe. Oceans determine climates through absorbing solar energy and
transferring it around the world through the surface currents.

Oceans as Heat Reservoir

Oceans play a role of a heat reservoir, moderating extreme temperatures. This occurs through a
complex process. The water in the upper portion of oceans store higher heat than in the entire
atmosphere. During spring and summer seasons, the oceans are cooler than the nearby lands.
During winters oceans are warmer than the land masses. Due to this temperature difference
in sea and land there is heat energy transfer from land to water and vice-versa. This energy
transfer could exceed the solar energy that arrives at earth. Since the interiors of continents are
lacking such a heat reservoir, they have lower temperature in winters and higher temperatures
in summers than coastal areas. The heat transfer processes in the oceans occurs on a broad
range of time scales. The interactive processes in the upper layer of the ocean takes place in
shorter periods—may be a few days, weeks or months. The major heat redistribution processes
between the massive warm equatorial water masses and the cold water of the deep ocean in
the Polar Regions occurs over decades or even centuries.

Oceans as Carbon Reservoir

The oceans are the largest carbon reservoirs of Earth. Periodically, it gives off large amounts
of carbon into the atmosphere. Through certain biological and chemical exchange processes it
plays an important role in carbon cycle. For instance, certain amount of carbon is deposited
 Chapter 4 Hydrosphere  31
routinely on the sea bed through dead organisms and their calcified shells. The large surface
area of oceans also has a major role to play with respect to carbon cycle. Though the water near
the surface of the oceans has a quasi-equilibrium with the atmosphere, the ocean is normally
inert to the increase in atmospheric CO2. The oceans withdraw CO2 permanently only when
the carbon chemically or biologically bound in the surface water, sinks to lower levels in the
ocean and gets buried in the sediments.

Oceans and Sea Ice

The sea ice plays an important element in the Earth’s climate system. The polar ice extends
between 17 and 27 million km2, depending on the seasons. It covers around one-tenth
(15.7 × 106 km2) of the land area and 6.5 per cent (23.0 × 106 km2) of the oceans. Of the total
ice, about 90 per cent (1.4 × 106 km2) is located in the Antarctic as ice shelf,2 nine per cent
in the Greenland ice sheet,3 and the balance in the various glaciers around the world
(0.24 × 106 km2). In winter, the snow covers approximately 50 per cent of the land surface in
the Northern Hemisphere. Though the average salinity of sea water is 34.7 g/kg, the salt content
of sea ice is only 5 g/kg. During the freezing process in the ocean, a substantial quantity of
salt is released into the ocean. Due to the release of salts, the surface water becomes heavier
and sinks to the ocean floor. This makes the warmer and less heavy water from the deeper
ocean layers to rises to the surface. This exchange of water between the surface and bottom
layers acts as a ventilator, supplying O2 and nutrients to the surrounding waters. Due to these
operations polar oceans are considered as the ‘lungs’ of the world ocean.
Another important property of sea ice is its higher reflection capacity, which helps in
maintaining the radiation balance of Earth. In the tropics, moisture and heat are exchanged
between the ocean and atmosphere through evaporation and precipitation. In the Polar Regions,
it occurs through the seasonal freezing and melting of sea ice. It has been established that
there is a positive correlation between the state of the ice caps and the global sea level. It is
estimated that if all the ice in Greenland and Antarctica is to suddenly melt, the sea would
rise to an approximate height of 70 m. Similarly, if all the water vapour in the atmosphere
were to condense, it would raise the sea level to about 2.5 cm. The mountain glaciers play an
important role as regional water suppliers. These glaciers can also be considered as powerful
and sensitive indicators of global climate changes.

WATER ON LAND
Fresh water constitutes the basis for life on land. On land, water is found in all the three
states. In liquid form, the water is found in lakes, rivers and streams and also as ground water

2. Residence time is an estimated average time that a salt ion that has entered the ocean remains in it before
it leaves it again. Salt can leave oceans either by the formation of salt deposits or as salt spray through
the action of winds. Though the process of melting and freezing at their base.
3. Ice sheets grow through the processes of accumulation and compression of snow. There are two large ice
sheets on Earth—the Greenland Ice Sheet and the Antarctic Ice Sheet. While the former has a height of
approximately 3000 m, the later is more than 4000 m. Because of their high albedo they have a significant
impact on the global energy balance.
32  Disaster Management

and soil moisture. The water found in these sources is fresh in nature. In solid form water is
found as glacial ice, ice caps and ground ice (in permafrost areas). The fresh water in earth is
perpetually being interchanged between the surface of the earth and atmosphere by a process of
evaporation and precipitation. This interchange is known as water cycle or hydrological cycle.
In the hydrological cycle, solar energy causes water from the oceans to evaporate and
move up to the atmosphere as water vapour. Evaporation also takes place from inland water
bodies like lakes, rivers, streams, etc. The evaporated water rises to the upper layers of the
atmosphere, where it is cooled and condensed. The condensed water falls back to the earth as
precipitation. Rain, snow and dew are different forms of precipitation. The water that falls on
the earth runs along the ground and flows into rivers and in turn returns to the sea. A part of
the rainwater that falls on the land percolates into the ground, to be known as ground water.
The ground water is used by human beings and plants. The availability of water affects the
distribution, growth and the activities of organisms. It is the quantity of rainfall, evaporation
and their ratio that determines the type of vegetation. The leaves of the plants transpire water
in the form of vapour which also reaches the atmosphere. Both evaporation and precipitation
is normally in a state of equilibrium. The hydrological cycle controls the distribution of the
renewable fresh water in the form of evapotranspirations, precipitation and run off.
The usable fresh water resources are highly uneven in distribution on Earth. This occurs
due to wide variation in the geological, climatic and morphological conditions of the area. The
vegetation of each area is also dependent on the availability of water. In the event of a decrease
in the amount of precipitation the surface water could dry out resulting in the reduction of
soil moisture and drop in water table. This could lead to a change in the type of vegetation
of the Earth’s surface.

Questions

1. What do you know about oceanic circulations?

2. Write a short note about any two ocean currents.
3. How does oceans moderate climate? Elaborate.
4. Differentiate between ice shelves and ice sheets.
 5
Biosphere

INTRODUCTION
Biosphere is an important realm of Earth. The term ‘biosphere’ was first coined by the geologist
Eduard Suess in 1875. More insights about biosphere were provided in the early 20th century by
the ecologists Henry Cowles and Frederic Clements. In the 1960s, atmospheric scientist James
Lovelock proposed that biosphere is a system that regulates itself through a complex process
and functions as a single organism. Kirkham (2007) provided a comprehensive description of
biosphere when he referred it as:
the totality of life on earth and its interdependency on abiotic environmental factors. It
encompasses the interactions between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere to
support the entirety of earth’s organism through climate (temperature and precipitation),
soil formation, hydrology (surface water, ground water, and soil moisture storage), solar
energy input (variation in intensity and daily and seasonal accumulation with latitude),
and the cycling of energy and nutrients through food webs. The biosphere is the highest
level of the ecological hierarchy.

Thus, according to him biosphere consists of the complex interdependency between

biotic and abiotic environmental components. In ordinary parlance, biosphere is a thin
envelop that encircles most of the earth, and supports life. It is the global sphere in which
the biota interacts with lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. It is totally dependent on,
and involves complex interactions between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
Biosphere is the spherical terrestrial layer that comprises of the lower part of the atmosphere,
the seas and the upper layers of the soil wherein living organisms exist naturally. All
forms or life including human beings dwell in biosphere. The health of the biosphere is
determined by the availability of oxygen, moisture, temperature, air pressure and soil.
33
34  Disaster Management

COMPONENTS OF BIOSPHERE
Biosphere is a giant ecosystem that consists of two major ecosystems:
(a) Terrestrial ecosystem, and
(b) Aquatic ecosystem.
Both the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems can again be subdivided into natural and
artificial ecosystems. The natural terrestrial ecosystem consists of mountain ecosystem, grassland
ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc. Artificial terrestrial ecosystem consists of
crop field ecosystem and garden ecosystem. Natural aquatic ecosystem consists of marine
ecosystem and fresh water ecosystem. Artificial aquatic ecosystem includes aquarium ecosystem
and sewage ecosystem. Each of the ecosystems is now described in detail.

Terrestrial Ecosystem

The terrestrial ecosystem consists of plants, animals, microorganisms their dependencies and
interdependencies with the non-living items around it on the land. A terrestrial ecosystem is
made up of either natural ecosystem or artificial/man-made ecosystem.

Natural terrestrial ecosystem

This consists of mountains, grasslands, forests, semi-arid areas, deserts, tundra and islands.
When there was no human intervention the ecosystems were sustainable. The ecosystems were
capable of taking care of all the needs of the organisms. Due to industrial ‘development’ in
the past few centuries, there arose increased use of resources and the focus of people shifted
to short-term economic gains, as against long-term ecological benefits. This led to the self-
sustainable natural ecosystems giving way to artificial ecosystems.

Artificial terrestrial ecosystem

Artificial ecosystems emerged due to industrial development and increased needs of the human
population. Examples of artificial ecosystem include crop fields and the garden ecosystems. In
artificial ecosystem land is used intensively and has been modified into irrigated agricultural
and pastoral areas. Large areas have been converted into urban and industrial centres. This
conversion has increased the production of food and raw materials. However, large scale
conversion of natural ecosystems, and misuse of land and the ecosystem have led to serious
degradation of the environment.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem consists of marine and fresh water ecosystem. While seas and oceans form
the marine ecosystem; the rivers, pond, lakes, and wetlands form fresh water ecosystem. Aquatic
ecosystems provide human beings with a wide range of services. Some of the services include
the availability of water for day to day uses, foods like fish and crustaceans, breaking down
 Chapter 5 Biosphere  35
of chemical and organic wastes, recreation, etc. The aquatic ecosystem provides the human
beings with a wealth of natural resources. There are different species of plants and animals
which are adapted to live in different types of aquatic habitats. Like the terrestrial ecosystem,
the aquatic ecosystem is also either natural or artificial/man-made.

Natural aquatic ecosystem

The natural aquatic ecosystem includes the marine and the fresh water ecosystems. Marine
ecosystem is very vast and saline. It consists of the Ocean ecosystem, Coastal or estuarine
ecosystem and the Coral reef ecosystem. Fresh water ecosystem consists of Flowing water
ecosystem (river and stream ecosystems) and Still/Stagnant water ecosystem (ponds/tanks,
lakes and marsh ecosystems). Aquatic ecosystem can also be classified based on the salinity.
According to salinity it is classified as fresh water, brackish water and marine ecosystem.
Fresh water ecosystem consists of ponds, tanks and lakes (stagnant ecosystem); and streams
and rivers (running water ecosystem). Brackish water ecosystems mostly consist of expanses
of shallow water with peculiar vegetation. This ecosystem is ideal for certain water birds,
fish and crustaceans. The water in such ecosystems is saline, but not as saline as that of the
marine ecosystem. Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas have vast tracts of mangrove
forests, and are considered to be some of the world’s most productive ecosystem in terms of
biomass production.
The wetland ecosystem is a special ecosystem wherein water level fluctuates considerably
based on the seasons. This ecosystem is highly fragile and is of importance to human beings
in various ways. The species that thrive in the aquatic ecosystem are adapted to live in the
different types of habitats. The natural aquatic ecosystems break down the chemical and organic
wastes created by human beings. However, the aquatic ecosystem is incapable of handling
wastes beyond a certain limit.

Artificial aquatic ecosystem

The artificial ecosystems include the Aquarium ecosystem and the sewage ecosystem.

EVOLUTION OF BIOTA
Earth is populated by a large variety of living organisms. It is estimated that Earth is inhabited
by at least ten to fourteen million different species of plants and animals. As on date over 1.8
million species (excluding bacteria) have been identified, named and catalogued. Of this, plants
constitute about 2,70,000; vertebrates 45,000; and insects 9,50,000. Each year, an average of
10,000 new species are identified. It is estimated that about 100 species are becoming extinct
per day. It is often opined that 20 per cent of the present species would become extinct by
2030; and by the end of the century the rate of extinction will be around 50 per cent.
Life on Earth is said to have originated from water. The first microorganisms, in the form
of primitive cells without nucleus (provaryotes) are expected to have evolved over four billion
years old. Early biosphere developed after unicellular algae releases O2 into the atmosphere as
a result of photosynthetic conversion of CO2. Cells with nucleus (eucaryotes) are expected to
36  Disaster Management

have developed about two billion years ago. Thereafter, during the next 400 million years, the
process of evolution created a large number of species and sub-species. Life on land started in
early Cambrian about 600 million years ago. It again took millions of years for the flora and
fauna to develop. The millions of species that exist on Earth now have endured drastic climatic
changes in its long history. They would have continually adapted to survive on Earth. The
increase in the number of species and individuals has been frequently interrupted and checked
through the process of mass extinctions. The mass extinction paved way for large number of
species, both flora and fauna, to vanish.
Earth’s biosphere has undergone transitions for varying periods. Some of such periods
identified include the Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, etc. The dinosaurs of the Jurassic period is
said to have become extinct about 65 million years ago. This mass extinction is attributed to
a drastic climate change that occurred on Earth due the impact of a large meteorite.

Questions

1. What are the components of Biosphere? Please elaborate.

2. What do you know about terrestrial ecosystem?
3. Write a brief note about evolution of Biota.
 Part II
DISASTER AND
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
 6
Disasters

INTRODUCTION
Nature is bountiful and its resources are used by living organisms for their survival and well-
being. Nature is always in a state of equilibrium, and has its own control systems. Left to itself,
it has the capability to replenish itself. This replenishing process is done through a number
of natural phenomena, like biogeochemical cycles, the food chains and webs. This balance, in
recent times, has been irreparably disturbed by human activities.

DISASTER
According to the High Powered Committee (HPC) on Disaster Management, Government of
India, ‘a disaster is an event triggered by natural or man-made causes that leads to a sudden
disruption of normalcy within society, causing widespread damage to life and property.’
A disaster could be a single or a series of events, which has the potential to cause human
casualties or loss to properties and environment. It could damage essential services and means
of livelihood at a scale beyond the normal capacity of the affected community to cope with.
It is defined as a catastrophic situation in which the normal pattern of life or ecosystem has
been disrupted and extraordinary emergency interventions are required to save and preserve
lives and or the environment. The Disaster Management Act, 2005 defines disaster as:
a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or
manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which results in substantial loss of life or
human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation
of, environment, and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity
of the community of the affected area.
According to the UN, disaster is the occurrence of sudden or major misfortune which
disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of the society or community. The UNISDR
(2009) defined disaster as:
39
40  Disaster Management

A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread

human, material, or environmental losses and impacts which exceeds the ability of the
affected community to cope using only its own resources.
Elaborating further about disasters the UNISDR states that disasters arise as due to a
combination of:
… the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient
capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences. Disaster
impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human
physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction of
assets, loss of services, social and economic disruption and environmental degradation.
A whole lot of terminologies have been brought out by UNISDR, which includes hazard,
vulnerability, coping capacity, and so on. These terminologies and certain other associated
terminologies require further elaboration before we can proceed further. Such terminologies
are discussed in the following sections:

HAZARD
UNISDR (2009) has defined hazard in a very simple and lucid manner. According to it, a
hazard is:
a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss
of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services,
social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
Hazard is also considered as a potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or
human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic
disruption or environmental degradation. Thus, an occurrence that has the potential to cause
injuries to life or damage to property or environment is known as hazard. The effects of a
hazard can be anticipated and estimated. As in the case of disaster, hazards can also be natural
and man-made. A hazard turns into a disaster when there are elements of risk and vulnerability.
A disaster is said to occur when the hazard impacts on a section of society in such a manner
that it exceeds its capacity to cope with it. Hazards vary in magnitude or intensity, frequency,
duration, area of extent, speed of onset, etc.
Hazards can be single or a combination of many, in origin and effects. It can vary
with respect to location, type, intensity, probability frequency, etc. Hazards can be natural
or manmade. There is however a distinction between natural events and natural hazards. A
lightning strike that occurs in an uninhabited area without causing any damage to humans or
property is only a natural event and not a hazard. Same is the case of an earthquake occurring
in an uninhabited part of a desert. A natural hazard is one that threatens the life and/or property
due to the occurrence of a natural event.
Some examples of hazards include:
1. Absence/abundance of rain: Both absence and abundance of rain can cause hazards
of unpredictable dimensions. Absence of rain can cause drought conditions. Recurring
droughts could have cascading effects leading to crop failures and the resultant
 Chapter 6 Disasters  41
conflicts, famines and mass migration. Abundance of rain could result in floods that
can cause large scale devastation to property and human life.
2. Incorrect agricultural practices and methods: A number of incorrect agricultural
practices could lead to hazards that can cause untold miseries to generations. An
example is the indiscriminate aerial spraying of the dreaded pesticide Endosulfan
by the state run Plantation Corporation of Kerala on its cashew plantations, in the
northern part of Kerala. This resulted in a number of death, and diseases to the local
population. The water bodies in the locality also got severely contaminated. The
situation is so grave that ladies in the area are afraid of conceiving, due to the high
level of malformed fetus.
3. Factories involved in hazardous operation near settlements: Those chemical
plants involved in hazardous operations that are situated near settlements can lead
to hazards of untold proportions. The accident that occurred in the Union Carbide
factory in Bhopal is a classical example of such a hazard. The memory of Bhopal
gas tragedy is still ripe in everyone’s memory, though it occurred over quarter of a
century back.
All developmental activities should therefore consider the presence of various hazards,
and mitigation aspects should be imbibed in all plans.
At times hazards could impact the society in such a way that it has disastrous effects. The
effects of a disaster on the society are determined by the extent of a community’s vulnerability,
or its coping capacity. The vulnerability of a society is based on a whole range of factors that
include physical, social, economic, cultural, political or even sociological and psychological.
These factors, which are constantly on a state of flux, have a crucial role to play to shape the
community’s lives and environments.

Classification of Hazard

Based on the origin, hazards are classified into geological, hydro-meteorological and
anthropogenic.
1. Geological hazards: This hazard includes internal earth processes. They are
tectonic in origin. Examples of geological hazards include earthquakes, geological
fault activity, volcanic activity and emissions, tsunamis, etc. Hazards like landslides,
rockslides, avalanches, mud flows are also included under this hazard. Geological
hazards can occur either singly, sequentially or in combination of a number of them.
2. Hydro-meteorological hazards: Examples of hydro-meteorological hazards include
floods, debris and mud flows; tropical cyclones, storm, thunder/hailstorms, rain and
wind storms, blizzards and other severe storms; drought, desertification, wild fires,
sand or dust storms; and permafrost and snow or ice avalanches. As in the earlier
instance these hazards can occur either singly, sequentially or in combination of a
number of them.
3. Anthropogenic hazards: Anthropogenic hazards occur as a direct consequence of
human interaction with the environment. Examples of anthropogenic hazards include
42  Disaster Management

global warming, acid rain, technological hazards, etc. Acid rain (both dry deposition
and wet deposition) is the contamination of the atmosphere or surface waters with
harmful substances. Anthropogenic hazards can also occur as a result of exposure to
hazardous substances, like mercury, arsenic, fibers, coal dust, and so on.

Magnitude of Disasters
The magnitude of any disaster is normally measured in terms of deaths, damage, or costs
incurred by the community. The magnitude is found to increase in proportion to marginalisation
of the particular population. Marginalisation of population can occur due to a host of reasons.
Some of them include a high birth rate, problems related to non-availability of economic
opportunities, and disparity in the allocation of resources needed to meet the basic human
needs of the ever expanding population. The increase in population also opens up a vicious
cycle. As the population increases, the arable land is taken up by the well to do. Those who
seek land for farming or housing are forced to accept land, which could be inadequate and less
productive. This could make the community susceptible to further vulnerability.

VULNERABILITY
Vulnerability is the characteristics and circumstances of a particular community, system or
asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. UNISDR (2002) define
vulnerability as:
a set of prevailing or consequential conditions arising from various physical, social,
economic and environmental factors which increase the susceptibility of a community to
the impact of hazards (p. 24).
Vulnerability is also expressed as the degree of loss that occurs as a result of a potentially
damaging phenomenon or hazard in the locality. It is the extent to which a community can be
degraded when it is subjected to any hazardous conditions. All factors that have the potential to
increase the susceptibility of communities towards the impacts arising out of different hazards,
or adversely affect their ability to respond to such events is also considered as vulnerabilities.
Another way of referring it is in terms of the capacity of communities to anticipate, cope
with and recover from the adverse impacts of hazard(s). In ordinary parlance, vulnerability is
the extent to which a community is affected or degraded when it is subjected to hazardous
conditions.
Some reasons that enhance the magnitude of a disaster, and thereby, the vulnerability
includes the following:
1. The number of deaths,
2. The intensity of the damages caused, and
3. The quantum of costs involved.
The magnitude of disaster could be directly proportional to the marginalisation of the
population. Marginalisation of populations occurs due to a host of reasons. Some of them
include:
 Chapter 6 Disasters  43
1. High birth rate,
2. Problems with respect to land tenure,
3. Problems related to employment and economic opportunity,
4. Misallocation of resources required for basic human needs,
5. Reduced productivity of farm lands,
6. Reduced availability of land for housing, etc.

Categorisation of Vulnerabilities

Vulnerabilities are categorised into two:

1. Physical vulnerability: Physical vulnerability considers those aspects that may
be damaged or destroyed by a hazard. This vulnerability is based on the physical
condition of community and the elements at risk. Physical conditions include the
different buildings, structures and infrastructures and their capability to withstand the
hazard. The proximity and nature of the hazard is also to be considered.
2. Socio-economic vulnerability: The socio-economic conditions of the population
also have a say on the intensity of the impact to which a population is exposed to.
For instance, the poor are the most vulnerable in the event of a cyclone or flood as
the houses may not be strong and may be constructed with locally available materials.
Further, they may also find it difficult to rebuild their houses.

COPING CAPACITY
Coping capacity refers to the ability of people, organisations and systems, using available
skills and resources, to face and manage adverse conditions such as hazards, emergencies
or disasters (UNISDR, 2009). Coping capacities helps in reduction of disaster risks. Coping
capacity takes into consideration various aspects like the ability of the individuals and the
community, as well as the capacity of the supporting mechanisms. For instance, a community
that has social cohesion will be having a higher level of coping capacity than a not so cohesive
society. Coupled with the cohesion, if the community is provided with the support of the
local municipal authorities, then their level of coping capacity will be very high. Thus, coping
capacity can be measured in terms of the internal aspects possessed by the community as well
as the availability of appropriate external structures.
Coping capacities can be physical or socio-economic capacities.
1. Physical coping capacity: Some members in the community affected by hazards
could have the required skills to find employment elsewhere, and hence, help their
families to sustain. This is known as physical coping capacity.
2. Socio-economic coping capacity: In the event of any disaster, maximum losses
occur in the physical and material realm. However, rich members in the community
could quickly and completely recover due to strength of their wealth. This may not
be possible in the case of a poor member. Though hazards are always prevalent,
44  Disaster Management

it is termed as a disaster only when the community is severely affected due to the
frequency or likelihood of a hazard and its vulnerability.

RISK
A risk occurs when a community is exposed to hazards, and is likely to be adversely affected
through its impact. Risk can be said to be a:
measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given area over a
specific time period. Risk is a function of the probability of particular hazardous event
and the losses it would cause.
The level of risk is dependent on the nature of the hazard, the vulnerability of the elements
that are affected and its economic value. It is also pertinent to understand more about Disaster
Risk Management.

Disaster Risk Management

Disaster risk management is a systematic process that involves using the administrative directives,
organisations, and operational skills and capacities towards implementing strategies, policies
and improved coping capacities to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and their possibility
of disaster. It includes all measures that are capable of reducing the disaster-related losses to
life, property or assets. This is accomplished through reducing the hazard or vulnerability of
the elements that are at risk. According to UNISDR (2009) disaster risk management aims at
avoiding, lessening or transferring the adverse effects of hazards through a host of activities
and measures that could result in prevention, mitigation as well as preparedness.
The main distinction between disaster risk reduction and disaster risk management is that
while the former concerns activities that are focused at the strategic level of the management;
the former pertains to the tactical and operational implementation of disaster risk reduction.

Risk Formula

In disaster, risk is the frequency or probability of events that could cause loss, injury, death
or other consequences. Incidental losses, like failure of communication, transportation systems,
other infrastructure structures, health services, etc. are known as elements of risk. Understanding
the nature of risks and their locations in a community is a major component that helps in
framing a comprehensive disaster plan.
The risk formula [based on the work of Wisner, et. al (2004)] captures the components
that influence the amount of risk, which a hazard may produce in a community or population.
The risk formula as presented by Wisner (2004) is:
Vulnerability
Risk = Hazard  Exposure 
Manageability
 Chapter 6 Disasters  45
Since most of the terms mentioned in the formula have been detailed either in this chapter
or in the immediately following chapter, only a brief description is presented in the following
sections for the sake of a better understanding:

Hazard
Hazard is a destructive phenomenon or event. Hazard could be anything from earthquakes,
storms, volcanic eruption, industrial events, etc. Though hazards in themselves are not disasters,
they become so when they cause destructions to populations either directly or indirectly. This
could include destruction of land, crops, physical infrastructure, etc. It is possible to map hazards
in advance. This mapping could provide information about areas where storms could strike,
the land that will be inundated by floods, the height and strength of tsunami waves, the areas
that could be devastated by volcanic ash or lava, etc.

Exposure
Exposure is the duration or extent of a hazard. For instance, it could be the duration of the
tremor, drought, etc. In the case of an armed conflict, the exposure could be measured in terms
of the duration of human displacement. It could also be measured in terms of the number and
extent of people affected.

Vulnerability
Vulnerability is the susceptibility to damage or harm caused by a hazard. Vulnerability has been
discussed in detail in the previous sections of this chapter. The extent of vulnerability depends
primarily on the nature of hazard. The effect of vulnerability differs from person to person.
For instance, the impact of vulnerability on poor is more intensive than the rich. Other aspects
that affect vulnerability include, geographic location, socio-economic factors, the government,
etc. It is possible to map vulnerabilities of different events. This could help disaster managers
in drafting and implementing vulnerability reduction strategies. It could also help in assisting
populations affected by disasters.
Vulnerability could be structural or physical vulnerability and human vulnerability.
Structural vulnerability is the extent to which a particular structure is likely to be damaged or
disrupted by a hazard. Human vulnerability is the lack of capacity of a person or community to
anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a hazard. A few factors that could
increase human vulnerability include population growth, urbanisation, and lack of information
and knowledge about how to tide over the effects of disasters and its aftermaths.

Manageability
Manageability is the capacity of a community to respond to the specific needs that are created
by a disaster. It measures the capacity of the various national and international disaster
programmes. It also addresses the capacity of the affected communities to cope with the
disasters. The extent to which a disaster is managed can be known only after the particular
event has been dealt with. Preparedness, planning, information dissemination, training, drills,
etc. can help to a very large extent in managing the disasters. Insurance that transfers the
46  Disaster Management

economic aspect of risks from individuals to corporate insurances houses is an important risk
management tool.
Yet another way of presenting the Disaster risk formula is as under:
Disaster risk (R) = Vulnerability (V) × Hazard (H)/Capacity (C)
All the terms other than capacity have been detailed in the above sections. The term
capacity is detailed below:

Capacity
Capacity is the combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within a
community, society or organisation that can be used to achieve agreed goals. It is the capability
of the community in terms of physical, institutional, social, human or economic resource to tide
over a hazard. Capacities can be enhanced by aspects like institutional and legal framework
development; legal and regulatory; training, education and research, etc.

References

UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). (2009). UNISDR
terminology on disaster risk reduction, Geneva: UNISDR. 30 p. http://www.preventionweb.
net/files/7817_UNISDR TerminologyEnglish.pdf Date of access: 8 Sept. 2014.
UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). (2002). ISDR background
paper for WSSD, Geneva: UN.
Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T. and Davis, I. (2004). At Risk: Natural Hazards, Peoples
Vulnerabilty and Disasters, 2nd ed., New York: Rutledge.

Questions

1. Write short notes on:

(a) Disaster
(b) Risk
(c) Hazard
(d) Vulnerability
(e) Capacity
2. Classify hazards.
3. Write a detailed note about vulnerability, categorising it.
4. What do you know about coping capacity?
5. What is disaster risk management?
 7
Characteristics of
Hazards

INTRODUCTION
Each type of hazard has some known and quantifiable characteristics. These characteristics
have a direct relation between the risk perception and data available. Any absence of this
perception could result in inadequate assessment of the hazard. Characteristics of hazards are
classified based on identity, nature, intensity, extent, scope, predictability and manageability.
The characteristics of hazard can be divided into two:
1. Permanent and
2. Temporal.

PERMANENT CHARACTERISTICS
As the name denotes permanent characteristics are those that are permanent, and not related
to any time factor. Examples and details of permanent characteristics of hazards are presented
in the following sections:

Hazard Identity
Hazards can be grouped according to their identity. For example, they can be classified
according to their origins based on the various natural cycles of Earth. This classification is
based on the available knowledge about each hazard and their development. Based on identity,
hazards may be primary or secondary. A sudden damage or devastation by flood waters is a
primary hazard, and the loss of productivity of an area due to flooding water washing away
the top soil is secondary in nature. Classifying a hazard based on the identity would help in
determining its nature.
47
48  Disaster Management

Nature

The natures of hazards are those dynamic factors over which humans have absolutely no
control. The different types of forces that act to form a hazard are grouped under this head.
Determination of the forces would enable in determining its potential intensity and extent.
This requires a fair understanding of the various cycles on Earth, and the effects it would
cause. For instance, to be aware about earthquakes, one should have a basic understanding
about the tectonic movement that happens within earth. Similarly, technological hazards and
environmental degradation occurs as a result of careless and unplanned human activities.

Intensity

The intensity of a hazard is denoted by its capacity or potential to be destructive. In the case
of a storm, the primary effect is based on the destructive momentum or power that exists
within it. The more the velocity of the storm, the higher would be its intensity and destructive
capabilities of the storm. Understanding the intensity of a hazard will help in establishing the
possible impact as well as determining the potential risk that a hazard would pose to a society.
It also helps in determining the different levels of risk. Assessing the intensity would thus
help in establishing acceptable parameters that will facilitate effective disaster risk reduction,
development, and contingency planning.

Extent

The extent of a hazard is denoted by its geographical distribution, range of impact, the nature
or intensity. The extent will also be influenced by certain circumstances of the risk. Further,
the impact of the same hazard on different geographic areas could vary or differ significantly.
For instance, a flood in a well-developed area with adequate infrastructure and early warning
systems may not cause much devastation. The same flood could cause damages to a very large
extent if occurring in a remote rural community with not much infrastructure facilities. The
absence of coping capacity will enhance and exacerbate the intensity of the risk. Secondary
consequences may aggravate the hazard.

Predictability

Predictability of a hazards helps in the reduction, mitigation and prevention of the adverse
impact of hazards. The predictability of a hazard is based on its physical or temporal properties.
For instance, in-depth idea about the weather conditions presents the existence of certain
patterns. Further, it is now possible to accurately predict most weather patterns through modern
technology. Though it is not possible to do away completely with hazards, predictability will
help in lessening its impacts to a very large extent. It would also help in implementing the
required disaster risk reduction and contingency measures.
 Chapter 7 Characteristics of Hazards  49
Manageability
The manageability of a hazard is based on the primary causes or properties of the hazard.
Details about manageability are presented in the previous chapter. However, for the sake
of better understanding, a brief description is presented in this section too. The capacity
of a community to respond to the specific needs that are created by a disaster is known as
manageability. It also measures the level of existing resources, the capacity of various national
and international disaster programmes, and the capacity of the communities to cope with the
disasters. Preparedness, planning, information dissemination, training, and drills are certain
factors that help in managing the disasters. Insurance is a financial instrument that enables
the transfer of the economic aspect of risks to insurances companies, who are better prepared
to absorb the shocks of hazards. In general, manageability can be considered as the human
activity of instituting appropriate measures to deal with and prevent the hazard. Manageability
is thus based on the ability of human element to lessen or prevent the consequences of the
hazards. Non availability of manageability of a hazard would result in a higher level of risk.

TEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS
Temporal characteristics are elements that are linked to time. The temporal characteristics and
the questions associated with them are presented in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Temporal Characteristics and Associated Questions

S. No. Characteristic Question answered

1 Frequency How often do they occur?
2 Duration How long do they last?
3 Speed of onset How quickly do they strike?
4 Early warning Can its behaviour be predicted?

Frequency
Frequency pertains to how often a hazard occurs. In any community, the hazard frequency
contributes to the perception of the risk. A hazard with higher frequency will be perceived
to be of greater risk than one with lower frequency. There is a tendency to consider a lower
frequency hazard as “This will never happen to us”. Frequency analysis, through which
weather is predicted, is based on a variety of information. The major and widely used source
of information is the historical data. Based on this data, patterns can be arrived at in relation
to the characteristics of a hazard can fairly accurately. It is possible to predict the possibility
of the next hazardous event, its time, and location through determination of the frequency and
seasonality. Prediction of a hazard would work as an effective early warning system. Changes
in the global weather patterns due to climate change, GHG effects, El Nino and La Nina
phenomena, melting ice caps, etc. are making it increasingly difficult to determine the hazard
frequency accurately.
50  Disaster Management

Duration

Duration is the time span of a hazard. Since different types of hazards have different
characteristics, their durations vary drastically. Many factors determine the duration of any
hazard. Some of them include availability of early warning system, magnitude of the hazards,
the coping mechanisms, the infrastructure facilities, etc. Another factor that plays a critical
role in the duration of the hazard is the pace of its onset—the slower the onset the longer the
duration. Experiences show that rapid onset may be short but devastating in effect. However,
this pattern may not be universal in nature, and could vary based on many other parameters
and factors. For instance a sudden oil spill could have a lasting impact on the environment.
However, it is possible to take preventive measures when the onset is slow. There is now
prominent opinion that duration should be linked to the magnitude of the hazard and the ability
of the community to cope up with it.
The duration of a hazard would also determine the resilience of a community. For instance,
communities make planning and preparations for monsoon rains based on its frequency and
seasonality. In the event of its duration exceeding the expected period, the communities would
have to face more vulnerabilities like stress on available infrastructure, depletion of resource
base, and so on.

Speed of Onset

Speed determines how quickly the hazard strikes. The speed of onset of the hazard determines
how effective mitigation and prevention measures would be. If the rapidity of a hazard can be
determined, it is possible to lessen its extent. Determining the speed of onset will also help in
forewarning, which in turn will help in taking risk reduction and preventive actions. However,
if the onset is of high speed, there would be less time for reaction.

Forewarning

Forewarning is based on the speed of onset of the hazard. Forewarning is the time between the
identification or warning of a hazard and the occurrence of its actual impact. The more rapid
the onset of a hazard, the less will be the forewarning or vice-versa. The period of forewarning
allows in preventing the loss of lives and property through removal of elements that may be
at risk from the area of impact.
Both the permanent and temporal characteristics provide only a general understating
about the dynamics about the disasters. Disaster risk reduction requires an understanding
about the broader framework and system as to how risks are created as well as the factors
that contribute to their reduction. The following chapters provide a detailed presentation of
various categories of hazards. It also details about mitigation, risk reduction and its trans-
disciplinary nature.
 Chapter 7 Characteristics of Hazards  51
Questions

1. Write a detailed essay about the characteristics of hazards.

2. What is hazard identity?
3. Write a note about extent and predictability of hazard.
4. What are temporal characteristics of a hazard? Elaborate.
5. What do you know about speed of onset?
 8
Categorisation of
Disasters

INTRODUCTION
Disasters are categorised in different ways. The most common way of categorisation is based
on type and time. In an alternative way it is classified into three—natural, technological and
environmental degradation. Both the classifications have many aspects in common.
The first type of categorisation is presented in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1 Classification of disasters.

TYPES OF DISASTERS
Based on types, disasters are classified in various ways. The most common form is to
classify it as natural and manmade. Based on time, disasters are classified into slow onset
and quick onset.
Slow onset disasters can be predicted, to a certain extent, with precision. It provides
some response time. Quick onset disasters are unpredictable and occur all of a sudden. It takes
everybody by surprise and provides no response time. Hazard can also be classified as natural,
technological and environmental degradation.
52
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  53
Natural disaster can be further divided into three—Geological, Hydro-meteorological and
Biological. This classification is presented in Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2 Classification of hazardss.

Natural disasters are dealt in this chapter and the others are dealt in the subsequent
chapters.

NATURAL DISASTERS
Natural disasters are caused by reasons beyond human control. Natural disasters could pose
threat to, people, structures or economic assets. It could be due to biological, geological, seismic,
hydrologic or meteorological conditions or processes in the natural environment. Examples of
natural disasters include cyclones, hurricanes, tornado, earthquakes, tsunami, floods, landslides,
volcanic eruptions, etc. These disasters pose threats to, people, structures and the economy.

GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

Earthquakes

Before understanding earthquakes, it is imperative to understand plate tectonics. Earth consists

of the inner core, the outer core, the mantle and the crust. The inner core is solid and consists
of heavy metals, like nickel and iron. The temperature and pressure of the core is very high.
The temperature of the core is estimated to be ~2500°C, as against the ~25°C on the surface.
The outer core is in the form of liquid, and the mantle has the ability to keep flowing. The
crust consists of light materials, like basalts and granites.
The mantle is in the form of viscous material, and due to the very high temperature and
pressure that prevails in it, circular convection currents are developed. Due to this movement,
hot molten lava comes up and cold rock mass goes down into the earth. The mass that is so
absorbed melts because of the high temperature and pressure and becomes part of the Mantle.
The process may continue all over again. The energy required for the movements are derived
from the very high temperature produced from the relentless decay of radioactive elements
contained within the interior of the Earth. These movements inside the Earth also cause the
different portions of the surface to undergo changes in various directions.
54  Disaster Management

Thus, the convective flow of the Mantle material causes the crust and certain portion of
the Mantle to slide on the extremely hot molten outer core. This sliding movement of the Earth’s
mass occurs on certain pieces called Tectonic Plates. There are seven such major tectonic
plates and a number of smaller ones. These tectonic plates move in different directions and
speeds. At times a plate faster than the other would come and collide with the slower ones.
Due to this mountains may be formed. Plates may also keep moving away from one another.
This could lead to the creation of rifts on the surface. Plates may also move together side by
side (convergent) in the same direction (divergent) or opposite directions (transform). In the
case of convergent movement, the plates may not have the property of sinking. Himalayas are
a classical example of convergent plates.
The tectonic plates are made of elastic, but brittle rocky material. Due to tectonic plate
actions there is the possibility of deformation taking place in Earth. These deformations could
lead to the creation and storage of strain energy in the tectonic plates. When the rocky material
along the interface or the junction of the different plates reaches its strength it could fracture and
lead to a sudden movement. The interface between the different plates where the movement has
taken place would slip, releasing the elastic strain energy stored within the rocks. This sudden
slip causes earthquake. Earthquake is a violent trembling/shaking or sudden movement of the
Earth which leads to the abrupt release of large quantities of elastic strain energy accumulated
over a long period of time. The trembling travels and spreads out through, or along the surface
of Earth in the form of seismic waves. Once one earthquake is over, the strain build-up process
will start all over again at the modified interface between the tectonic plates. Earthquakes are
also caused by dislocations of the crust. The crust may bend and subsequently, when the stress
exceeds the strength of the rocks, they break and ‘snap’ to a new position. These are the most
destructive earthquakes. The energy that was released during the 2001 Bhuj Earthquake is
reportedly over 400 times than the 1945 Atom Bomb dropped on Hiroshima!!
The Indian sub-continent is situated on the boundaries of two continental plates. Further,
underneath the Himalayas the Indian plate goes below the Eurasian plate. Due to this, certain
areas in the sub-continent including the Himalayan ranges have high incidence of earthquake.

Types of plate boundaries

Three types of plate boundaries have been identified. They are:
1. Spreading zones: Spreading zones are zones where molten rock rises and pushes
two plates apart, while adding new material at their edges. Spreading zones are
normally found in oceans.
2. Transform faults: These faults are found where two plates slide past one another.
Earthquakes that occur at transform faults tend to be at shallow depths. They normally
form fairly straight linear patterns.
3. Subduction zones: A zone where one plate overrides or subducts another, pushing
it downward into the mantle where it melts is known as subduction zone. This zone
is characterised the presence of deep ocean trenches, occurrence of shallow to deep
earthquakes, as well as the availability of mountain ranges that could contain active
volcanoes.
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  55
Geological Faults and Folds
Phenomena like earthquakes, volcanoes and faults are caused as a direct reason of Plate
tectonics. A geologic fault occurs as a result of a fracture in the earth’s crust. This fault
causes loss of cohesion and hence leads to displacement along the fracture. The rocks on the
surface and deep within earth have different properties. For example, the rocks at the surface
are brittle. They will break when put under large amounts of stress. But rocks deep within the
earth exhibit a ductile behaviour, and hence, flow plastically. When rocks pass from ductile
state to a brittle state, they have a tendency to break along a surface. This break of surface
is known as fault. There is a possibility of rocks getting stuck along the fault surface. This
could lead to a build-up of strain energy. When the stuck rocks break free, it would result in
earthquakes. Earthquakes occur on active faults located along the plate boundaries. Faults that
have not experienced a recent earthquake are called seismic gaps. These seismic gaps can be
considered as potential sites for future earthquakes. There are three types of stress that can
affect rocks. Each type of stress leads to different types of faults. The different types of stress
and faults are dealt in the following sections:

Types of stress
1. Tension: This is a type of stress that pulls rocks apart thereby resulting in normal
faults.
2. Compression: This stress squeezes rocks together resulting in what is known as
reverse faults.
3. Shear stress: This causes rocks to slide past each other and resulting in strike-slip
faults.

Types of faults
1. Normal faults: Faults that originate as a result of blocks of crust pulling apart under
the forces of tension are normal faults. There is possibility of entire new mountain
ranges being formed through these processes. Such mountain ranges are known as
Fault Block Mountains. When a normal fault occurs, the block known as ‘hanging-
wall block’ moves down, relative to the block known as ‘foot-wall block’. While the
underlying surface of an inclined fault plane is known as the foot-wall, the overlying
surface of an inclined fault plane is known as the hanging wall. Hanging wall faults
are also termed as dip-slip fault.
2. Reverse faults: Faults that are caused by blocks of crust that collide under the
forces of compression are known as reverse faults. Such faults are common due to
collisions between continents. This could also lead to folding of rocks. When reverse
faulting occurs, the hanging wall block moves upward or against the footwall block.
3. Strike-slip faults: This fault occurs when two blocks move in horizontal but
opposite directions of each other. There can be two types of strike-slip faults—right
slip fault and left slip fault. As the name denotes these are based on the direction of
the offset. These are identified based on the motion on the vertical fault surfaces.
56  Disaster Management

Folding
Another phenomenon that happens as a result of plate tectonics is folding. When rocks are
subjected to heat and pressure they sometimes deform ductily. Compressional force arising out
of high temperature and pressure within the crust make the rock to fold. This process could
lead to mountain building processes. Many mountain ranges have been formed due to folding.
The difference in temperature, pressure, composition of rocks and the rate of strain make the
rock to fault or fold. There could be both faults and folds in the same location.

Types of earthquakes
Based on the region where an earthquake occur, and the geological make-up of the particular
region, three different types of earthquakes have been identified. They are:
1. Tectonic earthquakes: Tectonic earthquakes are the most common and occur when
the rocks in the earth’s crust break due to geological forces that are created by the
movement of tectonic plates.
2. Volcanic earthquakes: Earthquakes that occur in conjunction with volcanic activity
is known as volcanic earthquakes.
3. Collapse earthquakes: Small earthquakes that occur in underground caverns and
mines are known as collapse earthquakes.
Another way of categorising earthquake is as under:
1. Inter-plate earthquakes: Earthquakes that occur along the boundaries of the
tectonic plates are called Inter-plate Earthquakes. This is the most common form.
2. Intra-plate earthquakes: Earthquakes that occur within the plate, but away from
the plate boundaries called Intra-plate Earthquakes. Though this is not common,
a number of them do occur. The 1993 Latur earthquake in India is an example of
intra-place earthquake.

Earthquake waves
Two primary types of earthquake/seismic waves are created when stress is released.
1. Surface waves: Surface waves move close to the ground or on the outside surface,
and are the slowest. They cause most of the destructions that are associated with
earthquakes. Two types of surface waves have been identified—Rayleigh waves and
Love waves. Rayleigh waves move horizontally as well as vertically in a vertical plane.
Love waves move more or less like S waves, but they move only in a horizontal
motion. They have no vertical movement.
2. Body waves: These waves travel through the Earth’s interior. Based on the direction
of the vibration and velocity body waves are further subdivided into P (primary)
waves and S (secondary or shear) waves.
(a) P waves: P wave as (also known as primary wave), is usually the first to be
detected by seismographs. They are the fastest of the three waves. P waves
can move through liquids and solid rocks. These waves, like sound waves, are
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  57
compressional in nature and have the tendency to compress and expand the matter
as they move through it. P waves travel at a speed of 4 km to 6 km per second
in the uppermost part of the crust.
(b) S waves: S waves (secondary waves) are larger than P waves and are more
dangerous. They produce vertical and horizontal motion in the ground surface,
and directly follow the P waves. While moving, S waves have the tendency to
shear or cut the rocks as they travel. S waves do not travel through liquid. They
travel at a velocity ranging from 3 km to 4 km per second in the shallow crust.

Earthquake depth
Earthquakes can occur at the Earth’s surface and to the depth of about 700 km. Based on the
depth, they are divided into three:
1. Shallow: Shallow earthquakes, also known as crustal earthquakes occur at a depth
between 0 km and 70 km.
2. Intermediate: Intermediate earthquakes occur between 70 km and 300 km below
the surface of the earth.
3. Deep: Earthquakes that occur between 300 km and 700 km below the surface of
the earth are termed deep earthquakes.
Earthquakes that occur beyond 700 km are termed deep-focus earthquakes. These
earthquakes are normally localised within great slabs of the shallow lithosphere that are
normally sinking into the Earth’s mantle.

Earthquake focus and epicenters

The point within the Earth where the earthquake starts is known as focus. The energy that
is released radiates as seismic waves to all the directions from the focus. The epicenter of
an earthquake is the point directly above the focus, on the Earth’s surface. Earthquakes are
normally named after the epicenter location.

Richter scale
Earthquakes can be sudden, violent, and without any warning. It can occur any part of the day.
The vibrations produced by earthquakes are detected, recorded and measured by instruments
called Seismographs. The data obtained from Seismograms can be used to determine the time,
epicenter, focal depth, and type of faulting of an earthquake. It also helps in estimating the
quantum of energy released. The magnitude of earthquakes is measured by a logarithm scale
known as Richter Scale. Charles Richter developed the scale in the 1930s to measure shallow
earthquakes.
The magnitude is determined by analysing the seismic data obtained from seismometers
installed at various locations. The scale uses a logarithm ranging from 1 to 10 denoting the
magnitude or quantitative energy released. An earthquake of magnitude two is the smallest one
that can be felt by people. Earthquakes with magnitude over 5.5 are progressively damaging
to property and human life. Those with magnitude over 6 are considered major; and great
earthquakes have magnitudes of 8 or more. See Table 8.1.
58  Disaster Management

Table 8.1 Richter Magnitudes Description Earthquake Effects

Richter magnitude Description Details

Though these earthquakes occur quite frequently, they are
< 2.0 Micro
seldom felt
These earthquakes are also generally not felt. However, they
2.0 to 2.9 Minor
are capable of being recorded
Though these earthquakes are felt, they do not cause any
3.0 to 3.9 Minor
damages
These earthquakes could lead to shaking of items and slight
4.0 to 4.9 Light
rattling noises. Damages are mostly unlikely
This could cause slight damages to reinforced building, but
5.0 to 5.9 Moderate
major damages to low construction buildings
6.0 to 6.9 Strong These earthquakes can be destructive to an area of about 100 km
These earthquakes could cause severe damages over consider-
7.0 to 7.9 Major
ably large areas
These earthquakes can cause serious damages and could affect
8.0 to 8.9 Great
several hundreds of kilometers
These earthquakes could be devastating and result in damages
9.0 to 9.9 Great
across thousands of kilometers
10 < Great Such earthquakes are rare and have never been recorded

Earthquake intensity
The intensity of an earthquake is measured using the major earthquakes in India Modified Mercalli
Intensity (MMI) Scale. MMI is determined qualitatively by physical observations of the impact of
the earthquake. According to the seismic zoning map brought out by the Bureau of Indian Standard
(BIS), more than 65 per cent of India is prone to earthquake that would have intensity over MMI
Scale VII. Based on the maximum intensity of the earthquake expected, India is divided into
four seismic zones (Zones II, III, IV and V). The most active is Zone V, which comprises whole
of Northeast India, the northern portion of Bihar, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir, Gujarat and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Since the last one-and-half decades,
six major earthquakes have stuck different parts of India. They are given in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2

Date and Year Place State Magnitude

20 Oct. 1991 Uttarkashi Uttarakhand 6.6
30 Sept. 1993 Latur–Osmanabad Maharashtra 6.3
22 May 1997 Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh 6.0
29 Mar. 1999 Chamoli District Uttarakhand 6.8
26 Jan. 2001 Bhuj Gujarat 7.7
08 Oct. 2005 Kashmir Jammu & Kashmir 7.6
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  59
In the last century, three earthquakes having magnitude over 8 have struck parts of India.
Details are provided in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Earthquakes have Magnitude over 8

Date and Year Place State Magnitude

4 April 1905 Kangra Himachal Pradesh 8.0
15 January 1934 Bihar–Nepal border Bihar 8.3
26 June 1941 Arunachal Pradesh–China border Arunachal Pradesh 8.5

Despite the possibility of earthquake with high intensity in India, the country is yet to
master in constructions that are earthquake resistant. Another important point that is to be
noted is that the regulatory mechanisms are also weak in India. Due to these, in the event of
any earthquake striking in major cities, the intensity of the disaster would be exceedingly high.
Earthquakes may cause a series of effects. While the initial effects are violent ground motions
leading to cracks or fractures in the ground. Other devastating destructions include secondary
effects like landslides, floods, tsunamis, fires, and so on. Landslides, subsequent to earthquakes
are damaging and often account for the majority of lives lost.
The risk of fire immediately after an earthquake is often high due to broken electrical
lines and gas mains. Subsoil disturbances can lead to changes in groundwater flows. For
instance, there could be abrupt changes in the level of the water table or sudden drying up of
surface springs.

Foreshocks and aftershocks

Foreshocks are small earthquakes that occur days or even years before a major earthquake.
Foreshocks can be a warning for an impending earthquake. Normally earthquakes last only for
a couple of seconds or a short period of time period. However, subsequent to the earthquake,
additional movements near the faults continue to occur for several more days. These movements,
which are weaker and follow the major earthquakes, are known as aftershocks. The aftershocks,
though by themselves may not be powerful, however have the potential to destroy structures
weakened by the main quake and hence cause further damages.

Factors that determine the damages due to earthquake

The damages caused by earthquakes are dependent on a number of factors. Some of them
include strength, distance, type of underlying rock or soil and the type of building construction
in the area. At times the areas closer to the quake may suffer only minimal damage. In certain
instance, areas that are far away from the earthquake may suffer severe damage. For instance, if
in an area there is a combination of uncompacted soil and a lot of water, there is the possibility
of the occurrence of a phenomenon called liquefaction. In such a situation, the ground loses
its property of cohesion and tends to behave like a liquid. In the event of liquefaction, there
is the possibility of increased intensity of shaking of the ground, as well as severe landslides.
This could lead to large scale collapse of buildings and structures.
The type of construction and the types of materials used also determine the effect of
damages. Experiences show that unreinforced masonry is likely to lead to severe damages.
60  Disaster Management

This is because such masonry has little ability to flex or move, and hence could collapse
soon. Buildings having wooden frames or reinforced ones hold together unless the shaking is
severe.

Earthquake belts
A plotting of the earthquake epicenter map would reveal that most of the earthquakes have
occurred only in certain well-defined regions of the Earth. These relatively long and narrow
regions are referred to as earthquake belts. There are various earthquake belts that run along
different regions. Some of them are large and some short. One of the largest earthquake belt
runs through the Mediterranean Sea, Asia Minor, the Himalayan Mountains, and into the eastern
Indian Ocean. Another large belt runs through the west coast of North and South America,
the western Pacific Ocean, the Japanese islands and the Aleutian Islands. The longest belt of
earthquake belt runs through the central regions of the ocean basins. There are also a few
shorter earthquake belts.

Tsunami

Tsunami (a Japanese term that denotes ‘tsu’ – harbor and ‘nami’ – wave) is a series of seismic
sea waves caused by abrupt deformation of the sea floor, leading to vertical displacement of
a large volume of overlying water. This could occur due to submarine earthquakes, volcanoes,
landslide, or meteor impact. Tsunamis can move at high speeds, gather energy and cross
thousands of kilometers before they run up on shore. At the initial source, the speed of the
waves could be up to 600 mph. While travelling through deep water the waves may reach
only up to two feet in height. When they reach shallow water they slow down, causing water
to pile up into very high waves as tall as 34 feet. As they move up the shore they carry a lot
of energy and when they hit the coastal area, strong currents can wipe out everything in their
path. Tsunamis have potential to cause large scale erosions, stripping beaches of sand, coastal
vegetation, destruction of buildings and houses, and coastal structures. A tsunami could last for
a few hours with successive waves drastically lowering and raising the sea level. The severity
and effects of tsunamis on a particular area are based on a number of local factors. Some of
them include the slope of the seafloor at a given location, the distance the waves have travelled
from the earthquake, the direction the waves have taken, and so on. The severity of the waves
is likely to be high on a cliff than on a low lying area. Though tsunamis can occur anywhere,
most tsunamis have occurred in the Pacific Ocean. In the previous century alone 796 tsunamis
have been recorded in the Pacific Ocean.

Important Facts
One of the largest earthquake in the last century occurred in Samoa, on June 26, 1917. It measured
8.3 on the Richter scale. The earthquake triggered a tsunami, with waves reaching as high as
about eight meters. The waves reached Satupaitea, Savaii in less than ten minutes from its point
of origin. Thus, it can be inferred that the waves travelled at a speed of over 1,000 km per hour.
This was one of the tsunamis that created the fastest waves ever in history.
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  61
HYDRO-METEOROLOGICAL DISASTERS
There are various types of hydro-meteorological disaster that hit various parts of Earth with
varying intensities. Some could be severe and the others could be mild in nature. A few
examples of such disasters are presented in the following sections.

Storms, Cyclones, Hurricanes or Typhoons

Though storms, cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons are high velocity winds, they are different
in various ways.

Storm
Storm is a disturbed state of the atmosphere. Storms arise as a consequence of complex reasons
which include solar heating, and the topography and rotation of earth. A disturbed state occurs
in regions that have relatively low atmospheric pressure. Due to the relationship between wind
and pressure, regions having low pressure could have winds rotating cyclonically around the
area having low pressure. Storms are categorised according to the weather’s most damaging or
impressive aspect, for instance snowstorms, thunderstorms, ice storms, hailstorms, windstorms,
and so on. It is also categorised as tornadoes, hurricanes, blizzards, etc.

Cyclone
Cyclones develop due to conventional air currents. When warm oceans give rise to hot air,
they create a sequence of convectional air currents. Cyclones occur when these conventional
air currents are being displaced. Due to the effect of rotation of earth, cyclones happen anti-
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Cyclones can
be of various sizes, with the largest spanning thousands of kilometers. It could last for days
or even weeks. There are mainly three classes of cyclones—tropical cyclones, extra-tropical
cyclones and polar cyclones.
Tropical cyclones: Tropical cyclones are formed over the oceans in the area near to the
equator, between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn. They have different names in different
parts of the world. While in Asia it is called ‘typhoons’; in the Indian and Pacific Oceans they
are called ‘cyclones’. In the North Atlantic and Caribbean Basin they are called ‘hurricanes’.
A warm ocean (a minimum of 26°C) is the prelude to a cyclone. The water that is
evaporated over warm seas forms clouds. In the event of there being low air pressure where
the clouds are formed, they are pulled in and subsequently begin to rotate. Later they become
organised into a cyclonic disturbance with a warm core. The Earth’s rotation and revolution
on its axis further causes the cyclone’s clouds to rotate. More clouds will be formed and they
would continue to spin further, and develop into a mature cyclone. Subsequently it can grow
in size and increase its wind speed. As cyclones have landfall, due to the lack of moisture
and temperature compared to the ocean, their strength weakens and may begin to fade out.
They could also dissipate while travelling over cold water. Tropical cyclones vary in sizes and
intensities and could span hundreds of kilometers and last for several weeks.
62  Disaster Management

Cyclones can also bring in thundershowers and flooding rains. They could cause severe
damage to property, and deaths by drowning. When cyclones are strong, they are highly damag-
ing. They produce violent winds over hundreds of square kilometers in area, combined with
torrential rainfall, often combined with storm surge. Storm surge is an increase in the height of
the sea; which arises due to reduced atmospheric pressure, force of the wind, and ocean floor
topography. The winds also work to increase the sea height. Low-lying areas could be inundated
by rising sea water where tropical cyclones make landfall. These areas may also experience
destructive winds and torrential rainfall. In the event of the storm surge coinciding with high tide
phase, the intensity of destruction and casualty would be high. Tropical cyclones are responsible
for large scale devastation of property and tens of thousands of deaths. A times, mostly after
landfall, tropical cyclones produce conditions favouring the development of tornadoes.
Extra-tropical cyclones occur in areas other than tropical areas. Such cyclones occur due
to the unequal distribution of solar heating between the equatorial regions and the poles. When
the temperature difference between the warm tropics and the cold Polar Regions become too
large, cyclones develop to transport the excess heat from the tropics to the poles. In this process
of heat transfer, many important weather events like rain, snow, ice, wind, and hail are created.
Extra-tropical cyclones also create conditions that make many other types of storms possible.
A developing Extra-tropical cyclone could produce very strong winds over a large region, and
wind speed could reach up to about 10 meters per second. Extra-tropical cyclones also gain
energy from vertical wind shear or winds that change speed and direction with height. Winds
could cause large scale devastation to structures, vegetation and extensive loss of human life.
Extra-tropical cyclones could lead to several different types of storms in succession, even
within 24 hours. Some of them include severe thunderstorm with hail, tornado, rainstorm, ice
storm, snowstorm, etc.
Polar cyclones are intense cyclones that occur near the Polar Regions. They are also
known as polar lows. Though the sizes and intensities of polar cyclones vary, they are normally
less than about 100 kilometers in diameter. Polar lows could produce heavy snowfalls with near-
hurricane force winds and thunderstorms. The land fall of polar cyclones could be surprising
and devastating, and could pose danger to shipping and aircraft industries.

Flood
Flood occurs when large amounts of water flow into a previously dry area. India is one of the
most flood prone countries in the world. Recurrent floods have caused huge losses to lives,
properties, livelihood systems, infrastructure and public utility services. It is estimated that
around 40 million hectares of land, spread over 23 states (roughly one-eighth of the country’s
geographical area), is prone to floods. It is estimated that annually an average of 75 lakh
hectares of land is affected by floods, with damage to crops, houses and public utilities being
around ` 1805 crore. The annual loss of life due to floods is around 1600 (National Disaster
Management Authority, 2008). Almost all river basins are prone to floods.
Most floods in India occur during the monsoon season (south-west monsoon/summer
monsoon), and are usually associated with tropical storms or depressions. It is estimated that
80 per cent of the precipitation takes place over a period of 100 days in the monsoon months
of June to September. The balance 20 per cent occurs due to convective activities in the
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  63
pre-monsoon periods (March to June) and post-monsoon (October to December) from local
storms and cyclones. The annual precipitation including snowfall over India is approximately
4,00,000 crore cubic meters. The seasonal rainfall in the monsoons is around 3,00,000 crore
cubic meters (3,000 BCM).
1. Flash floods: Very fast rise and recession of flow of small volume and high
discharge water is known as flash flood. The likelihood of damages is high due
to the suddenness of flash floods. It mainly occurs in hilly terrains and sloping
lands where heavy rainfall, thunderstorms or cloudbursts are common. States like
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and parts of Western
Ghats are vulnerable to flash floods. Another reason for flash floods is the depression
and cyclonic storms in the coastal areas of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. Sudden release of waters from upstream reservoirs,
breaches in landslide dams and embankments on the banks of the rivers leads to
disastrous floods. Many such flash floods have occurred in close frequency. Examples
include the ones that occurred in Himachal Pradesh in August 2000 and June 2005,
Arunachal Pradesh in 2005 and Uttarakhand, in 2014. Flash floods are common in
rivers that originate from the Himalayas. These rivers are fed by snowmelt from
glaciers. Though glacial melt is slow and not capable of causing severe floods, the
large quantities of bounded water that could suddenly be released along with the
melting of ice blocks could result in Glacial Lake Outburst floods. Such flash floods
could cause severe damages to downstream areas. Many such outbursts have caused
untold miseries in the past. Some of them include the flash floods experienced in
Sutlej in July–August, 2000, Parechu in 2005, etc. Flash floods also occur as a result
of cloudbursts. Cloudbursts occur in certain parts of the country due to peculiar
climatic conditions whereby unprecedented heavy rains occur. Some of the reasons for
cloudbursts include monsoon depressions, mid-troposphere circulation or low pressure
off the coasts, off shore vortices, etc. Hilly areas in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
the most of northern eastern states and almost all of coastal areas are more prone
to cloudbursts. Recently a large number of incidents wherein high intensity, short
duration rainfalls leading to flash floods has occurred even in areas where rains are
rare have become common phenomena. This is an aspect of grave concern that needs
to be tackled in a scientific manner.
2. Reason for floods: The main reason for the occurrence of flood in India is its
unique topography and climate. Other reasons include heavy rainfall uphill, inadequate
carrying capacity of rivers of high flood discharge, highly silted and inadequate
drainage of rainwater quickly to streams/rivers, and the steep and highly erodible
mountains ranges particularly of the Himalayas. Ice jams or landslides blocking
rivers upstream; typhoons, cyclones, cloud burst, etc. are other reasons for flood
damage. Recently, floods and inundation are occurring in areas never been considered
flood prone.
A few other reasons that cause flooding are:
1. Inadequate capacity of the rivers to contain the high flows brought down from the
catchment areas following heavy rain falls.
64  Disaster Management

2. Silting of the riverbeds and the consequent reduction of carrying capacity.

3. Accumulation of water and flooding due to poor drainage facilities.
4. Excess irrigation of command areas and increase in ground water levels due to seepage
from canals and irrigated fields leading to water-logging.
5. Poor permeability of the soil.
6. Changes in the river course due to erosion of beds and banks.
7. Obstructions to flow due to landslides.
8. Synchronisation of floods in the main and tributary rivers.
Though floods can be environmentally important to local ecosystems, they could have
disastrous economic and emotional impact on people.
3. Floodway and floodplain: Floodway is the part of the flood-prone that has the
potential for high velocities, potential for erosion, and possibility for high level of
exposure to significant flow of debris. The floodway includes the normal river channel
and some expanded high water area. The floodway should be ‘reserved’ for rivers.
No construction other than infrastructure like bridges should be permitted to be built
in the floodway.
The residual area outside the floodway, where the velocity of water is less is known as
floodplain. Flood protection and flood-proofing measures could be considered in this area.
Due to the importance of these areas in the prevention of floods, it would be ideal to leave
them out of incompatible developmental activities. Ill-planned, ill-conceived and incompatible
developmental activities in these areas could aggravate the situation and bring in repeated and
severe disasters.
The floodplains are flat lands adjacent to the river and have lot of importance. These
are formed due to the actions of the river. Almost all rivers have natural floodplains. They
play an important role in the control of floods and its aftereffects. Rivers normally erode
their own beds and banks and deposit the material downstream. Substantial quantities of such
materials, which include thick layers of sand and thin layers of mud, are repeatedly added to
the floodplain during floods. This process of depositing materials in the floodplains is called
overbank deposition.
Natural floodplains provide a number of benefits. Some of them include:
(a) Absorption of substantial quantities of water thereby reducing the severity of floods
(b) Reducing the speed of flood water due to the wider spread into the floodplain
(c) Reducing the severity of erosion downstream
(d) Reduction in the number of floods
(e) Filtering of contaminants from the flood water
(f) Enhancing the quality of water through increase in the level of dissolved oxygen
(g) Providing protection to, and maintaining an ideal habitat for the surrounding flora
and fauna
(h) Repletion of water during times of water scarcity
(i) Providing of aesthetics to the surrounding environment
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  65
Floodplains have been found to be home to many types of plants insects, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, and mammals. Further, the vegetation in the floodplains provide shade for the
adjacent rivers and streams, aiding in increasing the dissolved oxygen levels in the water, and
consequently improving the habitat for both aquatic plants and animals
4. Problems associated with floods: The biggest problems associated with floods
include loss of life, and damage to crops and property including dwellings. Certain
other associated problems include agony of the surveyors, sense of insecurity and fear
in the minds of the people affected and in the vicinity, scarcity of drinking water and
essential commodities, and medicines. Floods could also lead to outbreak of serious
epidemics, like diarrhea, malaria, etc. At times, the water would remain standing over
large areas for considerably long time preventing agricultural activities. A thorough
understanding of what causes flooding could help in better preparedness, and in the
prevention and minimisation of flood damages. Certain other problems that could
aggravate the situation that require the concerted action of Governmental and related
agencies are:
(a) Urban flooding: Due to heavy influx of population, towns have at a rapid pace
causing problems associated with unplanned development. Lack of regulations and
control has lead to encroachment of drainage systems and flood plains. Recent
urban flooding in metros like Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, and major cities like
Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmadabad, Vijayawada, etc. have revealed the disasters
associated with urban flooding. Aware of the dimensions associated with urban
flooding, the NDMA has identified it as a distinct disciple. NDMA has, as such,
formulated guidelines for urban flooding.
(b) Drainage congestion and water logging: Water logging is said to occur when:
the water table rises to an extent that the soil pores in the root zone of a crop become
saturated, resulting in restriction of the normal circulation of air, decline in the level
of oxygen and increase in the level of carbon dioxide (NMDA, 2008).
Thus drainage congestion and associated water-logging occurs due to excess
inflow compared to the outflow, resulting in that either surface flooding or rise
in water table. It is estimated that around 100 lakh acres are prone to water
logging in India.
(c) Erosion of river banks: A major problem associated with floods is the erosion
of river banks and the consequent loss of life and property. River erosion leads
to constant loss of land and property along the course of any river. In the hilly
areas, due to the steep terrain, rivers tend to become deep and wide eroding their
beds and banks. On entering flood plains, such rivers tend to develop a large
number of channels causing silting of the riverbeds. This could ultimately lead to
bank erosion and change of course. In the plains, the problem is different. Here,
rivers show a meandering tendency, and when the meanders move downstream
they cause erosion in the concave side and deposition on the convex side. This
also leads to bank erosion. In the delta the rivers divide into multiple branches.
This also leads to bank erosion. Thus river erosion is a problem that has been,
and continues to be a major hazard.
66  Disaster Management

(d) Littoral drift in river estuaries: Due to the topography of the deltaic region, its
flood problems are unique. The delta has a flatter slope and there are chances of
drains and back flows when tides occur. Due to the action of tides littoral drift
of sand occur, leading to in the formation of sand dunes. These dunes choke
outfalls of rivers into the sea, causing floods, like those occurring in Godavari
eastern and central deltas.
(e) Formation and bursting of landslide dams: Landslide dams are a common
phenomenon in Himalayan Rivers. Due to landslides temporary dams are created
and large quantities of water is collected in the upper parts of the dam. When the
dam is not capable of holding the water, the dam bursts, leading to very severe
and sudden floods.
4. Beneficial effects of flooding: Though floods lead to disaster causing untold
miseries and agonies, floods have certain beneficial effects. Floods waters often
overflow the banks and deposit nutrient-rich suspended sediments, known as silt,
in over vast areas of the floodplains. This silt restocks valuable soil nutrients to
agricultural lands, thereby nourishing the vegetation of the floodplain. In such areas
the harvests are proportional to the quality of silt deposited during the floods. The
flooding seasons are used by fish to spawn and migratory water fowls to breed. Floods
also play a great role in maintaining the quality of peat lands in the lower reaches
of the rivers, thereby maintaining the climatic conditions and the bio-diversity.

Drought
Drought is defined as ‘a prolonged dry weather causing hydrologic imbalance’. It is also defined
as ‘a condition when precipitation is insufficient to meet established human needs’. In simple
parlance it is defined as ‘a period of dry weather’. Droughts are temporary events that naturally
occur when precipitation is significantly below the normally recorded levels, established through
long-term observations. The UNCCD (1996) defined drought as:
the naturally occurring phenomenon that exists when precipitation has been significantly
below normal recorded levels, causing serious hydrological imbalances that adversely
affect land resource production systems (Part 1, Article 1c).
Due to drought conditions, land resource production systems could be adversely affected
leading to reduced crop yields or failures. People and animals would be deprived of water
and resources to feed themselves, causing deaths and migrations. Droughts would also set in a
vicious cycle with biodiversity decreasing, and the land becoming less resistant. The frequency
and intensity of drought conditions are expected to increase in the near future. The frequency
of droughts is predicted to increase by 10 per cent in South-eastern and Southern Asia and
by 20 per cent in East Africa and Central America, from the baseline period of 1992–2008
(Webster et al., 2008). Further, droughts will be more frequent in the drier areas. Drought-
prone areas are likely to face bigger disasters as the land would be degraded. Droughts and
consequent famines have killed 4,453 people and affected over 11 million in Africa, between
1993 and 2003 (Conway, 2008).
Droughts play a havoc mostly in developing countries that are dependent on rain fed
agriculture. In addition to untold miseries, droughts can cause economic costs of astronomical
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  67
proportion. Economic costs of drought are dependent on a number of factors, like severity of
the hazard, duration and location of the vulnerability, the people affected by it, and the extent
of exposure. Some economic costs include deaths and losses of livelihoods, crops and livestock
productivity losses, reduced tourism, and large scale declines in other ecosystem services
provided by the environment, etc.
Reasons for droughts are as follows:
1. Climatic variations: One of the main reasons of drought is the high and sustained
temperatures that last for months, coupled with infrequent or irregular rainfalls.
This could also occur when rainfalls are less than the average recorded levels.
Such variations could lead to severe hydrological imbalances in the system, and the
ultimate drought.
2. Global warming: Due to global warming, there would be a general rise in
temperature. This rise in temperature increases the rate of evapotranspiration, which
makes the soil to lose its humidity leading to increase in the number and severity
of droughts.
The human and social costs of droughts are devastating to any economy. Drought
conditions could sets off a vicious cycle having various socio-economic impacts. Some after
effects of drought include crop failure, decrease in income, unemployment, poor nutrition,
worsening living conditions, unemployment, etc. In the community, this could lead to
decrease in risk absorptive capacity and increased vulnerability. Rural population could lose
their possessions. Repeated droughts could trigger migrations and the resultant sociological
imbalances. Migrations from rural population could create problems in urban environment.
Rural areas not yet affected by land degradation could also be affected due to migrations. The
inflated growth in urban areas could lead to lopsided development, and food insecurity. This
could also result in social instability, loss of cultural identity, migrants being compelled to
survive in illegal and insanitary makeshift dwellings, etc. The result would be social, ethnic
or religious conflict.
Drought could be exacerbated due to the following conditions:
1. depletion of both the surface and subsurface water supply
2. unchecked urbanisation
3. poor cropping patterns and overgrasing
4. the stripping of topsoil and poor conservation techniques.
According to the Government of India (2013) around 16 per cent of India’s geographic
areas which are arid, semi-arid and sub-humid are drought-prone. In India droughts are
experienced with varying intensities almost every year due reasons ranging from high temporal
and spatial variability in rainfall to variations in physiographic and climatic conditions. Droughts
could occur despite good monsoon in the same year. In the last decade, India experienced three
major droughts in 2002, 2004 and 2009, affecting vast areas and hence the overall economic
development of the country. Droughts can have a significant impact on a country’s GDP and
could affect the entire population. As such mitigating the impact of droughts is accorded top
priority by all welfare states. Government of India has implemented a number of programmes
towards mitigating the impacts of drought. Some of them include Drought Prone Areas
68  Disaster Management

Programme, Desert Development Programme, National Watershed Management Programmer

for Rain-fed Areas, National Calamity Contingency Fund, etc.
Based on the concept of utilisation, droughts are classified as meteorological, agricultural,
hydrological and socio-economic.
1. Meteorological drought: Drought occurring over an area due to the seasonal
rainfall received being less than 75 per cent of its long-term average value is known
as meteorological drought. It is further classified into moderate drought, and severe
drought. A drought is known as moderate drought if the deficit of rainfall is between
26 per cent and 50 per cent. It is known as severe drought if the deficit is over
50 per cent of the normal.
2. Hydrological drought: If the stream flows are inadequate to supply the established
use of water under a given water management system, it is known as hydrological
drought.
3. Agricultural drought: In the event of the available soil moisture being inadequate
for healthy growth of crops, such that it causes extreme stress and wilting, such a
drought is known as agricultural drought.
4. Socio-economic drought: Abnormal water shortage would affect all the aspects
of an established economy. This would adversely affect the social fabric creating
cascading effects like unemployment, migration, conflicts and a series of other
related problems. Thus, socio-economic drought can be offshoot of meteorological,
hydrological and agricultural droughts.

Heat waves
Heat waves are positive departures from the normal maximum temperatures during summer
season, wherein excessive heat accumulates along with excessive humidity. It could result in a
rising thermal load. Heat waves are periods of unusually or exceptionally hot weather, which
occur during mid-summer. It is also defined as the achievement of a minimum sequence of
consecutive days, wherein daily maximum temperatures reach a designated threshold. This
threshold varies with region. For instance, the threshold would be like five consecutive days
with maximum temperature at or above 35°C or three consecutive days at or above 40°C. Heat
wave is also defined as a period of at least three days where the combined effect of excess heat
and heat stress is unusual with respect to the local climate. Another definition of heat wave is
‘sustained maximum temperatures in excess of average temperatures in the particular area’. A
heat index that takes into account the temperature and humidity is used to determine excessive
heat. Over the last 50 years there has been an increase in heat wave events around the globe.
Experiences show that residents of urban areas are severely affected during heat waves.
This is because the built environment absorbs, retains and radiates heat. Heat waves could lead
to the following conditions in humans:
1. Heat cramps: These are muscular pains and spasms that occur as a result of heavy
exertion. Though heat cramps may not be severe in nature, they could be considered
as signals that the body is having trouble as a result of the heat.
2. Heat exhaustion: Heat exhaustion occurs due to loss of body fluids through heavy
sweating when people work in hot, humid places. When heat exhaustion occurs, blood
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  69
flow to the skin is increased causing a decrease in blood flow to vital organs. This
could results in a form of mild shock, which would require medical attention. If this
condition is not treated properly, the condition of the victim could worsen with the
body temperature rising, and the victim suffering heat stroke.
3. Heat stroke: Heat stroke, also known as hyperthermia is a life-threatening situation.
When heat stroke occurs, the victim’s temperature control system that produces
sweating stops working. If the body is not cooled quickly, the body temperature could
increase substantially resulting in brain damage and death.
Unless proper consideration is provided, the elderly, the poor, the socially isolated,
and the mentally and physically challenged are vulnerable and are likely to die due to heat
stroke. Those with respiratory and cardiac disease are at higher risk of death during heat wave
conditions because excess heat creates pressure on the cardiovascular system to cool the body.
The situation may also be aggravated since the air may be saturated with particulate material
and pollutants. In May 2015, there was a severe heat wave condition in several parts of India,
as temperatures rose over 45°C. Over 2000 people were killed and more than double were
affected in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Most number of deaths was reported
from the district of Prakasam. The meteorological department had to issue ‘red box’ warnings
for the states of Odisha, Jharkhand and coastal Andhra Pradesh. The department issued warnings
of high chances of heatstroke, dehydration and fatality in these places. In various parts of north
India, like Agra, Lucknow, etc., very high levels of humidity (relative humidity of over 70 per
cent) compounded the problem. Delhi witnessed an all-time high temperature of 45°C, with
zebra crossings melting in various places due to sweltering heat. The temperatures in various
places in Odisha, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh were also over 45°C.
Millions of people were affected due to this heat wave all over the country.

Cold waves
Cold waves occur as a result of extremely low temperature in association with incursion of
dry cold winds from north into the sub-continent. In India, cold waves occur in the northern
hilly regions and adjourning plains. Cold waves normally affect the areas to the north of 20°.
At times, cold wave conditions are also reported from states like Maharashtra and Karnataka.
Deterioration of the air quality in urban areas of India has resulted in substantial number of
deaths and discomfort due to cold waves. Experiences show that maximum casualties due to
cold waves occur in the states of UP and Bihar, which may be due to poor levels of development
as well as lack of adequate shelters to workers and farmers.

Landslides
Landslide refers to the rapid downward movement of large masses of rock and soil. Landslides
are caused by the combination of factors, which could include change in the slope gradient,
shocks or vibrations, alteration of water content, ground water movement, frost action, removal
or change in the type of vegetation that cover the slopes, etc. Triggers of landslide include
excessive precipitation, earthquakes, volcanoes, human activities like reclamation of wet lands,
mining, terrain cutting, unplanned development, etc. Since the factors that lead to landslides
include both geophysical and man-made, they can occur in any sort of areas—developed,
70  Disaster Management

undeveloped, an area where the terrain has been altered for utilities like cultivation, roads,
houses, buildings, etc.
Landslides occur in regular frequency in the Himalayan ranges. It is estimated that, on an
average, 30 per cent of the world’s landslides occur in the Himalayas, and it has no comparison
with any other mountain range in the world. This is due to its unique nature. The Himalayas
constitute the youngest and most dominating mountain system in the world. The ranges are
not a single landmass, but a series of seven 3400 km long curvilinear parallel folds forming a
grand arc. Landslides are also common in the Western Ghats. Every year unprecedented rains
trigger an average of about 100 landslides.
In India landslides constitute a major natural hazard. It accounts for considerable loss of
life and property. Every year landslides damage human settlements, agricultural fields, roads,
railway lines, communication routes, human settlements, agricultural fields and forest lands.
This leads to an average estimated loss between ` 100 and 150 crores all over India.

Important Facts
Landslides and downhill movement of materials occur frequently in places where the land has
certain characteristics. Some of them include
• A slope of over 15 per cent.
• Wave activity or stream that has caused severe erosion or cut into a bank to cause the
surrounding land to be unstable.
• An area that has the potential for snow avalanche.
• Presence of an alluvial fan, thereby accelerating the flow of debris or sediments.
• Presence of impermeable soils like silt or clay, mixed with granular soils like sand and gravel.

Landslides can be caused by natural and anthropogenic causes, or a combination of both.

1. Natural causes: Natural causes that trigger landslide include water, seismic activity
and volcanic activity.
(a) Water: Saturation of slopes with water is the primary reason for landslides.
Saturation can occur due to precipitation; snowmelt; alterations in ground-water
levels and flows, changes in surface-water level due to dams, reservoirs, canals,
and rivers. Flooding can cause landslides and vice-versa. Landslides can reduce
the capacity of the reservoirs to store water, leading to floods downstream.
(b) Seismic activity: Earthquakes in steep landslide-prone areas trigger landslides
as a result of ground shaking, loosening of soil and liquefaction of susceptible
sediments. Due to seismic activity, there is possibility of landslide dams occurring
in rivers with steep slopes. These dams created by landslide dams block the flow
of water completely or partially, causing water to be accumulated behind the
landslide dam, causing floods in the upper areas. These dams could give way in
due course causing large scale catastrophe.
(c) Volcanic activity: One of the most devastating forms of landslide is the ones
caused due to volcanic activity. Hot molten volcanic lava would melt the
surrounding snow rapidly, and form a huge flow of rock, soil, ash, and water.
This could rush down the steep slopes of volcanoes, destroying anything in its
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  71
path. Volcanic debris flows could spread to great distances, once they leave the
volcanoes and cause extensive damages. This spread could also trigger rockslides,
landslides and debris avalanches down the slopes. Lava spread in volcanic islands
could cause soil and rock slide into the ocean or other water bodies, creating
massive submarine landslides. The displaced water could create tsunamis that
travel to great distances.
2. Anthropogenic causes: This includes developmental activities, changing drainage
and irrigation patterns, destabilising slopes, clearing vegetation, excavation, etc.
Populations expanding into new areas and creating built structures on land having
unstable and weak underground land and slopes contribute to the occurrence of sever
landslides. It could also occur due to steepening of slopes by undercutting the bottom,
or loading the top of a slope exceeding its bearing strength. Other reasons include
new construction on landslide prone land, irrigation, leaking pipes, etc.
Landslides can be classified based on the type of movement of the slide and materials
involved. The material involved in a landslide mass could be rock (termed as debris) or soil
(termed as earth), or both. The different types of landslides are: fall, topple, slide, spread, and
flow. Each of them is briefly described in the following sections:
1. Fall: A fall occurs when soil or rock, or both, are detached from a steep slope along
a surface on which little or no shear displacement has occurred. Fall could occur due
various reasons. Some of them include undercutting of slope by natural processes like
streams and rivers, differential weathering, human activities like excavation during
developmental process including construction or maintenance of road, and earthquakes
or other intense vibrations. Materials that are detached descend down the slope mainly
by falling, bouncing, or rolling. The falling mass may break on impact, bounce, and
may begin to roll on steeper slopes. The velocity of the rolling would depend on
slope steepness. The rolling may continue till the terrain flattens. The falling mass
could severely threaten life and property. It could damage roads, bridges, vehicles,
and buildings causing innumerable hardships for day’s altogether. Falling mass could
also block highways and railroads causing high levels of inconvenience to travellers.
2. Topple: A topple is ‘the forward rotation out of a slope of a mass of soil or rock
around a point or axis below the center of gravity of the displaced mass’. Toppling
occurs due to the action of gravity on the upslope from the displaced mass. It can
also occur due to collection of water or ice between the cracks in the mass. Topples
could consist of rock, debris, or fine earth materials. Topple could occur in jointed
volcanic terrains and in steep banks of streams and rivers. Topples can be extremely
destructive, especially if it occurs suddenly and the velocity is high.
3. Slides: A slide is a down-slope movement of a mass of soil or rock that may occur
on surfaces of rupture. Slide could also occur on relatively thin zones of intense
shear strain. The velocity of a slide could range from extremely slow—less than a
foot every five years, moderately fast—five feet per month), to very rapid. Slides are
triggered by intense and sustained rainfall or rapid snowmelt, which could lead to
increased groundwater levels in the mass, and saturation of slopes. Other reasons for
slides include rise in ground-water levels due to the filling up of reservoirs, the rise
72  Disaster Management

in level in water boodles like streams, lakes, and rivers; causing erosion at the base
of slopes. Slides could also be induced by earthquakes. As in the case of falls, slides
can also be extremely damaging to structures, roads, and infrastructure. However,
if their movements are slow they are not usually life-threatening. The large volume
of material that is displaced could take considerably long duration or may fail to
stabilise permanently.
4. Spreads: Spreads occur in places where there are liquefiable soils. Spreads may
result from liquefaction of the softer underlying material. The velocity of spreads may
range from slow to moderate. At times, it may occur at a rapid pace, if there are certain
triggering mechanisms like earthquake. Due to this, over a period of time, ground may
spread slowly from a few millimeters per day to tens of square meters per day. Spreads
can be block spreads, liquefaction spreads and lateral spreads. Triggers that cause
spreads include liquefaction of lower weak layers due to earthquakes; overloading
of the ground above an unstable slope through natural or anthropogenic reasons;
saturation of weak underground layers due to change in ground water levels or flows,
precipitation, show melts, etc. Spreads can cause extensive damage to property and
life. The velocity of the spread depends on the extent of water saturation in the
soil layers.
5. Flow: Flow is a rapid movement of earth mass wherein loose soil, rock and organic
matter combine with water to form slurry like material and flows down slope. Flows
are also referred to as ‘mudslides’. Flows are common in volcanic areas having weak
soil. Flows can also be dry ‘sand flows’ and ‘debris flows’. Debris flows can be
highly catastrophic in nature. Flows are normally caused by intense flow of surface
water through heavy precipitation, which erodes loose soil and rock on steep slopes.

Avalanches
Avalanche is a flow of snow down a mountain side. It occurs when snow on a slope give in to
gravity. Avalanches occur when the load of the upper show layers exceeds the bonding force
of a mass of snow. Predicting an avalanche is near to impossible. Some of the conditions that
enhance the risk of avalanche include:
1. Heavy snowfall combined with strong winds,
2. Unstable accumulations of wind-driven snow,
3. Wind transported snow causing wind scoured mountain ridges, snow cornices and
dunes,
4. Nature of ground surface underneath the snow—for instance smooth ground cover or
grass covered ground is likely to trigger avalanches more commonly, and
5. Rapid and significant warming due to strong solar radiation.
The intensity of avalanche is based on the weather conditions, the terrain and human
activities.
1. Weather condition: If the weather condition is such that heavy snow fall occurs
leading to accumulation of snow and ice, then the possibility of avalanche is high.
The type of snow also plays a prominent role in enhancing the probability of causing
an avalanche.
 Chapter 8 Categorisation of Disasters  73
2. Terrain: Avalanches occur more frequently on slopes steeper than 30°. Shady
slopes are more prone to avalanches. Further, slopes that are close to a ridge and
loaded with wind-driven snow are likely to increase the possibility of avalanches.
The direction that the slope faces is another factor that increases the intensity of an
avalanche.
3. Human factors: A large number of avalanches are triggered by snow sports like
skiing, hiking, etc. on the slopes of snow covered mountains that are unstable, or
when there is a rapid increase in temperature due to solar radiation.
Avalanches are of different types. Some of them include:
1. Loose snow avalanche: This is avalanche caused by fresh snow that spreads out
as it tumbles down the mountain. This avalanche may not be deep enough to cause
human loss.
2. Ice fall avalanche: This normally occurs on glaciers when a chunk of glacier
separates and drops steeply.
3. Roof avalanche: This occurs when snow built up on the roof houses slides off and
falls on human being causing injuries and deaths.
4. Slab avalanche: This is a huge chunk of snow coming down a mountainside in
one piece. A slab avalanche can reach speeds up to 120 miles per hour, causing large
scale damages.

MULTIPLE HAZARDS
At times, multiple natural hazards like flood, earthquake, volcanic eruptions, and landslides
happen simultaneously in close succession; or one triggering another or multiple hazards. For
instance earthquake could induce landslides, tsunamis, floods, etc. Volcanic activity could
trigger other hazards, like lava/debris/mud flows casing damages to property and life. Other
multiple hazards include earthquake or volcanic activity induced landslide blocking rivers
causing massive flooding upstream. Subsequently when the dam fails, it could lead to large
scale flooding downstream. This flooding could result in erosion of river banks and coasts,
destabilising the slopes through rapid saturation. Thus, one event could trigger a large number
of other events, whose repercussions could be felt for long periods thereafter. As a precautionary
measure to prevent large scale loss, it would be ideal to map susceptible hazards that could
trigger multiple hazards.

References

Conway, G. (2008). The Science of Climate Change in Africa: Impacts and Adaptation, Department
for International Development (DFID). www.elsenburg.com/trd/globalwarm/downloads/
science.pdf.
Government of India (2013). Reserve Bank of India Annual Report 2012–13, Government of India.
National Disaster Management Authority (2008). National Disaster Management Guidelines,
Government of India, New Delhi.
74  Disaster Management

Webster, M., J. Ginnetti, P. Walker, D. Coppard and R. Kent. (2008). The Humanitarian Costs
of Climate Change, Strengthening the Humanity and Dignity of People in Crisis through
Knowledge and Practice, Medford, MA: Feinstein International Center, Tufts University.

Questions

1. What do you mean by geological hazards?

2. How is an earthquake formed?
3. Write a detailed note about plate boundaries.
4. What are geological faults and folds?
5. What are the various types of earthquakes? Elaborate.
6. Write in detail about earthquake waves.
7. What is earthquake depth?
8. What do you know about Richter scale?
9. Write a note about foreshocks and aftershocks.
10. What do you mean by earthquake belts?
11. How are tsunamis formed?
12. Write a detailed essay about hydro-meteorological disasters.
13. What is the difference between storms and cyclones?
14. Distinguish between tropical and extra-tropical cyclones.
15. What are the main reasons for flood?
16. What do you know about floodway and floodplains?
17. Are there any beneficial effects of flooding? Elaborate.
18. What is a drought condition? What are the reasons for drought?
19. What are the different types of droughts?
20. Write a note about heat waves.
21. What are cold waves? Write in detail.
22. What are the main causes of landslides? Write down its effects too.
23. Classify landslides.
24. What do you know about avalanches?
 9
Biological Hazard

INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Infectious diseases could be strange types of illnesses, or unusual number of individuals
developing illness or symptoms. The situation could be identified as outbreak, epidemic,
pandemic, bioterrorism, etc.

OUTBREAK
An outbreak is a sudden rise in the number of occurrence of a disease. Certain outbreaks recur
every year. Some outbreak on human beings includes influenza, conjunctivitis, etc. Certain
diseases like foot and mouth disease affect animals. Outbreaks can also arise as a result
of environmental problems. An outbreak of any disease must be reported to public health
authorities immediately, as they can help in determining the causes and identify the steps that
need be taken.

Epidemic Diseases
Epidemic is ‘an increase, often sudden, in number of cases of a disease in a community, clearly
in excess of what is normally expected in a population’. It is used to describe an unusual
frequency or number of cases of illness in a group of people/community or region that is not
explained by the usual seasonal increases. The UNHCR (2011) uses it to mean occurrence of
more cases of a disease than expected in a given area or among a specific group of people
over a particular period of time. Epidemic is similar to an ‘outbreak’. However, while epidemic
describes an unusual frequency of illness in an area or a group of people that cannot be
explained by certain usual seasonal increases; outbreak is used mostly to describe a single case
of an unusual occurrence of disease.
75
76  Disaster Management

Epidemics are public health emergencies that could disrupt the routine health services
and causes major drain on the resources. Epidemics could be viral or bacterial infections.
Examples of viral infections include meningitis, measles, dengue, polio, etc. Cholera and
diarrhea are examples of bacterial infections. Epidemics can be caused by a host of reasons,
which include non-availability or contamination of clean drinking water, lack of sanitation
or its awareness, unhygienic food, overcrowding, ecological factors, etc. An epidemic has
the property of passing explosively through a population. They could also persist over long
time periods at low levels and experience a sudden flare-up. It could also act in wave-like
cyclic patterns of intermittent increasing and decreasing prevalence. There have been instances
wherein, a single disease outbreak had significant effect on the entire civilisation.1 Epidemics
result in high levels of morbidity and mortality affecting public health and economy in
an adverse manner. In addition to direct costs associated with epidemic control measures
and treatment of patients, there are a host of indirect costs that need be incurred during an
epidemic. Examples include negative impact on domestic and international tourism and trade.
Most of the epidemics reported in India are found to have occurred due to either water-borne
diseases or vector-borne diseases. Most of them are vaccine preventable diseases. Another
related term is pandemic.

Pandemic

Pandemic is an epidemic occurring over a very wide area (several countries or continents)
and usually affecting a large proportion of the population (UNHCR, 2011). A classic
example of a pandemic is the H1N1 influenza that occurred in various parts of the world.
In 2009, the H1N1 influenza—A virus developed into a pandemic and resulted in about
5,75,000 deaths (Dawood, et al., 2009). Further, the future potential impact of fresh infections
is unknown. It is also expected that old and new infectious diseases are likely to emerge and
reemerge around the world, resulting in epidemics of varying sizes and intensity. Pandemics
are normally found to hit communities in multiple waves. Each such wave is likely to last
approximately 6 to 8 weeks (WHO, 2009). This makes response to pandemics a more prolonged
event, as compared to other types of disasters. WHO (2013) lists six phase of a Pandemic.
They are:

Phase 1 : Low risk of human cases

Phase 2 : Higher risk of human cases
Phase 3 : No or very limited human-to-human transmission
Phase 4 : Evidence of increased human-to-human transmission
Phase 5 : Evidence of significant human-to-human transmission
Phase 6 : Efficient and sustained human-to-human transmission

1. Certain epidemics were started in ancient America by the arrival of Europeans. Similarly there was outbreak
of bubonic plague in Europe that killed about 20 per cent of the population over a seven-year period in
the 1300s.
 Chapter 9 Biological Hazard  77
Important Facts
Does the occurrence of pandemics have a distinct pattern?
The New York Times reported that Dr. Edwin D. Kilbourne, a famous influenza specialist found,
as early as in 1976, that pandemics occur every 11 years. He found that pandemics of influenza
have been noticed at the end of every decade since the 1940s at intervals of exactly 11 years.
He illustrated that in USA, it occurred in the years 1946, 1957, and 1968. In 1976, he suggested
that another pandemic is due in the year 1979.
The New York Times, February 13, 1976, p. 33.

The UNHCR (2011) provided a three-dimensional strategy to control an outbreak. It is

provided in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Strategy to Control Outbreak
Control of source Protection of susceptible people Interruption of transmission
Treatment of different cases Immunisation Environmental hygiene
and carriers Chemoprophylaxis Personal hygiene
Isolation of cases Personal protection Vector control
Surveillance of suspects Better nutrition Disinfection and sterilisation
Control of animal reservoirs Restricting population
Notification of cases movements

Important Facts
Functions of Public Health Official during an Epidemic
The UNHCR (2011) presents a set of key actions to be done by Public Health Official (PHO)
during an epidemic. The UNHCR calls for coordination at various levels—national, district
and camp. It should involve all actors including the respective Ministry of Health (MoH),
other essential government services, UNHCR partners in the refugee camp, the World Health
Organization (WHO), United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) and various other United Nations
(UN) agencies. The functions of the PHO at various levels are as under:
National level:
• Proactively participate in all meetings related to epidemic preparedness planning.
• Collect and share with partners all related documents and materials, including details about
epidemic or pandemic national preparedness and response plan(s).
• Acting as an advocate for inclusion of refugees in all outbreaks related national plans, like
disease specific outbreak or pandemic plans, natural disaster plans, etc.
District level:
• Facilitate and actively participate in coordination meetings, implementing and operational
partners, and promoting preparedness activities against actual threats of epidemics.
• The target population is all people living in the region including refugees.
• Act as an advocate for setting up of an OCT, and playing an active role within it.
Camp level:
• Ensuring that epidemic preparedness and response is mainstreamed in camp coordination activities.
• Promoting the establishment of a Camp Outbreak Preparedness and Response Team involving
all camp actors.
• Ensuring that outbreaks are discussed and appropriate decisions are made in periodic health
coordination meetings.
Source: UNHCR (2011).
78  Disaster Management

Vulnerable populations
Certain groups are more vulnerable from morbidity and mortality in the event of an infectious
disease disaster. They are:
1. Children: Children, in general and newborns and young children, in particular,
are at an increased risk for infection in the event of infectious disease disasters.
This is because of the increased respiratory rate of children, which would result
in higher levels of inhalation of infectious particles. They are also at higher levels
of risk in bioterrorism involving smallpox as they would not have been immunised
against it.
2. Elderly: The level of physiological functions decline with age. This process of aging
put the elderly at higher rate of risk for infection. It is also a complicated affair to
diagnose infectious diseases among the elderly, as elderly individuals have pulse/
temperature dissociation. This dissociation often masks the signs of infection making
it difficult to diagnose.
3. Pregnancy: A number of physiological changes occur during pregnancy. This
includes a somewhat compromised immune system, decreased ventilatory capacity,
and increased respiratory tract bacterial growth. These changes put pregnant women
at increased risk for infectious diseases. Fatality rates are high among pregnant
women during outbreaks of emerging infectious diseases and bioterrorism. During the
2003 SARS outbreak, mortality rates among pregnant women were higher. During
infectious attack, fetuses are at higher risk from infection and death. It could also
lead to spontaneous abortion or pre-term birth.

Bioterrorism

Bioterrorism is a situation wherein biological agents are used as weapons, and released
intentionally to cause illness. Bioterrorism is the use of Biological Weapons (BW) as terror
attack or threat. Biological weapons are defined as microorganisms that infect and grow in the
target host producing a clinical disease that kills or incapacitates. The history of bioterrorism
can be traced back to the 14th century, when infected cadavers were dropped into enemy wells
to poison their drinking water. Yet another example of bioterrorism occurred during the French
and Indian War. In this war, Native Americans were given smallpox-laden blankets. This
action initiated smallpox among Native American, who was previously unexposed to smallpox,
resulting in a mortality rate of over 40 per cent. More recent examples of bioterrorism include
the 2001 attack in USA using anthrax-laden letters that were mailed to a number of media
organisations and politicians.
Bioterrorism can be caused by biological agents, like microbes, germs, poisons, etc.
Examples include anthrax, ricin, botulism toxin, and so on. Bioterrorism leads to high levels
of morbidity and mortality, since aerosolised biological agents infect or kill a large number of
people in a short period of time. Bioterrorism can also be disruptive to agriculture. It is used
to decimate livestock, contaminate environment and threaten food security through deliberate
acts of food poisoning and infection.
 Chapter 9 Biological Hazard  79
The biological weapons can be natural microbes, wild-type strains of such microbes, or
could even be genetically engineered organisms. These can include products of metabolism that
has the capacity to kill the targeted host. It could also include biological toxins and substances
that interfere with the normal behaviour (like hormones, neuropeptides and cytokines). Using
modern technology, it is possible to design and manufacture deadly substances that mimic the
action of biologics. It is also possible to create “designer” substances that can specifically target
a particular cell-type in humans and animals. Table 9.2 provides various types of bacteria, virus
and toxic BWs. A number of factors, listed below, influence and determine the emergence of
infectious diseases. They are:
1. Social factors: This could be urbanisation, human migration, war, etc.
2. Microbial factors: This includes genetic mutation, recombination, assortment, etc.
3. Environmental factors: Examples include earthquakes, floods, deforestation,
changes in animal/insect populations, etc.

Table 9.2 Bacteria, Viruses and Toxic BWs

Bacillus anthracis
Clostridium perfringens
C. Tetani
C. Botulinum toxins
Bacteria
Ehec 0157 and other verotoxin serotypes
Legionella pneumophila
Yersinia pestis, pseudotuberculosis
Brucella abortus
Variola virus
Rift valley
Murray valley encephalitis virus
Omsk haemorrhagic fever virus
Viruses
Ebola and marburg viruses
Japanese encephalitis virus
Dengue fever virus
Oropouche virus
Cholera toxin
Botulinum toxin
Tetanus toxin
Toxins C. Perfringens toxin
Ricin, abrin
Shiga toxin
Trichothecenes

Some important features of BW according to Kumar, Verma, Yadav, Sabri, and Asthana
(2011) include:
80  Disaster Management

(a) Being highly infectious and effective,

(b) Can be easily produced with a long shelf life,
(c) Possible to efficiently disperse,
(d) Possible to readily grow and can be produced in large quantities,
(e) Stable on storage,
(f) Resistant to most environmental conditions, and
(g) Resistant to majority of treatments.
A few control measures for combating bioterrorism include:
1. Enacting appropriate national laws criminalising and offering stringent punishments
for production, stockpiling, transfer of its use,
2. Enactment of similar national laws that has to power to monitor the use of pre-cursor
materials and chemicals that could be used in the development of chemical and
bio-weapons,
3. Establishment of suitable national and international data banks that should monitor
the traffic of such materials and chemicals, their use in various industries and
programmes, licensing aspects and their availability in national, regional and
international markets,
4. Establishment of confirmatory protocols aiding the destruction and dispersal of those
outdated stockpiles, and precursor components.

EXTENSIVE INFESTATIONS
There are various types of extensive infestations—the most extensive of which is insects or
parasite infestation. Invasive incursion of insects or parasites could adversely affect humans,
animals, crops as well as materials. Examples include the following:

Locusts

Locusts constitute a serious threat to food security as they form very large and highly mobile
swarms capable of migrating over great distances, and destroying standing crops over large
areas. Locusts are of three types—Desert locust, Red locust and the African migratory locust.
The Desert locust is the most virulent of all. Desert locusts inhabit the central, arid, and semi-
arid parts of Africa, the Middle East and South-West Asia. They are found to exhibit two
distinct behavioural phases in their life:
1. Solitary phase: In this phase the individual locusts actively avoid one another.
Conversion from the solitary to gregarious phase occurs through a series of complex
interaction of various factors and climatic conditions. High rainfall, coupled with lush
green vegetation, and a queer behaviour wherein the locusts have an increase in the
rate at which the hairs on the back legs are touched by the others is responsible for
changing them from the solitary to gregarious phase.
 Chapter 9 Biological Hazard  81
2. Gregarious phase: In the gregarious phase the locusts convert themselves into
marching hopper bands, formed through mass aggregations of flightless nymphs; and
swarms formed through adult groups with high levels of mobility.
In the gregarious phase, hopper and swarms cause large scale devastation to crops and
pastures. After gregarising, the locusts migrate to invade areas in the form of swarms. Groups
having strong cohesion migrating long distances are known as swarms. The size of a swarm
could range from less than one to over 300 sq miles. The biggest swarm ever, recorded in
India was about 1200 sq miles. A single sq mile of locust swarm could weigh about 150 to 200
tonnes. It is said to consume 200 tonnes of food per day. A swarm flies at a speed of 12 km
to 15 km per hour, at a height of 7000 feet, and is known to travel over 250 km per day. They
fly around 2000 km in a stretch on an average of 9 to 12 hours per day, and approximately
4500 km in a month. It can fly around 2000 km at a stretch. Swarms generally move into areas
with low convergence of winds2 and move down wind. They fly during day time and settle
by nightfall. During migration the mature ones settle on the ground to breed, while the others
fly on. It is found that a copulating and laying swarm stay in the same area for around 3 to 4
days. The breeding of Locusts occur mostly in three seasons as given in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3 Breeding Season of Locusts

S. No. Season Area of breeding

Winter breeding Winter breeding mostly occurs in the coastal plains bordering the
1 (November and Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. It also stretches across the coast of
December) South-East Arabia as well as the Mekran coast of Iran and Pakistan.
Spring breeding of locusts across a wide range of areas and countries.
Spring breeding They include Western Sahara, Mauritania, South and Central Algeria,
2
(January to June) Libya, Chad, the coastal plains ranging from Red Sea, Gulf of Aden,
South, Central, Eastern Arabia, and parts of Afghanistan.
Summer breeding occurs in the southern fringes of Sahara that
extends from Mauritania to Sudan, coastal areas of Ethiopia and
Summer breeding
3 Southern Arabia, Mekran, Tharparker and the Cholistan desert of
(July to October)
Pakistan, as well as the desert areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat. It
also occurs in parts of Haryana.

Locust plague
Desert locusts migrate annually downwind to breed in places having winter, spring, and
where summer rains fall. At times, when there are erratic seasonal rains, only local outbreaks
occur. When seasonal rains are widespread, heavy and long lasting, a number of simultaneous
outbreaks occur. Aided by the seasonal rainfalls, these local populations combine into an
upsurge and eventually develop into a plague. This plague can be checked only by drought,
migration to hostile habitats, or through effective control. Unprecedented increases in the
populations could blunt the control strategies.
A few terminologies associated with locust infestation are presented in Table 9.4.

2. This area were locusts converge is known as Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.
82  Disaster Management

Table 9.4 Terminologies Associated with Locust Infestation

Terminology Details
Periods that are devoid of widespread and heavy swarm infestations are
recession. In this time the locusts revert to transiens and solitarious phases.
Recession During recession only small, regional and transitory assemblage populations of
adults or small hopper infestations occur. There may also be periodical ‘deep
recessions’, wherein swarming populations disappear totally.
Outbreaks occur when there are marked increases of locust numbers due to
concentration as well as multiplication. They then increase in densities and
Outbreaks
individuals gregarise. If they are not checked in this stage, they form into bands
or swarms.
Upsurges are periods in which there are widespread and large increases in
locust numbers. During this stage there would be large number of simultaneous
Upsurges
outbreaks. This normally occurs due to two or more successive seasons of
gregarious breeding over a wide area in the same or nearby desert locust regions.
This occurs when widespread infestations of swarms of hoppers affect extensive
areas in the same year, or in several successive years in a row. Plague can have
Plagues
three stages—plague upsurge and geographical spread, fully developed plague,
and plague decline.

As against Red and African migratory locusts, the Desert locusts rarely have any fixed
or static outbreak area wherein a swarming population can be observed. This makes it difficult
to control. The Desert locusts breed wherever suitable conditions prevail all along its vast
distribution area. Due to this behaviour, it is one of the most difficult insects to control on a
national basis. Further, due to its migratory nature, the vastness of the distribution area (spanning
over continents), its adaptability to a wide range of environmental conditions, the ability of
swarms to fly thousands of kilometers in one stretch as well as the speed at which they can
move; makes them a real threat. The presence of swarms in one country could be a threat to a
number of others, though they may be thousands of kilometers away. Because of these peculiar
behaviours there is a need for international cooperation in the control of Desert locusts.

Controlling locusts
Farmers used to combine the use of pesticides with various traditional practices to control
locusts. Some traditional methods include:
• Beating or trampling on the hoppers
• Burning of roosting locusts at night
• Scattering straw over roosting sites and then burning it
• Digging up egg pods or ploughing fields infested with egg pods
• Digging deep trenches and herded hopper bands into it and crushing/burying/drowning
them
• Lighting fires or making noise to prevent swarms from settling in crops, etc.
 Chapter 9 Biological Hazard  83
Of late, most traditional controls have been replaced by the use of chemical insecticides.
Now there is marked shift away from using persistent organo-chlorines (like dieldrin, BHC,
aldrin, and lindane) to organophosphates having shorter residual action3 of about two to three
days. For local outbreaks, wherein smaller and less dense swarms are found, national locust
teams using ground control are mandated to destroy them so that they do not gregarise after
breeding. For bigger swarms, the control technique is Ultra Low Volume (ULV) application,
which is designed to spray overlapping swaths of small droplets of a concentrated pesticide on
locusts at a very low dose rates. It is sprayed directly on locust groups and small bands with
hand-held sprayers if infestations are of limited extent. If the infestations are larger, vehicle
or aircraft-mounted sprayers are used. For this, blocks are demarcated including most patches
or bands in the vicinity. Elimination of upsurge, delaying control till the population is within
well-defined targets, has been found to be counterintuitive. Outbreak and upsurge prevention
requires immediate and quick action. Early interventions minimise problems that develop and
grow over time into astronomical proportions. Now, new technologies involving computers to
manage locusts, using weather and habitat data are extensively used in the early warning of
locust infestations.
While countries with substantial agricultural production and high value export crops
are largely self-sufficient in containing desert locusts, certain other countries would require
considerable assistance during the phases of plague and upsurges. In one particular emergency
situation, desert locust campaigns treated around 26 million ha, using 16 million liters of ULV
and over 14 million kg of dust formulations. Since chemical pesticides cause environmental
pollution, bio-pesticides were developed investing large amounts of money to improve spraying
techniques. However, there are still serious doubts about the efficacy of these bio-pesticides.

Prevention of plague
The desert locust belt is vast and includes many regions and countries. This belt varies
drastically with respect to ecological, geographical and climatological aspects. As such
controlling desert locust require national, regional, and international strategies. At the UN
these activities are coordinated by FAO. Control strategy calls for countries in the recession
area where gregarisation occurs to have permanent units that identify, monitor and control
gregarious populations. The countries should undertake initial campaigns in the event of an
upsurge, in addition to organising regional and international support. If there is large scale
upsurge, they are to take the assistance of FAO. FAO has recommended that countries within
the recession area must mount plague prevention campaigns so that either outbreak or upsurge
prevention is achieved.
Various international Conferences pertaining to locust control have divided Desert Locust
belt into the following five regions. This division of countries (Table 9.5) is based on locust
cycles and movements. The activities of these regions are dealt with by FAO. FAO has an early
warning and dissemination system. It keeps the areas between Sahara and the Indian deserts
under constant monitoring and surveillance, and disseminates information and perceived threats
at regular intervals to the countries in the region.

3. In India the most commonly used insecticides for controlling desert locusts are fenitrothion and malathion.
84  Disaster Management

Table 9.5 Desert Locust Regions

S. No. Region Countries

1 South West Asia Region India, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan.
Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria,
2 Near East Region
Turkey, Egypt, UAE, Bahrain, and Yemen.
Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania and
3 East African Region
Uganda.
4 Northwestern African Region Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia.
Chad, Cameroon, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mauritania,
5 West African Region
Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta.

The FAO monitors locust manifestations through ‘Locust Watch’. Locust Watch issues
regular bulletins about various aspects including locust breeding, phase changes, upsurges and
swarm formations. These bulletins work as an early warning system for vulnerable nations.
Locust Watch also continuously monitors and provides details of likely movements of swarms
and share the information on urgent basis with member nations. Since swarm incursions are
anticipated well in advance and its position assessed accurately to alert the likely states well in
advance. The coordinating agency for FAO’s emergency assistance to countries facing desert
locust invasions is the Emergency Centre for Locust Operations (ECLO), based in Rome.

Locust warning system in India

In India the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage (DPPQS), Faridabad,
functioning under Department of Agriculture—Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India is
the apex body for locust control. A Joint Director of DPPQS heads the LWO. DPPQS issues a
fortnightly Locust Situation Bulletin. Locust research and control in India is done by the Central
Government funded ‘Locust Warning Organisation’ (LWO), based in Jodhpur of Rajasthan.
The objectives of LWO whose operations were started in 1939 include:
• Monitoring of locust situation by conducting regular survey in over 2.0 lakh sq km of
Scheduled Desert Area in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• To organise control operations for preventing locust plague, as and when necessary.
The DPPQS, based on information from FAO assesses the position of locust swarms and
alerts the States likely to be affected. The last such alert was in 2004 for the state of UP. In
India, the largest recorded damage, estimated to be around ` 10 crores, by locust cycles was
during the period 1926 to 31. This was followed by around ` 2 crores each in the periods
1940 to 46 and 1949 to 55. From 1959 to 62 the estimate was around ` 50 lakhs. Large scale
upsurges were also reported in 1978 (loss of ` 2 lakhs) and 1993 (loss of ` 7.18 lakhs). No
upsurges have been reported thereafter.

Ant Infestation
Certain species of ants are found to infest vast tracts of land all around the world. Commonly
known as ‘tramp ants’, they have been causing major impacts through their invasion of alien
 Chapter 9 Biological Hazard  85
areas. Prominent among the tramp ants is the Yellow crazy ant. Yellow crazy ants (Anoplolepis
gracilipes), named so because of its colour and its frantic behaviour when disturbed is listed
by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as one of the world’s worst
invasive species. It has caused substantial environmental harm in various places around the
globe. Considered to have originated from South-East Asia, it has achieved a pan-tropical
distribution. It has now naturalized itself in numerous places across the world including tropical
islands. These ants form ‘super colonies’ having multiple queens, allowing rapid and extensive
colonisation. These ants are scavenging predators having a broad, opportunistic diet. It utilizes
whatever food resources available in one particular season. Occasionally, yellow crazy ants
also kill invertebrates like land crabs, and some vertebrates like small reptiles, mammals and
birds through blinding them by spraying formic acid on their eyes. They also harvest seeds,
feed on plant nectar and honeydew.
Yellow crazy ants are found to replace native small predators, and even repel larger
predators. Due to the activity of these ants, insect-feeding mammals, birds, reptiles and frogs
decline in numbers as their habitat is destroyed or are stung and eaten. These ants displace native
ants species, feed on the eggs and larvae of butterflies, moths, and other insects. This would
have adverse effects on invertebrate food webs and severely affect plant pollination and seed
dispersal. Native plants are also damaged since they eat fruits and seeds, tunnel into stems and
even remove bark from seedlings. Damage to native species lead to increased weed invasion.
The yellow crazy ants have devastated the environment of the Christmas Island. These
ants have put native land crabs, birds and reptiles in peril. Prominent among the reasons for
this fate is habitat alteration and the resultant reduced resources availability. It is estimated that
the ant has displaced or killed about 15 to 20 million land crabs. This crab used to provide
biotic resistance to other invaders, such as the giant African snail and a few weed species.
Thus, a reduction in red crab numbers has changed the forest structure and facilitated secondary
invasions through various adverse effects. Some such effects include increasing tree seedling
survival rates, reduced breakdown of leaf litter, and enhanced weed spread. It also leads to
large scale insect outbreaks making the forest canopy to dieback.

Important Facts
In Africa, colonies of ants (known as Siafu) ravage country-sides every year, eliminating everything
found in their path. It is said that when food shortage occur, these ants march outside their colonies
in their millions to acquire food. Due to these ants food stuff worth hundreds of thousands of
dollars are damaged, and an average of 50 people die annually due to the infestation of these ants.

EPIDEMICS ASSOCIATED WITH DISASTERS

There is found to be a relation between natural disasters and outbreaks. The problem is
aggravated due to problems like population displacement, availability of safe water and sanitation
facilities, crowding, availability of healthcare services, and so on. These factors interact in the
context of the local disease ecology, and influence the risk for communicable diseases, resulting
in large number of deaths. Some of the reasons cited for high levels of diseases and deaths are:
1. Presence of dead bodies: The sudden presence of large numbers of dead bodies, of
humans and animals, in the disaster-affected area is one reason for disease outbreaks.
86  Disaster Management

2. Displacements: Malnutrition due to displacement increases the risk of large scale

death from communicable diseases. However, the risk for communicable disease
transmission after disasters is associated with a host of aspects like the size and
characteristics of the displaced population, the availability of safe water and
functioning latrines, the level of immunity gained to vaccine-preventable diseases,
and so on.
3. Lack of infrastructure, facilities and provisions: Destruction of the essential infra-
structure, other indispensable facilities like hospitals, medicines, blankets and other
essential services are also likely to make the populations susceptible to epidemics.

References

Dawood, F.S., Iuliano, A.D., Reed, C., et al. (2012). Estimated global mortality associated with the
first 12 months of 2009 pandemic influenza A H1N1 virus circulation: A Modelling Study,
Lancet Infect Dis, 12(9), 655.
Kumar, A., Verma, A., Yadav, M., Sabri, I., and Asthana, A. (2011). Review Paper Biological
Warfare, Bioterrorism and Biodefence, Journal of Indian Acad Forensic Medicine, 33(1),
69–73.
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) (2011). Epidemic Preparedness and
Response in Refugee Camp Settings, Division of Programme Support and Management Public
Health and HIV, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organization (WHO) (2009). Pandemic influenza preparedness and response: A
WHO guidance document, WHO website, Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/
NBK143060/.
World Health Organization (WHO). (2013). Current WHO phase of pandemic alert, Available at:
http://www.who.int/influenza/preparedness/pandemic/h5n1phase/en/index.htm

Questions

1. What do you mean by infectious disease?

2. What is an epidemic disease?
3. Write brief note about outbreak and pandemic.
4. What are the most likely population during and endemic outbreak?
5. What do you know about bioterrorism?
6. What are extensive infestations?
7. What do you mean by locust plague?
8. What are locust upsurges?
9. How can invading locusts be controlled?
10. Write a brief note about locust warning system in India.
11. Write an essay about ant infestation.
12. What are the epidemics associated with disasters?
 10
Anthropogenic/
Technological
Hazards

INTRODUCTION
Technological hazards also referred to as anthropogenic hazards involve technological or
industrial accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or certain human activities.
This hazard could result in heavy loss of life or injury, large scale damages to property, social
and economic disruption, and even environmental degradation. Examples of this hazard include
chemical accidents, industrial pollution, radioactivity, toxic wastes, breaking of dams, industrial
and transport accidents, etc.

CHEMICAL DISASTER
Chemical disasters occur in facilities that manufacture, process, handle, transport or store
hazardous chemicals. It could occur due to a host of reasons like lack of training and education
of those who handle chemicals, inadequacy of infrastructure, failure of safety systems, human
errors, sabotage, as consequence of natural calamities, etc. Chemical disasters could also occur
as a result of certain other man made eventualities like riots, conflicts, fallouts of other industrial
accidents like fire or explosion, or a combination of more than one such incident.
In chemical plants accidents can originate in areas like manufacturing or formulating
facility, process operations, storage, material handling and transportation. Some factors that
aggravate hazards connected with chemical accidents area increased volume or industrial activity,
enhanced vulnerability, failure in control and safety systems, human errors, sabotage, lack of
appropriate infrastructure for communication and evacuation, etc. The toxic manifestations and
its damaging effects on living organisms and environment of such chemicals are based on its
nature and concentrations.
A few major chemical incidents that occurred around the globe are presented in
Table 10.1.
87
88  Disaster Management

Table 10.1 Major Chemical Mishaps Around the Globe

S. No. Year Incident

Flixborough disaster—The entire plant manufacturing nylon was demolished
1 1974 by a major explosion. There were 53 casualties with near to 2000 houses and
establishments damaged.
Sevaso explosion—A runaway reaction in the chemical plant manufacturing
deadly poisonous sodium salt occurred in the Sevaso plant in Milan, Italy. The
pressure caused the rupture disk to be destroyed and the contents were discharged
into the atmosphere. A mushroom like cloud was formed over the plant. This fell
2 1976
back into the ground as white crystals contaminating over 1800 hectors of land.
This caused the death of over 80,000 domestic animals as well as cancer and
dermatitis for a large number of humans. It affected over 2,20,000 persons, with
problems like deformed babies, large number of abortions, etc.
Bhopal gas tragedy. Large quantities of Methyl isocyanate leaked from the
3 1984 Union Carbide factory in Bhopal killing over 2500 people immediately and injuring
over tens of thousands. Its after effect still linger on the soil and atmosphere.
Chernobyl disaster—The Chernobyl nuclear plant, Ukraine exploded releasing
large quantities of radioactive particles into the atmosphere. It spread over the
4 1986 western USSR and Europe. Though only 31 people died, its long-term effects
still persist. Over 3,50,400 people had to be evacuated due to the area been
contaminated.
Sarin gas attack on Tokyo Subway. The members of the sect known as Aum
5 1995 Shinrikyo in a coordinated attack in five locations released Sarin gas in Tokyo
subway killing 12 people and injuring over 10,000.
Tupraz Oil Refinery situated in the outskirts of Izmit province in Turkey leaked
hazardous material into the Izmit Bay due to structural and non-structural damages.
The plant subsequently caught fire and an area within 2 to 3 miles of the refinery
6 1999
had to be evacuated. The disaster occurred consequent to an earthquake that
claimed over 17,000 lives. The fire burnt for several days and could be suppressed
only with international help.
Atofina’s Grande Paroisse Fertilizer Plant in Toulouse in France. A storage hangar
7 2001 that contained 300 tonnes of ammonium nitrate granules exploded. Over 30 were
killed and 200 others injured.
Explosion in chemical plant in Baiyun district of Southwest China province of
8 2012 Guizhou. The blast in the factory killed 21 people and displaced over 29,000. The
blast also spilt large quantities of flammable liquids like toluene and carbinol.

In addition to Bhopal Gas Tragedy, India also had its own share of chemical
disasters. Some of the major chemical disasters that occurred in India are presented in
Table 10.2.
Industrial units that handle hazardous chemicals beyond a defined threshold limits
are known as Maximum Accident Hazard Units (MAH Units). Increased use of chemicals
in MAH units warrants better and sophisticated risk reduction techniques and safety
measures.
 Chapter 10 Anthropogenic/Technological Hazards  89
Table 10.2 Major Chemical Disasters in India

S. No. Year Incident

1 1993 Explosion at IPCL plant at Nagothane.
Leakage of ammonia gas from Oswal Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd. at Paradeep
2 1999
subsequent to the Odisha super cyclone.
Damage of phosphoric acid sludge containment and acrylonitrile during the Bhuj
3 2001
earthquake in Gujarat.
4 2002 Release of chlorine gas from GACL, Vadodara.
5 2003 Toluene fire at Ranbaxy Laboratories Ltd., Mohali.
6 2005 Fire at the ONGC platform are Bombay High.

INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Wastes generated by industries are called Industrial wastes. Industrial wastes include both
hazardous and non-hazardous wastes. Hazardous wastes are those that contain toxic substances.
It ranges from highly toxic substances that create severe problems to humans, animals, and
plants; to corrosive, highly inflammable, and explosive materials. Certain gases used in industries
are also hazardous in nature. Certain hazardous wastes like mercury and cyanide are fatal.
In India an estimated 7 million tonnes of hazardous wastes are generated annually.
Industries that generate hazardous waste include metal, chemical, paper, pesticide, dye, refining,
rubber goods, and so on. Large amounts of hazardous wastes are generated from Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. The industries generating hazardous wastes are
expected to dispose the wastes as per the provisions of the Hazardous Waste Management Rules
framed by the Government of India. Such industries should also follow the directions given by
the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB).
Though industrial waste is not considered as municipal waste, at times they are disposed-off
at the municipal disposal facilities. However, they may have to pay disposal charges to the
municipal authorities. Industries are expected to make their own arrangements for transportation
of the waste to the disposal facilities.
The position of industrial waste disposal in India is dismal. Not much authorized facilities
are available for the effective disposal of industrial wastes in the country. Many states in
India do not possess even a single facility for disposing industrial wastes. Due to all these
reasons industrial wastes are disposed in an unscientific manner, putting the health and life of
humans in peril. Unscientifically disposed industrial wastes also cause large scale damage to
the environment, in addition to creating subsoil contamination. In many instances industrial
wastes are dumped surreptitiously on open plots or on roadsides.

Problems Created by Industrial Wastes

Industrial wastes could contain a number of chemicals, the concentrations of which are
considered to be toxic. The toxic effect of any waste on humans, other living organisms, and
90  Disaster Management

the environment is based on its property and the quantity of the toxic constituents. The toxic
effects are identified using certain criteria like toxicity, phytotoxicity, genetic activity, bio-
concentration, and so on. A hazardous chemical affects human health through contact or when
it enters the human body. Some ways through which hazardous wastes affect human beings
are presented in Table 10.3.

Table 10.3 Ways Through which Hazardous Wastes Affect Human Beings

S. No. Ways Effects

A number of chemicals cause dermatitis due to direct contact with skin.
Certain other chemicals like corrosive acids can damage the skin by a
1 Skin contact
single contact. Chemicals like organic solvents can cause damage to the
skin due to repeated exposures.
Inhalation is a common method wherein humans are exposed to chemicals
waste. This is highly difficult to control. Respiratory tracts and lungs could
2 Inhalation
get severely damaged by air pollutants when they are inhaled. Inhalation
can also lead to various other complications.
Unscientific landfills could result in ingestion of toxic chemicals into
ground water. It could also lead to sub soil contamination from leachates
3 Ingestion of refuse dumps. This could even affect populations that reside away from
factory sites. The effects of ingestion could be felt decades after the wastes
have been dumped.
Source: Sulphey and Safeer (2015).

Substances are identified as hazardous depending on the dose, exposure, and duration of
exposure. Various criteria and tests have been devised to determine the toxicity of substances.
Though the levels of certain ingredients could exceed the prescribed permissible levels, the
wastes are categorized as toxic only in the event of the average value of ingredients exceeding
the prescribed level of toxicity.

HAZARDOUS WASTES
Hazardous wastes are wastes with properties that make it potentially dangerous or harmful to
human health or the environment. They are by-products of industrial or household activity,
and include materials contaminated with dioxins and heavy metals, which include mercury,
cadmium, lead, organic wastes, etc. They exist as solid, liquid, and gas. The items in which
hazardous wastes are found are old computer or electronic equipment parts, used batteries,
incinerator ash, waste liquid or sludge, etc. Anywhere in the world, the source of toxic
hazardous wastes include industry, mining, hospitals, laboratories and research institutions,
military establishments, transport services, and small workshops contribute in the generation
of hazardous waste.
Though it is difficult to arrive at the exact figures about the amounts of hazardous
waste generated internationally, the UNEP estimates the total annual international generation
of hazardous wastes to be between 300 and 500 million tonnes. Of this the OECD countries
 Chapter 10 Anthropogenic/Technological Hazards  91
account for about 80 to 90 per cent of wastes generated. This estimation pertains to couple
of decades back and the current actual figures would be much higher than this. More details
about the toxic and hazardous wastes are presented in Table 10.4.
Table 10.4 Features of Toxic Waste

Households, industry (both large and small), mining, hospitals and

1 Sources health care establishments, laboratories/research organisations, transport
services, workshops, military establishments
2 Forms Solid, liquid and gas
Old computer/electronic equipment parts, used power cells, incinerator
3 Materials
ash, waste liquid or sludge
Human beings, flora and fauna, ground and surface water, soil and
4 Areas affected
atmosphere
5 Properties Ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity

A waste is hazardous if it has any of the following four characteristics:

1. Ignitability: A waste is ignitable if it has a flash point of less than 60°C, creates
fire under certain conditions or undergoes spontaneous combustion. Most ignitable
are liquid in form. Certain waste oils, used solvents, compressed gases and chemicals
(mostly oxidizers) are ignitable.
2. Corrosivity: Acid or alkaline materials that produce acidic or alkaline solutions,
and can readily corrode or dissolve flesh, metal or other materials have corrosivity.
Aqueous wastes having pH value less than or equal to 2.0, and greater than or equal
to 12.5 have corrosive properties. Liquid wastes that corrode metal containers, such
as storage tanks, drums, and barrels are also called corrosive wastes. Waste sulfuric
acid from automotive batteries is a classical example of corrosive material.
3. Reactivity: Wastes unstable under normal conditions exhibit the property of
reactivity. Reactive wastes could explode, have violent reactions or cause problems
like releasing toxic fumes, gases, or vapours when it is heated, compressed or exposed
to water. Lithium-sulfur batteries and unused explosives are examples.
4. Toxicity: Wastes that are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed are toxic.
Examples include wastes containing mercury, lead, PCBs, etc. Toxic constituents of
such wastes may leach and pollute ground water if it is disposed unscientifically.
Toxicity could be Acute Oral Toxicity (toxic if ingested), Acute Dermal Toxicity
(toxic if exposed to skin), Acute Inhalation Toxicity (toxic if inhaled), Acute
Aquatic Toxicity (toxic to aquatic organisms), or Carcinogenic (containing cancerous
materials).
A few hazardous wastes and their properties are presented in Table 10.5.
The effects of hazardous wastes can be immediate or long term. Immediate effects
could be onsite exposure of human beings and consequent injuries. Long-term effects include
contamination of toxins into groundwater, soil, atmosphere, and consequently into the food
92  Disaster Management

Table 10.5 Hazardous Wastes and their Properties

S. No. Hazardous waste Properties

Solvents are chemicals that have a variety of uses. They are
Spent solvent used in industries involved in mechanical repairing, dry cleaning,
1
wastes electronics manufacturing, etc. The purposes for which solvents are
used include degreasing and cleaning.
A number of industries involved in plating and metal finishing
Wastes from activities include jewellery manufacture, automobile production,
electroplating and etc. Electroplating is used to change the surface of metal objects
2
metal-finishing to enhance its appearance and make it more resistant to corrosion.
operations These processes produce different types of wastes which are highly
hazardous.
Dioxins are the most dangerous known chemical compounds. They
Dioxin bearing originate from the manufacturing process of certain pesticides, and
3
wastes chemicals used in the production of pesticides. These wastes require
strict control standards.
Wood that is used for construction or other non-fuel applications
is chemically treated to reduce deterioration caused by decay and
Wood preserving insects. Wood is treated with chemicals like pentachlorophenol,
4
wastes creosote, and certain other preservatives that contain arsenic or
chromium. After treatment the sludge and the drippings from
treated wood could pollute the ground water.
Leaching occurs when rainwater filter through soil or wastes buried
in landfills. When rainwater comes in contact with buried wastes,
Multisource it draws chemicals from them. This water (leachate) carries the
5
leachate leached contaminants, which could have high concentrations of
chemicals, into the ground and deposits them elsewhere, either in
the subsurface or in groundwater.

chain. Other collateral damages include massive economic costs associated with handling of
recovery operations, cleaning up of contaminated sites, and remedial measures. Since these
wastes could contain harmful chemicals it could pose serious threats to humans, animals and
the environment. Due to these properties, these substances need to be regulated by special
legislations. Almost all countries have enacted special legislations to deal with hazardous
wastes.

International Movement of Hazardous Wastes

Despite the Basel Convention (Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movements

of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal 1989) that regulates the international movement of
hazardous wastes; illegal waste shipments have been taking place around the globe. A few
such illegal instances are presented in Table 10.6.
 Chapter 10 Anthropogenic/Technological Hazards  93
Table 10.6 Illegal Hazardous Waste Shipments

S. No. Year Incident

The ship Khian Sea nick named ‘toxic waste ship’ dumped polychlorinated
1 1988
biphenyls from Italy in a farmer’s backyard in Koko, Nigeria.
3000 tonnes of industrial waste contaminated by mercury, packed in plastic bags
was found in an open dump near Sihanoukville, Cambodia. The waste that was
2 1998 labelled as ‘cement cake’ on the import documents showed its origin to be a
Taiwanese petrochemical company. The waste was later returned to Taiwan due
to protests from the local people.
122 containers of hospital waste illegally exported to Philippines as ‘waste
3 2000 paper for recycling’. The Japanese government was forced to take back all the
containers.
A massive shipment of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contaminated waste
from a US military base in Japan was taken to USA and later Canada. The
4 2000
shipment was rejected by both the countries and sent back to Japan. The Japanese
Government send it to a tiny island called Wake Island in the Pacific Ocean.
Sixty containers with 1600 tonnes of wastes, declared as ‘recovered paper’
were seized by the Dutch port authorities. The wastes were dispatched from
the UK to China. The Dutch authorities found the consignment to contain bales
of compacted household waste, food packaging and residues, plastic bags,
5 2005 waste wood and textiles. The wastes were transported to the Dutch ports by
lorry and ferry. The bales were then transferred to sea containers. None of the
Governments (UK, Dutch or Chinese) had permitted the export, transit or export
of the consignment. The shipment was later returned to the UK, the country of
export.
The decommissioned aircraft carrier Le Clemenceau with substantial quantities of
cancer causing asbestos set sail to Indian ship breaking yard in Alang, Gujarat.
6 2006
After prolonged protests by Greenpeace and a number of other NGOs, and
protracted legal twists and turns the ship was send back to France.

Basel Convention

The Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their
Disposal 1989 considered the issues of hazardous wastes and their movement. According to
the Convention wastes are ‘substances or objects which are disposed of, or are intended to be
disposed of, or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national law’. ‘Disposal’ is
defined by the Convention to include operations that result in ‘final disposal and operations
which may lead to resource recovery, recycling, reclamation, direct re-use or alternative uses’.
The Convention created under UN Environment Programme (UNEP) calls for
‘Environmentally Sound Management’ (ESM). It aims at protecting the health of humans
and the environment against adverse effects that result from the generation, management,
transboundary movement and disposal of hazardous and other wastes. The convention became
a necessity due to the rising trend of toxic wastes being shipped to developing countries of
94  Disaster Management

Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe for disposal. The treaty initially signed by 33 nations is now
ratified by 170 countries. Countries like UK, China, India, Bangladesh, etc. have signed the
treaty. The US has opted out of the convention. In 1995 a revolutionary amendment was made
to the treaty, which prohibited the export of hazardous wastes, ‘irrespective of whether the
waste is destined for disposal or recovery’.

Aims of the Convention

The aims of the Convention are:
(a) To reduce transboundary movements of hazardous waste to a minimum,
(b) To ensure that hazardous wastes are treated and disposed of as close as possible to
their source of generation, and
(c) To minimize hazardous waste generation at source.

Wastes covered by the Convention

The wastes covered by the Convention include the following:
1. Biomedical and healthcare wastes
2. Used oils
3. Used lead acid batteries
4. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), chemicals and pesticides that persist for many
years in the environment
5. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) that are used as heat exchange fluids in electric
transformers and capacitors and as additives in paint, carbonless copy paper and
plastics
6. E-wastes, including mobile phones and computers
7. Wastes from dismantling of ships
8. Materials that contain mercury and asbestos

How the Convention works

The Convention works through the following three levels of organisation:
1. The Technical and Working committees that discuss specific subject matters of multi-
lateral agreements,
2. The Secretariat that coordinates all the operation of the Convention. The Secretariat
is administered by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and is based
in Geneva. The Secretariat reports directly to the COP,
3. The Conference of Parties (COPs) of which all the States that are party to the
Convention are members. The COP is the primary organ of the Convention. It is the
duty of the COP to develop policies that guide the implementation of the Convention.
It is also authorised to adopt amendments to the Convention, and new instruments
such as Protocols that are capable of achieving the goals of the Convention. The COP
normally meets once every two years. The decisions of COP are arrived at through
consensus.
 Chapter 10 Anthropogenic/Technological Hazards  95
The Convention has 14 Regional and Coordinating Centers that develop and undertake
regional projects, train and transfer technology required for its implementation.

The Convention document

The Convention document has a Preamble, Articles and Annexes. The Preamble lists the
objectives of the convention. There are 29 Articles in the document. It forms the subject
matter of the document. There are eight Annexes to the document. The Annexes contain the
specific subject matter of agreements that has been reached by the convention. The details of
the Annexes to the convention are as per Table 10.7.
Table 10.7 Annexes to the Basel Convention

S. No. Details
1 It provides the definition about the categories of waste that is controlled by the convention.
2 This Annex has the categories of wastes that require special consideration.
3 This provides the list of hazardous characteristics.
This has two parts—Part A and Part B. while Part A lists down what constitutes disposal
4
operations for ‘waste’, Part B deals with ‘recovery’.
The procedure required for the Prior Informed Consent and trade in permitted wastes,
5
and specific documentary information are provided in this Annex.
This Annex provides the procedure for Arbitration in the event of disputes between
6
signatories.
This came into existence following the amendment adopted in 1995. However, this is
still not in force as it is still pending ratification of 2/3rd of the members. This has a
7 list of countries supporting an international trade ban on movement of hazardous wastes
with countries that are not part of Annex VII. The EU supports the ban on movement
of hazardous wastes. Being not a signatory, USA is provided is an exclusion.
8 This categorises the hazardous waste that will be subjected to trade ban.
9 This categorises the hazardous wastes that are excluded for a complete trade ban.

The list of items that is to be included Annexes VIII and IX are still debated between
the members. This task has been assigned to the Technical Working Group.
The convention document has been subject to amendments effected in 1995 and 1997.
These amendments bring out the distinction between members of the Convention. Those
member countries listed under Annex VII, known as ‘Annex VII’ members (who include
the OECD/EU countries), are permitted to have different trading rules to non-Annex VII
members. While trades of hazardous materials are allowed between members of Annex VII,
trade between non-Annex VII members is not allowed. This applies to even wastes that are
inputs for recycling process.
Certain other legislations that deal with hazardous wastes in India are:
1. Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998: These rules apply
to healthcare institutions. It lays down rules to streamline the process of handling
96  Disaster Management

(segregation, collection, and treatment) and disposal of hazardous wastes originating

from hospitals and related institutions.
2. Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 2000: These rules
deal with the scientific management of municipal solid wastes. The provisions
of this Rules ensures the proper collection, segregation, storage, transportation,
processing, and disposal of municipal solid waste. The rules contain provisions for
organized waste-collection system, conducting of awareness programs, providing
adequate community storage facilities and colour-coded bins, promoting segregation
at source, using covered transport vehicles, processing of wastes through appropriate
technologies, and recycling and recovery of hazardous waste materials.
3. The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules 2001: These rules apply to
manufacturers, importers, re-conditioners, assemblers, dealers, recyclers, auctioneers
and consumers who are involved in the process of manufacturing, processing, selling,
purchasing, and use of batteries or its components. The purpose behind this act is
the control of pollution and its adverse effects due to hazardous materials like lead
used in batteries.

Electronic waste (e-waste)

E-waste is the collective name provided for those discarded electronic devices that enter the
waste stream or is nearing the end of their ‘useful life’. According to the UNEP e-waste is ‘a
generic term encompassing various forms of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) that
are old, end-of-life electronic appliances and have ceased to be of any value to their owners’.
The Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules 2003 (Rule 3) defines e-waste as
‘Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment including all components, sub-assemblies and their
fractions except batteries falling under these rules’.
E-waste could include obsolete electronic devices like computers, monitors and display
devices; telecommunication devices such as cellular phones; audio and video devices; printers,
scanners, copiers and fax machines; and household equipment like refrigerators, air conditioners,
televisions and washing machines. E-wastes are generated from different sources like post-
consumer waste and defective equipment from manufacturing facilities. Such wastes could
include defective PCBS, IC chips and a host of other components that are discarded in the
production process. E-wastes contain toxic materials such as lead, cadmium, mercury and
arsenic; and toxic flame-retardants that could pose significant health risks. These materials
contaminate soil, groundwater and air. It could also affect human beings coming in contact with
such materials like workers of recycling units as well as the community living around such
units. The volume, range and complexity of materials that form e-wastes make the disposal
and recycling extremely difficult and expensive.

E-waste in India
E-wastes have been found to contain over 1000 different substances, under hazardous and non-
hazardous categories. According to the Guideline for Environmentally Sound Management of
E-waste, Government of India (2008) as approved by the Ministry of Environment and Forests;
iron and steel account for more than half of the total weight of e-wastes. This is followed
 Chapter 10 Anthropogenic/Technological Hazards  97
by plastics (approximately 21 per cent), non-ferrous metals (13 per cent) and certain other
constituents. The metal composition is provided in Table 10.8.
Table 10.8 Composition of E-wastes

Precious metals Gold, Silver, Palladium, Platinum, etc.

Base metals Copper, Aluminium, Nickel, Tin, Zinc, Iron, etc.
Special metals Indium, Bismuth, Antimony, Selenium, etc.
Hazardous metals Mercury, Beryllium, Lead, Cadmium, Arsenic, etc.

There is a lack of authentic and comprehensive data on e-waste availability in India. The
various State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) have initiated steps to collect data about the
generation of e-wastes. According to the Guideline for Environmentally Sound Management
of E-waste (2008), the current e-waste inventory in India, based on the obsolescence rate and
installed base is estimated to be around 8,00,000 tonnes. As per the Report, 65 cities generate
more than 60 per cent of the total e-waste generated in India. Further, 10 states generate over
70 per cent of the total e-waste. They include Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab.

Approach for Identifying Hazardousness of E-waste

The Government of India has customized the approach followed by the Department for
Environment, Food and Natural Affairs, Government of United Kingdom to classify e-waste.
The four-step approach is presented in Table 10.9.
Table 10.9 Approach and Methodology to Determine Hazardousness

S. No. Step Details

In this step the e-waste item is identified based on its tentative
Identify the e-waste
1 year of manufacture. This could give details like the technology
category item
used and the likely components that are present in it.
The composition of the e-waste is determined by its year of
manufacture. Industry Associations are expected to maintain
Identify the e-waste the required records of the Electrical and Electronic Equipment
2
composition composition. This should be regularly updated. In case of any
doubt appropriate testes are to be carried out to find out the
composition.
The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules
Identify possible 2003—Schedule I and II are to be referred if the e-waste has
3 hazardous content in hazardous content. Annexure VII of the Rules is to be referred
e-waste for comparing the thresholds of hazardous substances. In this
respect Indian regulations follow the standards set by Europe.
Identify whether the This step is done based on the data available with global
4 component or the entire industry associations. Appendix 1 of the Rules can be referred
e-waste item is hazardous for determining the hazardousness of the component of item.
98  Disaster Management

RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is the phenomenon, wherein certain elements emit particles and radiations
spontaneously. Radioactive substances are capable of emitting radiation is a form of energy.
Radioactivity has the property to remain unchanged and cannot be altered by the application
of heat, electricity or any other force. These substances have the property of emitting radiation
by themselves or by being emitted as radionuclide particles into the environment, which in
turn emit radiation.
Radioactivity occurs naturally as well as from human activities. Radiation from radioactive
materials occurs due to the emission of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation is a form
of energy that is radiated as waves due to changing electric and magnetic fields. There
are various forms of electromagnetic radiation, each having varying wavelength and energy
content. Radiation can be either ionizing or non-ionizing in nature. Cosmic rays, Gamma rays,
X-rays, and Ultraviolet radiation are examples of ionizing radiations. They have high energy
and are capable of ionizing the atoms by knocking out electrons from atoms. The electrons
and positively charge ions that form after ionization are capable of causing severe damaging
effects to living cells. In humans radiation can cause serious health problems like cancer. Non-
ionizing radiations do not possess high energy and are harmless. The visible light that can be
seen through human eyes is an example of non-ionizing radiation. Other non-ionizing radiations
include infra-red waves, micro-waves, TV waves, radio waves, etc. Details about the various
ionizing and non-ionizing radiations are presented in Table 10.10.
Table 10.10 Details Pertaining to Various Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiations

S. No. Radiations Examples Properties

Alpha rays Consist of particles carrying positive charge.
Beta rays Consist of particles carrying negative charge.
Cosmic rays enter the atmosphere which very high
speeds. They are not actually rays, but particles with
Cosmic rays
protons in high preponderance. There are also Alpha
Ionizing and Beta particles.
1
radiation
Charge-less electromagnetic radiations with shorter
Gamma rays
wavelength.
Ultra-violet rays
Have the property to penetrate and affect living tissues
X-rays
and cells.
Visible rays Is visible through human eyes.
Infra-red rays
Micro-waves
Non-ionizing
2 TV waves
radiation
These are radiations of longer wavelength. It could
Radio waves cause a thermal effect. These radiations induce thermal
agitation in the molecules of the matter and produce heat.
 Chapter 10 Anthropogenic/Technological Hazards  99
Those radioactive materials emitting alpha or beta particles are called internal emitters.
They are called so since these rays severely affect living tissues if absorbed or ingested.
External emitters are those radioactive substances that emit gamma rays. These rays are highly
penetrating and could produce adverse effects even without being absorbed in the body.

Sources of Radioactivity
Sources of radioactivity can be either natural or anthropogenic. Each of the sources is now
detailed as follows:

Natural
Radioactivity that occur naturally are presented in Table 10.11.
Table 10.11 Natural Sources of Radioactivity

S. No. Source Particulars

The solar rays consist of a number of rays like gamma rays, cosmic rays,
etc. Cosmic rays are highly energetic particles and could cause untold
1 Solar rays
harm on the surface of earth. These deadly radiations are stopped from
reaching earth by the atmosphere.
Earth contains a number of naturally occurring radio elements. Radiations
could also emanate from the soil, rocks, air and ground water. The
radioactive elements that occur in the lithosphere include uranium,
thorium, radium, isotopes of potassium and carbon, etc. Radioisotopes
of these naturally occurring elements release substantial quantities of
radiation. The radiations so released include alpha, beta and gamma rays.
Environmental These radiations tend to mix and interact with natural particulate materials
2
radiation in the atmosphere creating radioactive pollution.
Uranium and thorium are found extensively in ores, rocks, soils, and
rivers and sea. Radiations from these materials are passed on to the water,
plants, animals and humans. Certain coastal areas in India, for instance
Kollam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala have vast deposits of ‘black
sand’ containing substantial quantities of thorium.
The Earth’s crust has wide distribution of radioactive materials like
uranium, thorium, potassium, radon, etc. These radioactive materials
give rise to a phenomenon known as terrestrial activity, constituting
Radionuclide
substantial portion of radioactivity in the soil. Radon and radium are the
3 in Earth’s
common radioactive isotopes that are found in the radioactive springs. It
crust
is estimated that on an average, a human being receives about one rad
per annum due to terrestrial radiation. It could even be as high as 2000 m
rad per annum in those areas where rocks containing uranium rocks exist.
Human body contains radioactive elements like potassium, uranium,
thorium, strontium, etc. in minute quantities. Due to the action of these
Internal elements radiations originate within human bodies. Most of the radiation
4 in human body occurs when potassium decay in the muscles.
radiation
Certain other radio nuclides which release radiations in the body include
carbon, calcium, iodine, phosphorus, manganese, cobalt, hydrogen, etc.
100  Disaster Management

Anthropological sources
A large number of anthropological sources are involved in emitting radiations. They are causing
radioactive pollutions which have diverse types of ill effects to humans and other living
organisms. The major artificial sources of radiation are presented in Table 10.12.
Table 10.12 Anthropological Sources of Radiation

S. No. Source Particulars

Medical X-rays are highly penetrating rays used in radiotherapy for
1 Medical X-ray diagnostic purposes. It could cause chronic defects in internal organs,
including genetic damages.
Radioisotopes are administered to cancer patients during radiation
therapy, as they have the property of killing cancerous cells. However,
2 Radio isotopes
the indiscriminate and uncontrolled use of radio nuclides on patients has
increased the possibility of nuclear pollution.
Many research laboratories in the field of health care, fertilizers, academics,
etc. use radioactive materials for experiments. These laboratories pose
Research
3 problems of radioactive pollution. Pollution from research laboratories
laboratorial
using radioactive substances are bound to increase in the near future due
to the increases of the technology.
Due to being exposed to radiation, the nuclear reactors, its structural
materials and components become radioactive. This leads to the
Nuclear
4 generation of active solid, liquid or gaseous corrosion products in the
reactors
reactor. These radioactive wastes could contain large quantities of long
lived radionuclides that could spread havoc.
Nuclear tests are conducted by a number of countries, both developed and
developing. These tests could be either nuclear fission or fusion, using
materials like uranium, plutonium, lithium, beryllium, etc. These nuclear
5 Nuclear tests
tests release large quantities of long lived nucleotides into the atmosphere.
These radioactive nucleotides get distributed all over the globe through
various natural processes.
Now around the globe substantial quantities of power is generated from
Nuclear power
nuclear power plants. Such power plants could give out radioactive
6 plants and
liquids, gases, and fission fragments. These wastes could pollute a large
installations
area with its radioactivity.

Radioactive fallout
When a nuclear test is conducted during the explosion radioactive materials get vaporized
due to high force of explosion and the extremely high temperature. These radioactive dusts
are ejected high into the air as extremely fine particles. The dust particles are suspended at a
height of about seven to eight km above the earth’s surface. Air currents in the atmosphere
disperse these dust particles around the globe, posing atmospheric pollution. The radioactive
particles could be absorbed by the atmospheric dust, and could settle down gradually to the
earth’s surface. It could also come down with rain. The process whereby the radioactive dust
from atomic explosions falls down to earth is known as radioactive fallout.
 Chapter 10 Anthropogenic/Technological Hazards  101
Nuclear fallout could occur gradually over large geographic areas for considerably long
period of time. The radioactive fallouts are of two types:
1. Early fallout: Nuclear explosion that are conducted at low altitudes sucks up large
quantities of soil and water from the surroundings. The fireball that is created during
the explosion condenses the heavy particles, making it to fall back in a short span of
time. These radioactive pollutants are then carried by wind to various places, even
far away from the explosion site. These pollutants create several severe problems and
ill effects to living organisms.
2. Delayed fallout: Little dirt and water are sucked up if the nuclear explosion are
conducted at high altitudes. In such a case there will be delayed fallout. Delayed
fallout could spread the fine particles to the troposphere and stratosphere, thereby
polluting it. In the case of delayed fallout the pollutants could be spread to even
wider areas, than immediate fallout.
That both immediate and delayed fallout would create problems and ill-effects of untold
dimensions to broad areas is a foregone conclusion.

Effects of radioactive pollution

Radiation causes a large number of adverse effects to humans, other living beings and the
surroundings. A few such effects are discussed in Table 10.13.
Table 10.13 Effects of Radioactive Pollutants

S. No. Particulars Effects

To human beings radiation could lead to acute, chronic or genetic damages.
Acute radiation damage: This damage occurs due to being exposed
to relatively large dose of radiation within a short span of time. Acute
radiation can cause immediate death, death within a few weeks, loss of
hairs, bleeding from mouth and gums, widespread ulcers, etc.
Chronic radiation damage: This occurs from relatively small continuous
dose of radiation over a period of time. Chronic radiation can cause
conditions, like leukemia, anemia, cancers, damage to cell membranes,
reduced span of life, genetic mutations, etc.
Genetic radiation damage: This damage represents the long-term effect
1 Humans of radiation. It could lead to genetic changes leading to untold miseries
for future generations. Brain damage or mental retardation could occur to
unborn children if irradiation occurred to the mother during the formation
of the central nervous system of the child in early pregnancy.
Other effects: There could be a host of other effects as a result of exposure
to ionizing radiation. It includes delirium and convulsions if the brain and
central nervous system are exposed to high doses of ionizing radiation,
cataracts and the consequent impairment of sight, internal bleeding and
blood vessel damage leading to red spots on the skin, etc.
The bone marrow could be damaged retarding the ability of the body to
fight infections. This could also result in hemorrhaging all over the body.
102  Disaster Management

S. No. Particulars Effects

Radiation in small quantities could affect the chromosomes and lead to
chlorophyll reduction, reduced effectiveness of photosynthesis, harmful
2 Plants
mutation, etc. over a period of time. Other damages include falling of
leaves, buds and flowers, and the eventual dying of the plants.
Nuclear fallouts that occur as a result of explosions could contain
radioisotopes. The radionuclides contained in them could fuse with iron,
silica or dust, or combine with organic compounds to form their complexes.
These radionuclides could form colloids that adhere tightly to the leaves
3 Surroundings
of plants. This could result in radiation damages to leaf tissues. Animals
grazing on these leaves could ingest radiation to the food chain even at
the primary consumers level, wrecking havoc of unimaginable dimensions.
The results of delayed fall out could beyond comprehension.

Important Facts
Mayapuri Radiation Exposure Incident
On April 7, 2010, the National Radiation Regulatory Authority of Atomic Energy Regulatory
Board (AERB) was informed by Indraprastha Apollo Hospital, New Delhi, about a person aged 32
being admitted with symptoms of radiation exposure. The victim was the owner of a scrap shop in
Mayapuri Industrial Area in New Delhi. Immediately an expert team from AERB visited the place
at Mayapuri with radiation detection equipment and monitored the radiation levels near his scrap
shop. The particular shop and a few others nearby were found to have very high levels radiation
fields. Sensing the seriousness of the matter, a number of teams of Radiation safety experts from
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), AERB and Narora Atomic Power Station were sent to
Delhi with a wide range of radiation monitoring and detecting equipment. Their mission was to
locate, identify, recover, safely secure and dispose the radioactive sources in the area.
The response team identified the radiation source as Cobalt-60. This material is used mainly in
industry for radiography and in teletherapy for cancer treatment. The team located, recovered
and secured eight sources of radioactive scrap of varying intensities. Investigations revealed the
source of the scrap to be from one of the laboratories of Delhi University. These sources of
radioactivity were taken to Narora for further examination and safe disposal. Subsequently, a
radiation survey was conducted in the nearby scrap metal shops. The survey identified elevated
levels of radiation in another shop about 500 m away from the first source. A team consisting of
AERB and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) succeeded in recovering and taking custody
of two more radioactive sources from this shop.
All the 800 shops in the surrounding areas were scanned for radioactivity. The entire area was
declared free of elevated level of radiation fields, except for a small area at the entrance of the
market, where the soil over a small patch was contaminated to a very low order. The team removed
contaminated soil to bring down the radiation field.
The discovery of radiation sources from the scrap market prompted the NDMA to constitute a
Working Group. Its main aim was to minimize the possibility of such recurrences in future. The
working group was also expected to spell out the roles and responsibilities of various related
agencies in dealing with such exigencies. The working group submitted its report to the Cabinet
Secretariat. Steps have now been initiated to prevent recurrence of such instances.
 Chapter 10 Anthropogenic/Technological Hazards  103
TRAFFIC DISASTERS
Traffic disasters are incidents that reduce the right-of-way and the supply capacity of the
transport system. Traffic incident management is a part of disaster management, which deals
with the accidents that could arise as a result of vehicular traffic. Though daily traffic incidents
does not warrant for special traffic management schemes, disaster situations would require
special traffic management strategies. Traffic incidents are classified as collision and non-
collision incidents. Collision incidents can be further classified based on type of collision and
source of collision. Non-collision incidents are based conditions based on the vehicle, weather,
the people, and certain other conditions. The classification of traffic incidents are presented
in Figure 10.1.

Figure 10.1 Classification of traffic incidents.

Collision can be with other vehicles, structures and buildings, pedestrians, animals, etc.
Traffic accidents due to non-collision can be due to the condition of the vehicle, the weather,
the people and certain other conditions like non-vehicle fire, civil strife, demonstration, etc.

Cyber Infrastructure Failure and Cyber Attacks

Cyber infrastructure is the infrastructure that is based on integrated distributed computer,

information, and communication technology. It includes the electronic systems and information
contained in these systems. The economy and national security of almost all countries depend
heavily on cyber infrastructure. Almost all wings of Government including military, police,
health services, and a number of other emergency services providers rely on cyber infrastructure.
Another important area that uses cyber infrastructure is the Global Positioning System (GPS).
GPS is indispensable for telecommunications, power grids, and to respond to crises.
Presently, the economy and security of any country is dependent heavily on its cyber
infrastructure. Almost all emergency services, be it military, police, firefighters, ambulance and
hospital services, and so on rely heavily on computers, information networks, and the Global
Positioning System (GPS) to respond to crises. GPS provides valuable assistance for various
telecommunication activities. With the increased dependency and interconnectedness on cyber
infrastructure, any failure is bound to have debilitating and devastating impacts on all spheres
where ICT is employed.
Cyber infrastructure failure is a new form of disaster that can be considered as ‘the
aftermath’ of technological advancements. It can occur as a result of natural events as well as
104  Disaster Management

malicious cyber-attacks. Example of a natural event causing cyber failure is solar storm. Solar
storms that emit electromagnetic pulses are bound to create disastrous effects. For instance, in
the year 1989, there was a severe magnetic storm that overloaded the power grid in Quebec,
Canada, which caused millions of dollars worth of damage. This damage left millions of
people without power for hour’s altogether. The economic damage that can be caused due to
such events is catastrophic in nature. Complete recovery from such an event could take years
altogether.
Malicious cyber-attacks can take many forms. Examples include attacks on cyber
infrastructure by hostile governments, criminal or terrorist groups, disgruntled individuals,
etc. These attacks are now a matter of growing concern. The resultant loss or degradation
of GPS signals could increase vulnerabilities affecting civil aviation, maritime and surface
transportation. Inexpensive GPS jammers that can fit in a shirt’s pocket are now available
in the market. Such appliances can be used to disrupt or distort GPS reception and confuse
emergency responders who rely on it for communication and logistical support. Cyber failure
due to natural atmospheric disruptions, failure of mechanical or software operation or with
malicious intention is now posing a serious threat and is a growing issue around the globe.

Reference

Guideline for Environmentally Sound Management of E-waste (2008). Government of India,

New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests.

Questions

1. What is a chemical disaster?

2. What are industrial wastes? How can it be dealt with?
3. What do you know about hazardous wastes? When do you call a waste hazardous?
4. What do you know about Basel Convention?
5. Write a note about e-waste.
6. Write an essay about radioactivity.
7. What are the various sources of radioactivity?
8. What is radioactive fallout? Elaborate.
9. What are the effects of radioactive pollution?
10. Write a note about cyber-attacks.
 11 Environmental
Degradation
Land and Soil
Degradation

INTRODUCTION
Environmental degradation can take various forms. Some of them include degradation of land,
air, water, desertification, etc. The various degradations are presented in this chapter.

LAND DEGRADATION
Land is composed of several elements like soil, water, flora and fauna, microclimate, etc. In
addition to economic uses, like agriculture, infrastructure, forestry, pastures, etc., land is also
capable of performing a large number of environmental regulatory or ecological functions. A
few environmental regulatory functions of land include controlling of global warming as well
as acting as a sink for harmful chemicals.
Land degradation is a phenomenon that is influenced by certain natural and socio-
economic or human factors. It is a manifestation of loss of certain intrinsic qualities or a decline
in the land’s capability to perform certain vital economic and ecological functions. From an
economic point-of-view land degradation is the gradual declining of productivity and utility of
land. Decline in productivity occurs due to loss in the quality of soil, water and vegetation—the
ecologically and economically important attributes of land.
Overall, land degradation can be considered to be directly linked to human actions, and
indirectly to a series of climatic variations. UNCCD (1996) defined land degradation as:
the reduction or loss in arid, semiarid, and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or
economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range,
pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination
of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns,
such as
(a) soil erosion caused by wind and water;
105
106  Disaster Management

(b) deterioration of the physical, chemical, and biological or economic properties of soil;
and
(c) long-term loss of natural vegetation. (Part 1, Article 1f)
In India, vast stretches of area suffers from various forms of degradation. Some of
the reasons for land degradation include soil, water and wind erosion, and number of other
complex problems that include alkalinity, salinity and soil acidity due to water logging. Varying
degrees and types of land degradation occur due to a host of reasons that include unstable use,
inappropriate land management practices, etc. Degradation also occurs as a result of host of
other reasons like deforestation, forest fires, shifting and intensive cultivation, improper crop
rotation, over grazing, non-adaptation of soil conservation measures, indiscriminate use of
fertilizers and pesticides, over extraction of ground water in excess of its recharge capacity,
etc. A few of the reasons of land degradation are discussed in detail.

Soil Erosion

Soil is a natural resource that is indispensable for the support of life on earth. It is unique
and non-renewable in nature. Soil is eroded through various processes like water and wind
erosion. As any other nation, India also suffers from the adverse effect of soil erosion. Very
little geographical area in India is free from the hazard of soil erosion. It is estimated that over
45 per cent of area in India is affected by soil erosion. Reasons for soil erosion include shifting
cultivation, wasteland cultivation, water logging, deforestation, loss of green cover, etc. The
after effects of soil erosion include serious environmental problems with disastrous economic
consequences as a result of deceased soil fertility and exceedingly high levels of sedimentation
of reservoirs. High levels of soil erosion are evident in most rivers. Ganga, Brahmaputra and
Kosi rivers top the list of soil erosion. These rivers carry huge amount of eroded soil and
deposit them as sediments in the river bed. The Kosi River is notorious for shifting course and
causing widespread damages. In addition to erosion by rivers, rain also causes landslides and
floods in hilly terrains. Other factors that aid soil erosion include deforestation, overgrazing,
certain agricultural practices, unscientific developmental processes, mining operations, etc. In
arid and desert areas like Rajasthan, top soil is lost due to the operation of wind erosion. In
India, the average erosion rate is estimated to range from 5 to 20 tonnes per hectare. At times,
it reaches up to 100 tonnes per hectare. Widespread scientific soil conservation measures can
arrest this menace.
More details about soil erosion is provided in the section titled ‘Soil degradation’.

Agricultural practices
Ever since Green Revolution, there has been intensive and extensive agriculture. This led to
large tracts of hitherto uncultivated land been brought under cropping resulting in excessive
and unbalanced use of fertilizers and pesticides. These fertilizers and pesticides leech into
water bodies contaminating the water sources, resulting in eutrophication. It is estimated that
only something over 23 per cent of the fertilizers that are applied is consumed by the plants
and the remaining 77 per cent leaches to the ground below the root zone or is lost due to the
 Chapter 11 Environmental Degradation: Land and Soil Degradation  107
process of volatilisation.1 Over-exploitation of ground water resources has become rampant.
Some irrigated areas have become water logged, beyond use. This results in large scale soil
erosion, salination or alkalisation of land and the acute loss of nutrients. Another agricultural
practice that has led to land degradation in hilly areas is shifting cultivation. The compounding
effect of all these are loss of biodiversity on land and ill-health of the oceans. To tide over
these grave situations there is an urgent need to control soil erosion and invigorate land.

Shifting cultivation
In the world over, there has been large scale of unscientific and extravagant shifting cultivation.
In India it is prevalent mostly in eastern and north-eastern regions. Odisha is one state that
accounts for large scale of shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation has devastating and far
reaching consequences, and degrades the land and environment to a stage of no return. It
has been the reason for large scale deforestation, massive invasion by alien species, loss of
biodiversity, soil erosion, nutrient loss, and so on.

Excessive use of chemical fertilizers

Excessive use of chemical fertilizers in the last few decades has adversely affected the soil
profile in the last few decades. The per hectare consumption of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides have increased multifold since the Green Revolution. Estimates show that it has
increased from 69.8 kg per hectare in 1991–1992 to 113.3 kg in 2006–2007. This shows an
average increase of over 3 per cent. As stated earlier a large portion of these chemicals leach
below the root zone and contaminate ground water sources. It also enters water bodies resulting
in eutrophication.

Change in forest cover

Forests provide a wide range of life providing services, like prevention of soil erosion, floods,
landslides, in addition to maintaining soil fertility and biomass, carbon fixing and so on. The
FAO (2006) estimates that during the period from 1990 to 2005 deforestation has taken place at
an alarming rate of about 1,30,000 km2 or 13 million hectors per annum. In India, forest cover
is little over 20 per cent of the geographical area. The area under forest cover has been steadily
declining since the past century. Change in forest cover has accelerated the pace of biodiversity
loss, soil erosion, and reduced level of soil nutrient availability and carbon sequestration. Since
deforestation is dealt in detail in the following section, it is dealt with only briefly here.

Flooding
Due to various reasons like deforestation, unplanned development, urbanisation, etc., there
are now increased frequencies of floods. Another major reason for flooding is the increased
sedimentation and reduced capacity of drainage capacity of the rivers. Due to reduced capacity,
streams and rivers overflow their banks, flooding large tracts in the plains and the downstream

1. Volatilisation is the process in which dissolved compound is vaporised, made volatile or passed off as
vapour. In this process a substance is converted from one state to a gaseous or vapour state.
108  Disaster Management

areas. Human-induced water logging also plays havoc where unscientific surface irrigation is
done.

Pollution
Disposal of industrial effluents, domestic/municipal wastes/garbage/sewage, and excessive use
of agrochemicals have been causing soil pollution from heavy metals and otherwise. This
problem has been causing extensive land degradation in various parts of the world. Other
factors that have contributed towards soil pollution include mismanagement of agricultural
land, excessive grazing, fire, etc. Due to these problems soil loses its texture, and infiltration
and permeability are adversely affected.

SOIL DEGRADATION
Loss of fertility or productivity of soil is termed soil degradation. It is now a serious issue all
over the globe. During the second half of the century an estimated 10 per cent of the world’s
soil lost substantial quantities of its natural fertility. The rate of degradation was as heavy
as 24 per cent in certain parts of Central America. The major reason for soil degradation is
deforestation. The rate of soil degradation in Europe is to the extent of 17 per cent. This has
occurred mostly due to human activities like industrialization, mechanized farming and acid
rain. An estimated 1500 million hectors of land in Asia is degraded. According to the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) India has large areas of degraded agricultural land.
A number of factors are responsible for degradation of soil. Some of them are discussed below
(Sulphey and Safeer, 2015):
1. Soil erosion: Soil erosion is the wearing away and redistribution of Earth’s surface
soil. Soil erosion occurs due to the action of natural forces like water, wind, ice, and
human activities. The extent of soil erosion is dependent on factors like intensity and
amount of rainfall; slope of the ground; typology of soil; vegetative cover; unplanned
developmental activities; and certain soil (mis) management practices. When heavy
rainfall occurs, soil may not be in a position to absorb all the water. This run-off
water will result in the erosion of soil. Ground having steep slopes will accelerate the
run-off, thereby causing severe soil erosion. Rain water falling on bare and loose soil
will also cause soil erosion at a very large rate. Land having enough vegetation and
with network of roots will hold the soil firmly in place. Further, the vegetation will
absorbs part of the rain water, reducing the intensity of the run-off. Deforestation,
unplanned developmental activities, faulty drainage, wrong cultivation practices,
uncontrolled grazing by cattle are certain factors that could lead to soil erosion.
Soil erosion can be Geological erosion or Accelerated erosion.
(a) Geological erosion is the erosion caused by the gradual removal of the top soil by
natural processes. In nature there is a balance of erosion and renewal. Through this
balance, equilibrium between the physical, hydrological and the biological activities
is brought out.
 Chapter 11 Environmental Degradation: Land and Soil Degradation  109
(b) Accelerated erosion is erosion that occurs due to man-made activities. This erosion is
caused due to human activities like deforestation, change in land use pattern, pressure
on land due to population increase, unsustainable farming activities, over grazing and
other unplanned developmental activities. The rate of accelerated erosion normally
supersedes the rate of soil formation.
Adoption of appropriate soil conservation methods can arrest soil erosion. Some steps
that can be adopted to check soil erosion are:
(a) Since vegetation has the property of protecting the surface soil from run-off water,
planting trees and soil binding shrubs will helps in preventing soil erosion.
(b) Planting of trees as wind breaks in shelter belts could effectively checks erosion due
to the action of wind.
(c) A properly planned network of drainage system will help in checking uncontrolled
flow of water, thereby preventing soil erosion.
(d) Bunds and check dams constructed in a scientific manner will help in preventing
erosion due to flood waters.
(e) Increasing vegetative cover through agro-forestry will effectively help in intercepting
rain water and breaking its impact on the soil surface.
(f) Scientific agronomic and farming practices, appropriate land use patterns, etc. will
also go a long way in preventing soil erosion.
2. Soil salination: Increase in the concentration of soluble salts in the soil is known
as salination. Some factors that contribute to salinity are accumulation of dissolved
salts due to inadequate drainage, high rate of evaporation due to high temperatures,
etc. High soil salinity will adversely affect the water and nutrient absorption process
in the plants, and result in poor plant growth and productivity. This can be overcome
through improvement of drainage systems, leaching soils with water, etc.
3. Desertification: A type of soil degradation that leads to formation of deserts is
desertification. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
defines desertification as:
a reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas; of the biological or
economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed crop land, irrigated cropland, or range,
pasture, forests, and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination
of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns,
such as:
(i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water;
(ii) deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil;
and
(iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation.
Desertification can occur naturally due to the soil losing its organic contents, either
through climatic changes or human induced processes. The loss of organic contents in the
soil creates finer particles that are washed or blown away leaving only rough sand. This
phenomenon occurs in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. Deforestation, clearing of
lands for cultivation, exhaustion of soil nutrients by intensive cultivation, overgrazing and
110  Disaster Management

industrialisation could lead to desertification. Desertification that initially occurs in patches

would gradually join together to form larger deserts. Desertification has affected millions of
people in Africa, the Indian sub-continent and South America. The Thar Desert in India was
reportedly formed by the gradual degradation of thousands of hectares of fertile land.
The circle of desertification and poverty is often a vicious, as one could lead to the other.
Further desertification can be prevented through planting grass on sand dunes. Experiences
around the world show that desertification can be effectively tackled though planting trees in
large numbers and covering areas with vegetation. This will increase the organic content of the
soil and resultant fertility. Many programmes have been initiated around the globe for reversing
desertification. More details about desertification and various programmes adapted to tackling
it is provided in the following sections.
(a) Urbanisation: Expansion of human settlements and industrialisation has resulted
in the degradation of arable and productive areas of land. This is happening in all
forms of lands, including forests, grass lands, wetlands, croplands, etc. This malady
can be tackled only through planned and sustainable development.
(b) Soil pollution: Pesticides, chemical fertilisers, industrial wastes, urban wastes,
radioactive wastes, etc. have been steadily degrading the soil in a big way. These
pollutants adversely affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil,
resulting in reduced productivity and fertility. Effective ways to combat soil pollution
is dealt with in detail in the chapters to follow.

Questions

1. Write a detailed note about soil erosion elaborating its causes.

2. What do you know of soil degradation?
3. Write short notes on:
(a) Soil salination
(b) Desertification
(c) Soil pollution
 12
Environmental
Degradation
Air and Water

DEGRADATION OF AIR
Though industrial development has contributed significantly to economic growth, it has polluted
the environment. The air has been polluted due to emissions from various sources. Air is said to
be pure when it is free from constituents in concentrations such that it is injurious to the health
of humans or animals, and is capable of causing damages to the vegetation. Air is polluted if
there are high quantities of substances in concentrations that are capable of causing harm to living
things. Air pollution is defined by The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 as:
any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such
concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures
or plants or property or environment.
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) air pollution is ‘the situations in
which the outdoor ambient atmosphere contains materials in concentrations which are harmful
to man and his environment’.
Air pollution is caused by pollutants from various sources and types. The classification
of pollutants causing air pollution is presented in Figure 12.1.

Figure 12.1 Classification of air pollutants.

111
112  Disaster Management

More details of the pollutants are provided in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1 Classification of Air Pollutants

Suspended particulate matter: All solid and liquid particles that are
small enough not to settle down on the earth’s surface by gravity.
Respirable particulate matter: Particulates that cannot be prevented
by the filtering mechanism available in the respiratory tract. This
could enter the lungs and be harmful to respiratory system.
Dust: Solid particles capable of being temporarily suspended in
air or other gases.
Aerosol: Minute suspension of solid/liquid particles that have
negligible falling velocity.
Particulates
Smoke: Fine solid particles that occur from incomplete combustion
of substances, like wood, coal, tobacco, etc. It consists of carbon
and certain combustible materials.
Physical state Fume: Fine, solid particles formed by the condensation of vapours
of solid materials. It can arise from sublimation, distillation,
calcinations, etc.
Fly ash: Consists of fine non-combustible particles in the gases,
arising from the combustion of coal. It has certain characteristics
of dust, smoke and fumes.
Organic: These include hydrocarbons such as CH4, C3H8, C2H2,
C2H4, C6H6, C8H18 and other compounds like acetone, alcohols,
acids, methyl isocyanate, chlorinated hydrocarbons, etc.
Gases Inorganic: Noxious gaseous pollutants like oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), oxides of sulphur (SOx), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), hydrogen
fluoride, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, chlorine,
bromine, etc.
Sulphur Air pollutants having sulfur atom in their molecular structure, e.g.
containing SO2, SO3, H2S, etc.
Nitrogen Those pollutants having nitrogen atoms in their molecular structure,
containing e.g. NO, NO2, NH3, etc.
Chemical Carbon Pollutants that contain carbon atoms in their molecule structure.
properties containing
Halogen Pollutants having compounds like HCl, HF, etc.
compounds
Radioactive Airborne radioactive compounds.
compounds
Pollutants emitted from an identifiable source, e.g. CO, CO2, SO2,
Primary
Origin etc.
Secondary Pollutants that are formed by chemical reaction, e.g. NO2, O3, etc.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  113
Particulates are of different types. The different types of particulates are provided in
Table 12.2.
Table 12.2 Types of Particulates

S. No. Particulate Particulars

1 Aerosol Particles that are suspended in air.
2 Mist Aerosol that consists of liquid droplets.
Aerosol that consists of solid particles produced from larger particles that
3 Dust
are blown by air.
Aerosol consisting of solid particles or mixture of solid/liquid particles that
4 Smoke
are produced by chemical reactions.
This is same as smoke but applies to aerosols that are produced through
5 Fume
condensation of hot vapours of metals.
6 Plume The shape or form of smoke that comes out of chimneys.
7 Fog Aerosol that consists of water droplets.
8 Smog A mixture of smoke and fog.

Air pollution could originate as a result of emissions from vehicles, industries, houses,
etc. The following sections presents details about the various sources of air pollution.

Vehicular Emission Load

Due to increase in population, better living standards and urbanisation, number of vehicles has
increased substantially. The increase in the number of vehicles and the presence of various
forms of motorized transportation have enhanced vehicular population, and consequently the
emissions from them. A notable aspect with respect to vehicular pollution is that its emissions
occur at near-ground level. The harmful emissions from vehicles include CO2, CO, lead,
etc. In most cities due to the inefficiency of the public mass transport system, people buy
more vehicles for personal use, thereby, drastically increasing their number. For instance,
the amount of registered vehicles in Delhi increased 51 times over a thirty year period, with
17 per cent of the cars in the country running in the city. It is reported that Delhi has more cars
than all those of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and West Bengal taken together! This is
expected to multiply multifold by the end of 2020. The population of vehicles is much higher
in certain other major cities of the world. The only solution to this issue is the dependency on
an efficient mass public transport system that will reduce the dependence on motor vehicles,
and consequently harmful emissions emanating from them.

Industrial Sector Growth

In the recent past world has seen a drastic increase in the industrial infrastructure (both large
and small industries), impressive growth in manufacturing, and the consequent increase in the
incidence of air pollution. This phenomenon is evident in both developed and developing world.
114  Disaster Management

The growing number of industries has contributed to high incidence of air pollution. In India,
impressive growth is evident in the fields of electronics, IT, textiles, pharmaceuticals, basic
chemicals, etc. Most of these industries belong to the ‘red category’ of the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB). These industries have significant environmental implications due to
their emissions. Almost all industries have emissions that may pollute the atmosphere, and
is an aspect of concern for all. Emissions can be either solid particulate materials or gasses.
In India, based on their level of pollution, industries have been classified and listed under
17 categories. This categorization helps in monitoring and regulating the pollution from such
industries. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has developed
standards for regulating the emissions of industries. Some such industries include thermal power
stations, iron and steel plants, cement plants, fertilizer plants, oil refineries, pulp and paper,
petrochemicals, sugar, tanneries, etc.

Power Sector
The power sector is a major contributor to emissions because they consume coal in large
quantities. It is estimated that, in India, the power sector consumes about 78 per cent of the
country’s overall coal production. This reliance on coal is one of the major reasons of India
having high carbon intensity level (it is estimated that as on 2006–2007, the total absolute
emission of CO2 from power sector stood at 495.54 million tonnes PA). Since high capital
costs is likely to be incurred for replacing the existing coal-fired plants coupled with the lack
of advanced technologies, most of India’s existing coal-fired power plants are likely to remain
in operation for the next couple of decades. This is sure to lift India’s carbon emissions to
higher levels. In addition to this coal extraction through opencast mining, its transportation and
consumption in power stations, and industrial boilers lead to widespread particulate and gaseous
pollution. There is also the danger of radioactive emissions from nuclear power plants. These
emissions are of grave concern due to serious impact to the current and future generations.

Certain Agricultural Practices

Certain agricultural practices like slash and burn, waste burning, etc. have been degrading the
atmosphere. Slash and burning practices adapted in Indonesia caused thick smog in many parts
of Malaysia and Singapore recently. Similarly in north India, particularly the states of Punjab
and Haryana, farmers resort to large scale burning of rice and wheat straw. After the harvest
seasons thick cloud of smog engulf parts of Punjab and Haryana, reducing visibility and causing
irritation to eyes and throat. This practice of burning straw releases GHGs like CH4, CO2,
NO2, SO2, and particulate material into the atmosphere. It is estimated that in India 28 per
cent of aggregate national emission comes from agriculture sector. This also includes enteric
fermentation in livestock, manure management, other cultivation practices, etc. In addition to
causing air pollution, burning of crop residues adversely affects soil fertility.

Domestic Sector
The world over, a considerable amount of air pollution occurs from households. The sources
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  115
range from burning of solid fuels to certain GHGs used in houses. In India, the household
sector consumes energy next to the industrial sector. The National Family Health Survey-3
found that 71 per cent of India’s households still use solid fuels, like fire wood, dung, crop
residue, etc. for cooking and heating requirements. This releases large quantities of CO2 into
the atmosphere. In the event of incomplete combustion during burning, then large quantities of
CO in addition to certain hydrocarbons are released. A number of studies have established the
relationship between health issues and domestic sector pollution. For instance, high incidence of
diseases like Tuberculosis, acute respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
asthma, lung diseases, and blindness in certain areas have been attributed to indoor air pollution.

ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION
Atmosphere dilutes the pollutants over a period of time. This ability of the atmosphere to
disperse and dilute air pollutions over a period of time in a given area is termed atmospheric
dispersion. Atmosphere has a vital role to play in diluting the pollutants. The pollutants that are
released from various sources on earth are transported horizontally, vertically and laterally away
from the source and vicinity by the winds, and diffused. Diffusion reduces the concentration
of pollutants and help in naturally cleansing the atmosphere. Dispersion of pollutants occurs
due to the role played by:
1. Wind speed and direction: The prevailing winds transport the pollutants over a
great distance if the wind speeds are high, and towards the direction it takes. Both
speed and direction could change over a period of time. The direction of the wind
could change due to the presence of a physical barrier. Over a geographical area, the
surface winds may blow at any speed and direction in a given time. If a fairly long
period of time over a place is considered, it is possible to know about the prevailing
wind speed and direction. This information can be used in locating new industries
so that the effect of pollutants on residents can be avoided or minimized. When this
information is presented in a diagram, it is called ‘wind rose’.
2. Atmospheric stability: Stability is the tendency of the atmosphere to resist or
enhance the vertical motion. The vertical temperature change in atmosphere and the
wind speed determines the stability. There are three types of stability.
(a) Stable condition: Stable condition of the atmosphere is such that it makes an
air parcel to remain at the same position, and does not allow it to move either
upward or downward.
(b) Unstable condition: When the environmental lapse rate is high, the temperature
decreases faster. This situation known as unstable condition makes the air parcel
moving up to cool down. However, the surrounding atmosphere will be cooler,
causing the air parcel to move up further. This enables the dispersion of pollutants.
(c) Neutral condition: When the environmental lapse rate is not that high, the
temperature in the air parcel will cool down. After this cooling, if the air parcel
has a higher temperature than the surrounding air, it will rise up further. If it is
the other way round, the parcel will not rise. This is known as neutral condition.
116  Disaster Management

Plume Behaviour

It is also imperative to have a fair understanding about the plume behaviour. Not all plumes
of pollutants disperse similarly. There are various types of plume behaviour. They are:
1. Fanning: In fanning, the plume has a large spread horizontally. There may be very
little or no spread vertically. Since there is no vertical movement, the plume is not
dispersed vertically. This normally occurs at night.
2. Fumigation: At times, the plume comes down rapidly to the ground level due to
downward mixing. This is known as fumigation. This normally occurs after sunrise
due to surface heating. Though this condition is short-lived, fumigation could lead
to high concentrations at ground level.
3. Looping: This occurs during unstable and convective atmospheric conditions during
midday and afternoon. During looping, large convective currents take the plume
upward and downward successively.
4. Coning: During conditions of cloud and wind, the plume looks like a cone. This
condition is known as coning.
5. Lofting: Lofting conditions occur near to sunset when there is transition from
unstable to stable conditions. The plume during lofting can be thin or at times quite
thick. Lofting condition may be transitory or at times persistent.
6. Trapping: Plumes that are released in unstable atmosphere, disperse uniformly
throughout the air. This is known as trapping. This condition could give rise to very
high level of concentrations on the ground when there are weak winds.

Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution can cause adverse effects on humans, animals, plants, materials, atmosphere and
climate. The following sections present details about the effects of air pollution.

Effects on Human Beings

Air pollutants enter human beings through nose, eyes, and skin. Majority of the air pollutants
enter human beings through the air he respired in through the nose. Human beings require air
for metabolic requirements and comfort. Human beings respire throughout his life, and it is said
that an average man respires 22,000 times a day. In the process or respiration he daily takes
in about 16 kg of air. The oxygen in the air is used for metabolism and in the process carbon
dioxide is produced and exhaled. When air is inhaled, various types of impurities or pollutants
present in it are also taken in. Such pollutants could reach the lungs through the throat, larynx
and trachea. The pollutants then enter the blood stream and are ultimately transported to all
tissues. There is also possibility of pollutants reaching the mucosa of the digestive tract.
Though all the impurities inhaled by human beings may not be harmful, some of them
cause various types of adverse effects. The effects of pollutants on human beings are based on:
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  117
1. The nature and concentration of the pollutants,
2. Duration and frequency of exposure,
3. The state of the health and age of receptor,
4. The chemical nature of the pollutant,
5. The physical properties like size and shape, and
6. The concentration of the pollutant.
The effects of air pollution include:
1. Irritation of the eyes, nose, respiratory tract, etc.
2. Foul odour from gases like H2S, NH3, etc.
3. Asthmatic attacks and bronchitis. These diseases would get aggravated if there is
presence of SO2, NOx, photochemical smog and other particulates in the air.
4. Particulate materials could cause certain respiratory diseases like silicosis, asbestosis,
etc.
5. Increase in mortality and morbidity rates.
6. Exposure to carcinogenic pollutants could result in cancer.
7. Exposure to CO could create headache, drowsiness, fatigue, stress, etc. Since CO
readily combines with hemoglobin, overexposure could lead to anoxic condition and
even death (if exposure is over 750 ppm).
The effects of the pollutants may be of acute or chronic in nature based on the above
factors. Young and old people are highly susceptible to the adverse effects of air pollution.

Effects on Plants
A number of pollutants like sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrogen chloride and sulphide,
compounds of fluoride, ozone, chlorine, ammonia, etc. could interfere with the process of
photosynthesis and plant growth. Smog and particulates that settle on leaves could cover them,
reducing the amount of light, and clogging the stomata. Clogging of stomata would considerably
reduce the intake of CO2, interfering with photosynthesis. Other effects include retarded growth,
reduced yield, damage due to infection, nutrition deficiency, premature falling of buds, fruits,
bleaching and damage to leaves, etc. The other problems that occur to plants include:
1. Necrosis: This is the death or collapse of the plant tissues.
2. Chlorosis: This causes loss of chlorophyll. Due to this the leaves becomes either
pale green or yellow and may fall off prematurely.
3. Abscission: This is the falling of leaves.
4. Epinasty: When this occurs, due to the high growth on the upper surface, the leaves
curves downward.
The sensitivity of plants to respond to pollutants varies differently based on a few factors.
Some of them are:
1. Genetic factors: Due to the difference in genetic make-up of the different species
of plants, some of them could withstand the adverse effects of pollution to a certain
extent, others are more susceptible.
118  Disaster Management

2. Climatic factors: The climatic factors like duration, intensity and wavelength of
light, temperature, humidity, etc. cause plants to respond differently to air pollution.
3. Other factors: Certain other factors like the properties and fertility of soil, water,
etc. also decide the sensitivity of the plants.

Effects on Animals

Various chemical pollutants cause different types of effects on animals. Some of them include:
1. Fluoride poisoning causes loss of teeth, lack of appetite, diarrhea, stiffness, rapid loss
of weight, muscular weakness, and even death.
2. Arsenic poisoning could lead to severe salivation, uneasiness, anemia, irregular
pulse and respiration, diarrhea, trembling of body, high temperature, convulsions and
ultimate death. Other effects include animal becoming sterile, abortion, paralysis, etc.
3. Lead poisoning could result in reduced pulse rate, reduced appetite, diarrhea, breathing
difficulty, stiffness of legs, make the animals unable to rise, and even death.

Effects on Materials

Air pollution causes a wide range of effects on materials. Some of them include corrosion of
metals, soiling and eroding of building surfaces, fading of dyed material, cracking of rubber,
etc. The ways in which air pollutants damage materials are as under:
1. Abrasion: Sufficiently large solid particles that travel with the winds at high
speeds could abrade the surfaces of the materials that they come into contact
with. Such materials could cause wear and tear, and accelerate the destruction of
materials.
2. Deposition and removal: At times the pollutants that are deposited on certain
materials soil the appearance. When such materials are cleaned or removed from the
surface repeatedly, deterioration may occur.
3. Direct chemical attack: Certain air pollutants directly react with materials. For
instance, Sulphur dioxide will react with marble and deteriorate its surface—a classical
example is that of the Taj Mahal. Acid mists could damage metallic surfaces beyond
repair.
4. Indirect chemical attack: Some chemicals may be absorbed by materials, resulting
in formation of compounds. The compound so formed could irreparably damage the
material.
5. Corrosion: Metals exposed to atmospheric pollutants could be corroded due to the
various chemicals available in the air.
6. Damage by acid rain: Acid rains could cause extensive damage to buildings; and
materials of marble, limestone, slate, mortar, etc. These materials could become
weakened since the soluble sulfates gets leached out by rainwater.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  119
Economic Losses

In addition to the above, air pollutions also causes a host of economic losses. A few such
losses are detailed below:
1. Loss due to effects on human health: Since air pollution is a major reason for
a number of human ailments including cancer, victims are compelled to spend
large sums on medical care. Such ailments and the burden of paying huge sums
for treatment could result in mental agony to the affected. This could cause untold
miseries to poor people. Those with chronic diseases as a result of air pollution could
have to incur medical expense throughout their lifetime. The collective expenses
incurred by a number of members in the society or locations would run to millions.
If we are to consider the expenses of a state it would be astronomically high.
2. Loss due to effects on plants: There will be substantial reduction in the yield of
crops and plants affected by air pollution, causing huge loss and untold miseries to
farmers. This in turn, will affect the entire economy. Contaminated plants and products
derived from them could also have disastrous effects on human and animal health.
3. Loss due to effects on animals: The productivity of animals affected by the adverse
effects of air pollution would go down considerably. Further, the affected animals
will have to be provided medical care, which again would be expensive and result
in economic losses.
4. Loss due to effects on materials: The cleaning, repair and replacement of materials
that are affected by air pollution could also result in economic losses.

OTHER EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Certain pollutants are capable of creating problems on a wider scale. For instance CFCs,1
GHGs and certain other pollutants, in addition to creating immediate health problems has the
potential to deplete ozone. In addition to the depletion of ozone layer, air pollution can also
cause global warming, acid rain, etc.

Acid Rain

Acid rain is caused by the degradation of environment, and is denoted by precipitations which
are acidic than normal. While water is clean if it has pH value up to 5.6, acid rain has pH
less than 5.6. Acid rain results when oxides of sulphur and nitrogen from gaseous emissions
interact with water vapour and sunlight, and get chemically converted to acidic compounds
1. CFCs are compounds that contain chlorine, fluorine and carbon. They were used widely in industry as
refrigerants, propellants, and cleaning solvents. CFC was developed by the American Thomas Midgley in
1928. It was developed as a replacement for ammonia (NH3), chloromethane (CH3Cl), and sulfur dioxide
(SO2), which are toxic in nature. CFCs have low boiling point and were considered to be non-toxic and
generally non-reactive. In the 1970s it was established that CFCs destroy ozone molecules in the ozone
layer.
120  Disaster Management

like sulphuric, sulphurous, nitric and nitrous acids. The acidic substances so formed remain in
the atmosphere for about a fortnight, depending on factors like winds, precipitation, weather
patterns, etc. Thereafter, they descend to earth’s surface. Acid rains are caused mainly by
activities like oil refining, metal smelting, certain industrial activities, coal burning in power
plants, motor vehicle exhaust, etc. There are two types of acid rain:
1. Dry deposition: Acidic compounds and other (in) organic chemicals deposited
on the surface of earth as aerosols and particulate is known as dry deposition. Dry
deposition forms only a small fraction of the total acid deposition that falls on the
earth’s surface.
2. Wet deposition: When the acidic compounds and other chemicals in the atmos-
phere are carried to the earth by rain drops, snow, fog, dew, etc. it is called wet
deposition.

Effects of acid rain

Acid rain creates a large number of irreversible effects to water, air, soil, vegetation, animals,
buildings and structures. The effects of acid rain are provided in the following sections.
1. On water: Acid rain that falls on the ground reaches the water bodies and makes
them acidic in nature. Acidification of water-bodies could adversely affect aquatic life,
the green algae and other forms of bacteria that thrive in water. These life forms are
indispensable for any aquatic ecosystem and there destruction will result in reduced
fish population. Further, a low pH will reduce the pace of decomposition of organic
matter in water bodies. Another adverse effect is that acid rain dissolves the naturally
occurring toxic substances, like aluminium and mercury and freeing them, thereby
leading to increased water pollution.
2. On air: Traces of acid in the air could combine with other chemicals and lead to
formation of smog. Presence of smog is higher in urban areas. Smog could give rise
to respiratory complications to humans. Big cities like Los Angeles, London, Tokyo,
Sydney, Athens, New Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai are suffering from smog
due to various atmospheric phenomena and increasing vehicular emissions.
3. On soil and vegetation: When soil becomes acidic due to acid rain, the
microorganisms get destroyed. This will have adverse effect on plants, as they
depend on microorganisms for growth. The availability of nutrients is also reduced
due to acid rain. In addition to this, the waxy coatings of the leaves are damaged,
causing the leaves to fall down, affecting the process of photosynthesis. In some
instances, it decolourises the chlorophyll, turning the leaves yellow. These changes
will lead to large scale destruction of plants and vegetation. The destruction of plants
and vegetation, in turn, will lead to adverse effect on various other species, thereby
disrupting the entire food chain and the eco-system. Crops like barley, cotton, lettuce,
spinaches and fruit trees like apple, pear and pine are the most vulnerable species.
4. On buildings and structures: Acid rain can corrode building materials, like metals,
marble, limestone, dolomite, etc. This can lead to large scale weathering of statues,
monuments, structures and buildings. The Taj Mahal has been affected by acid rain.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  121
DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER
In 1984 after analysing satellite data, scientists found that about 40 to 50 per cent of ozone in
the upper stratosphere over Antarctica has been destroyed. This depletion is said to have occurred
since 1974. The total area of the atmosphere above Antarctica that suffered depletion varies from
year to year. The thinning was the largest in 2000, and is said to have covered an area more
than three times the size of United States. Thereafter the size has decreased in 2001 and 2002.
The maximum depletion of ozone occurs when sunlight returns to Antarctica after the
dark winter (September to December). The new sunlight sets into motion a series of reactions
that release large numbers of Cl atoms. These atoms initiate a catalytic chlorine cycle. Within
weeks, this reaction destroys over 40 to 50 per cent of the ozone above Antarctica. Huge mass
of ozone-depleted air then flow northward and remain suspended for few weeks over parts of
the southern hemisphere, including Australia, New Zealand, South America, and South Africa.
This raises the level of UV in these areas.
In 1988, thinning of ozone was observed by scientists over Arctic areas, however less
severe than Antarctic area. A seasonal ozone loss of about 11 to 38 per cent was found to
occur during Arctic spring and early summer (February–June). A large mass of ozone-depleted
air flowed south and hung over northern parts of Europe, North America and Asia. Scientists
opine that ozone depletion over the poles will be at its worst in the current decade.

GLOBAL WARMING
Earth receives solar energy in abundance, heating its surface. Sufficient quantities of heat
energy are absorbed by the earth’s mantle. Some quantities of heat are radiated back into
the space. Certain gases, known as Green House Gases (GHG), that include carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, etc., and water vapour prevent the heat from escaping the earth’s
atmosphere. This leads to an increase in the atmospheric temperature, known as greenhouse
effect. The greenhouse effect has its own positive effect. Without greenhouse effect the
temperature of earth would have been much cooler and covered with ice. Recently, due to certain
human activities the quantity of GHGs has increased manifold. The burning of large quantities
of fossil fuels, deforestation, mining activities, industrial activities, agricultural activities, etc.
has increased the overall concentration of GHGs around the globe. This is aggravated by the
reduction in green coverage. Certain natural processes, like volcanic eruptions also contributes
to GHG emissions. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) like methane released from human and animal
waste, garbage dumps, rice fields, etc. have caused large scale depletion of the ozone layer.
The GHGs and their per cent of contribution to global warming is presented in Table 12.3.
Table 12.3 Per cent of Contribution of CHGs to Global Warming
S. No. GHG % contribution
1 Carbon dioxide 61
2 Methane 15
3 Chlorofluorocarbons 11
4 Nitrous oxide 4
5 Other gases 9
122  Disaster Management

The abnormal increase in the concentration of GHGs has led to the global temperature
has become warmer. The average temperature of the globe has become warmer over the last
century. This warming is however not uniform all over the globe. While the temperature is high
in some places, it gets cooler in certain other places. However, over the last century the overall
temperature of earth’s atmosphere has become warmer by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (1.3 degrees
Fahrenheit). Evidences show that the warming is happening much faster than they have in the
past. Further, there is new and stronger evidence suggesting that most of the observed warming
over the last 50 years is attributable to anthropogenic reasons. If GHG emissions continue at
this rate, by 2030 the temperature will rise by 1.5°C to 4.5°C. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) states that the human induced change in atmospheric chemistry will
increase temperatures by 1.4°C to 5.8°C by the year 2100 (IPCC, 2001).
There has been large number of apparent signs of global warming in many parts of the
globe. A few of them include melting of ice caps in the poles, shrinking of glaciers in mountain
ranges, like Alps, Andes, Himalayas, Mount Kilimanjaro, etc. Some other signs include arrival
of spring earlier than normal, and autumn arriving later in many parts of the globe. Continued
global warming would result in melting of massive quantities of ice from the Polar Regions and
glaciers, leading to rise in the sea level. It is estimated that if the glaciers continue to rise at the
current rates, the sea level is expected to rise over 1.5 m in the next few decades. Rising sea
levels are expected to inundate low lying areas leading to mass exodus of people and creation of
climate refugees, intrusion of saline waters into arable lands thereby affecting food security, etc.

Effects of Global Warming

Global warming will have a number of adverse effects on the climate, agriculture and human
beings. Some of the effects could be unpredictable and will be of astronomical proportions. A
few effects of global warming are discussed as follows:

Effects on climate
Some of the effects of global warming on the climate include increase in global temperature,
severe and extreme weather conditions, disruption of rainfall pattern, warmer oceans, warmer
winters, melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, etc. The details are provided in Table 12.4.
Table 12.4 Effects of Global Warming on Climate

Effect Details
The average global temperature has increased steadily by 0.6 degree Celsius
Increase in global
during the last 100 years due to global warming. This increase in temperature
temperature
has occurred in almost all regions around the world.
Global warming will affect the flow of ocean currents and the air circulation
patterns, and consequently the weather across the world. There may be
changes is the distribution of solar energy which can bring about unpredictable
Severe and climatic conditions. Severe droughts could occur at places which used to get
extreme weather abundant rainfall. It may rain heavily at deserts. These changes could result
conditions in destruction of natural habitat of the respective places. There could be more
stronger and frequent storms. Hurricanes, cyclones, tornadoes, etc. may occur
at close frequencies leading to large scale destructions. Further, the heat waves
have become longer and hotter over most of the land areas.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  123
Effect Details
Changes in rainfall would occur worldwide due to changes in surface
temperatures. Warm temperatures will lead to more evaporation and the
resultant increased precipitation, with heavy rainfalls at certain places leading
to flood damages. While some regions will receive higher levels of rainfall,
other regions will receive less rainfall and will have to suffer longer and
more frequent droughts. Statistics shows increasingly heavy rains and snow
in the mid and high latitudes of the Northern hemisphere, with decreased
rainfall in the tropics and subtropics. This phenomenon exists in parts of
Eastern Europe, western Russia, central Canada and California. These regions
have been witnessing shifting of peak stream flows from spring to winter,
Disruption of
since more precipitation occurs as rain rather than snow. The tropical and
rainfall pattern
subtropical areas in Africa’s that include large basins of the Niger, Lake Chad
and Senegal, have witnessed decrease in rainfall by 40 to 60 per cent. It is
also predicted that the mean precipitation of the dry regions of central Asia,
the Mediterranean, southern Africa and Australia will decline drastically.
Certain climate models predict the precipitation to become more intense in
certain regions leading to increased runoff and floods, which will reduce the
water holding capacity of the soil. It is also predicted that the northern mid-
latitudes including the grain producing areas of Europe and North America
will have less soil moisture in summer, adversely affecting the food security
of the globe.
As the global temperatures increase, the oceans will become warmer. Warm
ocean surfaces can cause more damage and it will have a cascading effect on
global warming with temperatures continuing to climb. Warmer ocean waters
Warmer oceans
will sound the death knell of a number of marine beings including coral reefs.
Useful and edible fish varieties may be replaced with useless varieties. Fish
catch will come down drastically affecting food security.
Winters will become longer. This has been observed since the 1960s in
Europe with spring plants blooming earlier and the fall colours coming earlier.
Longer winters
Further, heat wave conditions in certain parts of the world may become more
intense.
Earth’s poles are covered with ice. The ice also covers the adjourning seas.
These areas of ice are called glaciers. Glaciers are also found on very high
mountains. Global warming will result in the melting of more and more of
these glaciers. This melting ice will lead to global changes in water circulation
and the patterns of ocean currents. Another side effect of melting polar ice is
the release of the large quantities of methane trapped under the frozen Poles.
This release of methane will further aggravate the global warming process.
Melting glaciers Warm temperatures will also make many mountain glaciers to melt exposing
the dark surface, which will result in further rise of temperature. The glaciers
of the Himalayas are said to have receded considerably in the recent past
exposing the hitherto unexposed land areas. Field investigations in the
Himalayas in the five-year period from 1998 to 2003 have revealed that
the Chhota Shigri glacier has receded by over 800 meters. Similarly, other
larger glaciers have shrunken by over 10 per cent and around 127 other small
glaciers by over 30 per cent.
124  Disaster Management

Effect Details
Evidences show that in the last 100 years, the average global sea level has risen
by over 6 inches. Sea levels have risen because warmer temperatures cause the
oceans to expand, and the polar ice to melt. The melting ice adds considerable
quantities of water into the oceans causing sea levels to rise. Rising sea levels
are now threatening communities in coastal areas and some island countries
like Bangladesh, Maldives, Kiribati, Tuvalu, etc. For the coastal communities,
especially those in these small islands, increasing sea levels will lead to loss
of ways of life and habitability. Other associated problems include dwindling
of space available for habitation and infrastructure, diminishing availability
Rising sea levels of freshwater and indigenous food sources, and impossibility of normal
economic activity. Higher sea levels can also cause salt water to enter rivers
affecting the quality of water supplies. This problem has severely affected
the Ganga–Brahmaputra delta of Bangladesh and India.
Coastal areas contain some of the worlds’ most diverse and productive
ecosystems like mangrove forests, coral reefs, and sea grasses. Low-lying
deltas, coral atolls and reefs are highly sensitive to changes in the frequency
as well as intensity of rainfall and storms. Though corals will grow fast
enough to keep pace with rise in sea level, the warmer seas may damage
them.
Source: Sulphey and Safeer (2015).

Effects on agriculture
As stated earlier, unusual weather patterns will result in droughts in certain regions and heavy
rainfalls at certain others. The tropics will see intensified heat and will become unsuitable
for agriculture as the soil and water resources will get degraded. Crops will get damaged by
higher temperatures and water shortages. All these will have an impact on the crop yields with
productivity fluctuating considerably. Since the crops are already near to their maximum heat
tolerance, added heat stress and other problems like shifting monsoons, drier soils, etc. may
reduce the yields by one third in the tropics and subtropics. Certain weeds, rodents, insects,
bacteria and viruses will multiply rapidly and colonize more areas. This will lead to transmission
of diseases to wider areas, adding to the risk of crop losses.
Mid-continental areas, such as the US grain belt, vast sections of mid-latitude Asia, sub-
Saharan Africa and parts of Australia will experience drier and hotter conditions. However,
longer growing seasons and increased rains in the temperate regions of UK, Scandinavia, Europe
and North America may boost yields. There will also be an increase in the frequency of intense
rainfalls. Due to this some regions may become wetter, and the intensified hydrological cycle
will accelerate erosion and consequently the loss of soil moisture. Drought-prone may suffer
longer and more severe dry spells.
Fisheries sector will be badly affected as there will be species changes in almost all areas,
threatening food security of countries that are highly dependent on fish. There could also be
upsets in the established reproductive patterns, migration routes, and ecosystem relationships
of fishes.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  125
Effects on human beings
Global warming is likely to cause untold miseries to human beings. This could range from
public health implications to widespread displacements. Reduction in the availability of food,
safe drinking water, secured shelter, and good social and environmental conditions would
aggravate the situation.
Greater number of people would be exposed to deadly diseases due to redistribution of
insect vectors. Various tropical diseases, like dengue fever, swine fever, yellow fever, malaria,
etc. will spread rapidly. Warmer temperatures will also lead to increase in the level of ground
ozone which can cause irritation of the respiratory systems and eyes. There will be large scale
displacement in various communities. These communities could be faced with increased risk
of various infectious, psychological, and other illnesses. Disruption in sanitation, storm water
drainage and sewage disposal systems would also have serious health implications. A large
number of diseases, as provided below are likely to occur as a result of global warming.
1. Cardiovascular, respiratory and other diseases: High incidence of these diseases
is likely to occur, especially among the elderly and the poor. There would be
formation and persistence of pollens, spores, and certain pollutants could promote
more asthmatic and allergic disorders.
2. Diseases associated with malnutrition: The decline in food production in vulnerable
regions, would lead to malnutrition and hunger among children. This could have long-
term health consequences. Further, there could be frequent occurrences of heat waves,
flooding, storms, and drought. These problems could result in injuries, deaths, famine,
and displacement of populations.
3. Diarrheal diseases: Non-availability of fresh water supplies will affect sanitation
facilities very badly. Over stressed sewer systems may contribute to higher
concentrations of bacteria and other microorganisms, and the consequent poor quality
of water. These factors could result in an increased incidence of diarrheal diseases.
4. Vector borne diseases: Vectors like mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, house flies and rodents
would expand to wider areas in a warmer world. This can lead to vector borne diseases
like malaria, dengue, plague, elephantiasis, encephalitis, etc.
5. Psychological disorders: Those communities displaced due to after effects of global
warming, like floods, storms, heat waves, droughts, etc. will suffer from stress, strain
and a number of other psychological disorders. The poorer communities will be more
vulnerable to these problems.

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change occurs due to global warming. Climate change is the change in normal weather
patterns around the world, over an extended period of time—typically decades or longer.
Climate change is used to denote ‘any change or changes in modern climate systems, whether
due to natural variability or as a result of human-caused activity, including an increase over
a period of time of the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans, known
as global warming’. It is any change or changes in modern climate systems, due to natural
126  Disaster Management

variability or anthropogenic reasons. Climate change can also occur over a period of time due
to increase in average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere and oceans.

Causes of Climate Change

Climate change can occur due to natural causes and anthropogenic or manmade causes. The
natural causes that lead to global warming are:
1. The sun’s energy: The quantum of solar energy that reaches earth varies over a
period of time, and impacts temperature. Earth becomes warmer or cooler based on
the solar energy it receives. This could result in changes to the climate.
2. Atmospheric gases: GHGs have a strong effect on the climate. Climate change
occurs since enhanced quantities of GHGs trapping higher quantities of sun’s heat
energy in the atmosphere. This trapped energy is then radiated or redistributed on the
Earth’s surface altering the temperature and climate. Among the GHGs, CO2 plays
a major role in driving climate change. A continuous buildup of GHGs will change
the climate significantly.
3. Ocean currents: The water in oceans is constantly moving in regular patterns due
to the activity of winds. These movements are called ocean currents. This movement
plays a significant role in heating up of the globe. For example, when water moves up
from the colder, deeper parts of the ocean to the warmer surface, the heat is carried
around the globe. In this manner ocean currents have big impact on earth’s climate.
When the normal path of the ocean current is disturbed, climate change can happen,
leading to incidents like extremes of rainfall or drought. The phenomenon of El Niño
is a classic example of the impacts of change in the path of ocean currents.
4. Volcanic eruptions: The eruption of volcanoes release tiny particles, dust, fumes,
etc. into the atmosphere. These particles getting suspended in the upper parts of the
atmosphere can directly affect the earth’s temperatures and climate.
5. Snow and ice: The poles and mountains are covered with ice and snow. The snow
and ice being light in colour have the ability to reflect solar energy back out to the
atmosphere. When snow and ice melt as earth’s climate warms, less energy will be
reflected and this will lead to further warming.
Other causes that could lead to climate change include changes in earth’s orbital variables,
and certain natural processes of the Earth’s climate system.

Effects of Climate Change

Climate change will have a significant impact on the global environment. According to the
IPCC:
Climate change directly affects the functions of individual organisms (e.g., growth and
behaviour), modifies population (e.g., size and age structure) and affects ecosystem
structure and function (e.g., decomposition, nutrient cycling, water flows, and species
compositions, and species interactions) and the distribution of ecosystems within
landscapes; and indirectly through, for examples, changes in disturbance regimes.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  127
It is generally accepted that faster the climate changes, the greater will be the risk of
damage. Climate change will lead to drastic variations in the biospheric ambient temperature
and can lead to a number of adverse effects. A few of the effects are presented in Table 12.5.
Most of these effects are also applicable to global warming and have been described earlier.
However, since these effects have implications with respect to climate change it is described
here for a better understanding.
Table 12.5 Effects of Climate Change
Effect Details
Global temperature is expected to rise over 5°C by the turn of the century. This
Heat stress projection is the average rise in temperature around the globe. The temperature
rise at the regional level may vary, with certain places having much higher levels.
Change There will be changes in the precipitation patterns, with accelerated hydrological
in rainfall cycle. This will increase precipitation in some areas and decline in others. This
pattern change could affect water supplies, as water will end up where it is less needed.
Glaciers are an essential part of the Earth’s natural environment. It is one of the
significant and sensitive indicators of climate change. The world’s glaciers have
been steadily receding. This is attributed to change in climate elements such as
Melting
temperature, precipitation, wind speed, humidity, and solar radiation. Melting sea
glaciers
ice will lead to global changes in water resources and circulation, and could speed
up warming of the Arctic. The shrinking of glaciers will increase the supply of
water to the oceans and the atmosphere, leading to a significant rise in sea level.
The sea level has already risen by four to eight inches during the 20th century
due to the effect of melting ice and thermal expansion of warmer ocean water.
The sea is expected to rise even greater in the 21st century. The mean sea level
Sea level is expected to rise 9 to 88 cm by the year 2100, leading to flooding of low-lying
rise and areas and other related collateral damages. Some such damages include subsidence;
saltwater erosion and submerging of coastal wetlands and mangroves; and intrusion of
intrusion saltwater into rivers, estuaries and coastal aquifers. There could also be changes
in salinity distribution in estuaries, altered coastal circulation patterns, destruction
of transportation infrastructure in low-lying areas, reduced fish harvest, increased
frequency in occurrence of hurricanes, etc.
Climate change will affect the physical, biological, and biogeochemical characteristics
of the oceans and coasts. It will modify their ecological structure and functions. The
Marine
temperature of the sea surface is projected to increase by around 1°C to 2°C. This
and coastal
could lead to large scale bleaching of corals around the globe. Further, rise in sea
systems
level is expected to impact around 20 per cent of coastal wetlands by 2030. This
could lead to a large number of other adverse trends towards further wetland loss.
Mangroves are unique ecosystems which offers significant and unique habitat to
birds, mammals and fish populations. In addition to establishing a complex marine
food chain, it also creates a breeding habitat for many aquatic beings. The unique
anchoring root system of mangroves contributes in various ways in improving the
Mangroves water quality. The root system of mangroves filters and assimilates pollutants,
stabilize bottom sediments, and protect the shoreline from erosion. Mangroves also
serve as protection against storm surge and act as wind breakers, protecting life,
habitat, and agricultural lands. Climate change will adversely affect this unique
ecosystem.
128  Disaster Management

Effect Details
The precipitation and evaporation patterns could change leading to prolonged
droughts. This will result in disparity between the rates of evapotranspiration against
Fresh water precipitation. As a result of this phenomenon, ground water would get depleted and
depletion permanent water bodies would dry up. In India this will have serious repercussions
as majority of the population residing in arid and semiarid regions will have reduced
access to fresh water. This could lead to social tensions and unrests.
Climate change is likely to have a significant impact on the various habitats. The rise
in mean sea level is expected to cause flooding of low-lying areas thereby damaging
fresh water habitats and agro ecosystems. The fresh water and estuarine habitats
which are breeding grounds of thousands of fishes, mollusks, and amphibians would
be destroyed due to inundation during the high tides. Further, the mangroves, coastal
Habitat loss
wetlands, beach ecosystem coral reefs, sea vegetation, etc. will also be degraded
in a large scale. In the arable lands, invasion of alien species of plants will lead
to destruction of natural habitat and the indigenous species. For example, Lantana
and Parthenium sp. that was accidentally introduced in India have invaded forest
lands and cultivated fields, leading to serious habitat destruction.
Climate change could lead to increase in the global precipitation and changes in the
severity or frequency of extreme events. The climatic zones are expected to shift
poleward, disrupting forests, deserts, rangelands, and other unmanaged ecosystems.
Due to this many of the ecosystems will decline or fragment leading to extinction of
Loss of a number of individual species which will have direct effect of the biodiversity. It
biodiversity is also stated that biodiversity will decrease due to multiple pressures like increased
land use intensity and the destruction of natural and semi-natural habitats. This
decrease will be in both genetic and species biodiversity. These changes can lead
to the breakdown of the structure and functioning of the ecosystem as well as its
interaction with the various cycles like water, carbon, nitrogen, etc.

DEGRADATION OF WATER
Water, the only inorganic liquid that occurs naturally, is an essential element for life to exist on
Earth. It is the only known planet wherein water is available in substantial quantities. Water is
the only compound that exists in all the three physical states of solid, liquid and gas. It serves
a number of purposes, which include dissolution of nutrients and its distribution to the cells of
living organisms, regulation of body temperature, removal of wastes, etc. The development of
any society is dependent on the availability of fresh water. The use of water by human beings
has increased about twice as fast as the growth of population.
Two-third or roughly 70.8 per cent of the earth’s surface constitutes water. Water is contained
in the oceans, glaciers, Polar Regions, rivers, lakes, other water bodies, the water vapour in the
atmosphere, etc. It is a finite resource. Majority of the water is found in the oceans (97 per cent),
is saline and is unfit for human consumption or irrigation. Only three per cent of water is fresh,
with 2.997 per cent locked in ice caps or glaciers, and a mere 0.003 per cent is available for
human consumption. Now availability of fresh water is the biggest crises being faced by the
world today.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  129
The availability of fresh water is compounded by issues like unequal distribution of
water due to seasonal nature of precipitation, irregularity in the duration and intensity of
rains, variations of the quantity in the inland water bodies, etc. The availability of water at the
right place at the right time and form has always been a problem the world over. It is often
commented that future wars will be fought on the issue of water.

Important Facts
Fresh Water Crises
Fresh water is the biggest crisis that the world is facing today. The quantity of fresh water available
per person has been reducing day-by-day. As on 1989, the amount of fresh water available per
person was 9000 cubic meters. Due to rise in global population, it came down to 7800 cubic
meters by the year 2000. At this rate, the per capita availability of water is expected to come
down to about 5000 cubic meters by 2025.
It is estimated that every year about 1,10,000 cubic kilometers of rain water falls on the surface
of earth. One cubic kilometer of water is enough to cover an area of about 8,10,000 acres of land
with one foot of water. Out of this humans draw only about 3,700 cubic kilometers (just over
three per cent) of water. It is estimated that about 40,000 cubic kilometers of water flows into
rivers and most of it is absorbed into the ground with a small quantity evaporating (Behr, 2008).
Much of the water used by humans is drawn from rivers and ground. Majority of the water that
is used by humans’ returns into watersheds as waste water, runoff from farmlands, discharges
from industries, etc. Water use across the counties is highly uneven. According to the UN World
Water Development Report 3, in terms of volume the 10 largest water users in earth are India,
China, the United States, Pakistan, Japan, Thailand, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Mexico and Russian
Federation.
Change in demographics and the increase in consumption as a result of rising per capita incomes
are some of the few issues that increase the pressure on water. Further, agriculture which draws
about 70 per cent of fresh water is the largest consumer of fresh water. Any scarcity in water
availability is sure to limit food production and supply thereby putting undue pressure on food
prices. The quantity of water presently consumed by the industrial sector is 22 per cent (Nappier,
Lawrence and Schwab, 2007). This also is set to increase in the immediate future.
Majority of the population that is expected to be added in the near future would be in the
developing countries. It is stated that these additions would be in regions, wherein even the
current population is experiencing water stress, lacks sustainable access to safe drinking water as
well as sanitation facilities. The United Nations task force on water has predicted that by the year
2025, three billion people will face water stress conditions with significant deterioration in water
supply, whereby there won’t be enough water to meet human and environmental needs (Human
Development Report, 2006).
In addition to these, the effects of climate change may aggravate the drought conditions due
to a variety of reasons including reduced flow from world’s glaciers and mountain snow caps,
depletion and despoiling of world’s fresh water reservoirs, rivers, and water sheds. Further, the
traditionally dry regions will experience intensified water shortage and acute drought conditions.
Source: Sulphey and Safeer (2015).

Rise in demand of water and development pressures are changing the scenario of its
availability. Rapid development and poor land management practices are leading to widespread
130  Disaster Management

erosions in the watersheds. This results in siltation of water bodies and widespread change in
the stream hydraulics and dynamics. Uncontrolled exploitation is depleting the ground water
reserves, and the resultant pollution. Surface water sources are getting contaminated due to
the current level of socio-economic activities, which favour and incentivise unsustainable
consumption. Wetlands and watersheds are getting polluted beyond recovery. Pollution of
the water sources is having a direct relationship to declining biodiversity in the wetlands and
coastal mangroves around the globe.
Though there is a firm realization that water resources need to be managed more carefully,
adoption of sustainable water management practices are yet to pick up. The measures now
adapted are merely discrete and inadequate. Unless steps are initiated to adapt a more judicious,
compressive and sustainable water management practices, it will not be possible to avert a
major crisis that is looming large over the future of humans and Earth. Some of the reasons
of water getting degraded include enhanced demand for water, pressure on water resources,
water pollution, etc. These issues are universal in nature, with India being no exception. Certain
issues leading to water degradation in India are:

Demand for water

The demand for fresh water is increasing uncontrollably. In any economy, access to adequate
water is a limiting factor towards development. Agricultural, industrial and domestic uses are
competing more and more for a limited supply. Agricultural sector continues to dominate water
use owing to its continued importance to the Indian economy, while industrial demands are
increasing as the sector continues to grow. Domestic needs claim only a small portion of annual
water withdrawals as access to adequate water and sanitation supplies remains low throughout
the country. Greater access and an improvement in the socio-economic situation in rural India
are likely to result in a higher demand for water in the coming years.

Demand from agriculture

Indian economy is predominantly agrarian. Agriculture receives the greatest (92 per cent) share
of water allocation. Since many parts of India faces unpredictable monsoon and the resultant
drought like situation, the necessity of irrigation is high. This need for irrigation has put severe
pressure on both surface and groundwater resources. It is estimated that groundwater alone
accounts for 39 per cent of the water used in irrigation. Though a wide network, if irrigation
system involving dams, canals and other supply measures have been adapted, an optimum
supply strategy is yet to be evolved. The irrigation systems however, tend to create havoc at
times of flooding during the monsoon periods.

Demand from industries

The Indian industries have been achieving phenomenal growth in the past several decades. This
growth has placed high pressure on the need for water. Estimates show that the need for water
will continue to grow at a rate of 4.2 per cent. According to the World Bank (1999) demand
of water for industrial and other related requirements will rise from 67 billion m3 during early
2000s to 228 billion m3 by 2025.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  131
Domestic demand
The Indian domestic demand for water is currently around five per cent of the overall fresh
water withdrawals. Increasing population will put exceedingly high on water. Though major
cities in India enjoy access to central water supply systems, they are grossly inadequate to serve
the entire population. The situation is even more precarious in the rural areas, wherein 80 per
cent of the water is drawn from groundwater sources. It is estimated that the demand for water
is set to double from the current level of 25 billion m3 to 52 billion m3 over the next 20 years.

Water Pollution
Water is said to be polluted when the quality of water changes directly or indirectly as a result
of human activity and becomes unfit for any purpose. The quality of water can be affected
by the discharge of liquids, solids, and other substances. These can create nuisance or cause
the water to be injurious, harmful, or objectionable to human and other forms of life. Water
pollution is defined as ‘a change in the quality or composition of water directly or indirectly
as a result of man’s activities so that it becomes unsuitable for drinking, domestic, recreational
and agricultural purpose’.
Water pollution can be any of the following.
1. Point-source pollution: Point-source pollution happens when pollution occurs from
a single location. The source can be readily identified as it is often definite. Example
of point-source pollution is the discharge pipe attached to factories and municipalities,
discharge from chimneys, oil spill from tankers, etc. Point-source pollution is easier
to identify, monitor, measure, and control; in comparison to other types of pollution.
However, lot needs to be done in this direction.
2. Non-point-source pollution: At times, water pollution happens not from just a
single source, but from a large number of scattered sources. This pollution is known
as non-point-source pollution. The source of this pollution is also difficult to be
identified. Examples of non-point-source pollution are fertilizer runoff, acid rain, etc.
The fertilizer runoff can be reduced by using moderate amounts of fertilizer. Further,
planting buffer zones between rows of crops and application of pesticides only when
necessary will reduce pollution drastically.
3. Trans-boundary pollution: Pollution that enters the environment at one place
having its effect hundreds of thousands of miles away from the source is known
as Trans-boundary pollution. Example of trans-boundary pollution is the effect of
radioactive waste of the Chernobyl disaster having its impact on a number of Asian
countries.
Water pollution can also be classified as Physical, Chemical and Biological.
1. Physical pollution is caused when contaminated water or water with high temperature
enters the water bodies from either municipal sources or industries. It can also happen
from spills that may take place from oil carriers. This pollution can be controlled if
the municipal and industrial waste water is treated in Effluent Treatment Plants before
being released into water bodies.
132  Disaster Management

2. Chemical pollution is caused by organic and inorganic chemicals that include

biocides, PCBs, etc. Examples of organic chemicals are phosphates, nitrates, fluoride
heavy metals, etc. Both organic and inorganic wastes decrease the content of dissolved
oxygen in the water bodies. This may adversaly affect the ecosystem.
3. Biological pollution is caused by pathogens that include viruses, bacteria, algae,
protozoa, helminthes, etc.
According to the Ministry of Ground Water, Government of India, water pollution is a
serious problem in India since around 70 per cent of its surface water resources and high levels
of groundwater reserves are contaminated by various types of pollutants. The pollutants include
biological, toxic, organic and inorganic. In many instances the pollution is so grave that the water
sources are rendered unsafe for human consumption as well as for irrigation and industrial needs.
Figure 12.2 provides a picture of a highly polluted water source.

Figure 12.2 A highly polluted river.

A new form of pollutions witnessed in India is ‘geogenic’ contamination. This is the

contamination that occurs as a result of depleting water table due to overexploitation of
groundwater. The geogenic contaminants include salinity, iron, fluoride, arsenic, etc. While
salinity renders the water unusable, intake of fluoride for considerably long periods could
cause cripple bones, tooth decay, etc. Similarly, intake of arsenic could cause skin cancer and
pigmentation. Geogenic contamination is said to have affected the groundwater in over 200
districts of 19 states in India.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  133
Pressures to Water Resources
Pressure is put on water resources due to pollution from various sources like agriculture,
industries, domestic use, etc. A brief description of pollution from these sources is provided
as follows:

Agriculture
There has been uncontrolled increase in the use of agro-chemicals for over the past five
decades. This has contributed significantly to the pollution of water resources—both surface
and groundwater. According to the Centre for Science and Environment (1999), pesticide
consumption in India rose from less than one million tonne in 1948 to around 75 million
tonnes in the end of the last century. The consumption of fertilizers has also doubled in the
last decade, with an average increase rate of 3.3 per cent per annum. Fertilizers and pesticides
enter the ground water resources through runoffs and leaching affecting humans, animals and
plants. Many of these chemicals include banned substances that are considered extremely
hazardous by WHO. Perennial sources of water in India have been found to have chemicals
such as DDT, endosulfan, malathion, dimethoate, and ethion in astronomically high. A number
of these chemicals are persistent in nature for considerably long periods. Another problem
that occurs as a result of water pollution is eutrophication. This occurs due to high levels of
fertilizer use. Eutrophication occurs when decaying and partially decomposed organic matter
releases odourous gases, limiting the availability of oxygen into the water. Through this process
the water becomes unfit for human and other consumption.

Industries
Though the withdrawal of water by industries in India is only around three per cent, this sector
contributes considerably towards pollution. Water pollution found to be high, particularly in
urban areas. Most of the wastewater generated from industry is dumped directly into the local
streams and rivers without treatment. Wastewaters from industries are contaminated with highly
toxic organic and inorganic substances. Some such substances are persistent pollutants and
remain in the environment for considerably long periods. There is also the danger of heavy
metals originating from thermal power, tannery and mining activities contaminating fresh water
resources. Though there are many rules, regulation and stipulations that call for setting up
Effluent Treatment Plants in industrial areas, progress in this area is well below the required
mark. The Central and State Pollution Control Boards have to do lots in this direction. Framing
and implementation of emission regulations and proper industrial zoning can go a long way
in dealing with this problem.

Domestic
In India, domestic sector accounts to majority of wastewater dumped into water bodies. It is
estimated that over 50 million m3 of untreated sewage is discharged into streams and rivers
every year. Further, the availability of sanitation facilities in India is highly dismal. Less than
20 per cent of rural and 70 per cent of urban inhabitants have access to adequate sanitation
134  Disaster Management

facilities. Due to this, water resources are contaminated by human and animal waste discharged
or due to seepages from faulty septic tanks or pit latrines. The level of faecal coliform bacteria
in most Indian rivers is much higher than WHO standards. Various parts of India are affected by
high incidence of water related diseases, including gastro-intestinal ailments, due to inadequate
treatment of human and animal wastes.
India is estimated to produce over 2000 million tonnes of solid wastes. With the surging
population and improvement in the socio-economic conditions of the people, this is set to
increase manifold. Improper disposal of solid wastes is also causing groundwater pollution in
astronomical proportions. The runoff from garbage dumps in cities and towns dispose particulate
matters, heavy metals and toxic chemicals to the water bodies contaminating them.

Case Study: The Desiccation of the Aral Sea

The problem that the Aral Sea face is unique that has no parallel in history. Before 1960 it
was the fourth largest water body on earth. In just three decades, the sea shrunk by more than
40 per cent due to anthropogenic desertification (Kotlykov, 1991). It is an ideal example as
to how human greed has created a catastrophe of such an enormous proportion that can never
be corrected with any amount of will or money power. The Aral Sea and its basin, which
was literally an oasis in the Steppes, for centuries altogether, has been destroyed irrevocably
through a few decades of greedy and stupid human interventions. Civilizations that thrived in
the deserts of Central Asia, in perfect harmony with the surroundings for generations, have
been devastated and are now in the footsteps of mass destruction. The area has been devastated
environmentally, culturally and socio-economically. The supply of drinking water is an issue
for the five nations in the region, and Kazakhstan, in particular. The area can now be restored
to its past glory only through divine intervention. May the history of the Aral Sea make good
sense prevail, and help the so called ‘developed’ human beings to learn from past mistakes
and desist from sounding his death knell in other parts of the globe.

The Aral Sea

The Aral Sea is situated in the northern deserted part of Central Asia, within the borders of
Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Till 1960, the total area of the Sea was stable at about 68,000
km2. The volume of water was around 1000 km3 (Ashirbekov and Zonn, 2003). At this size,
Aral Sea occupied the second place in the world among intercontinental lakes after the Caspian
Sea. It takes the fourth place among lakes after the Caspian Sea (former USSR, Iran), lake
Top (Canada, USA), Lake Victoria (Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda), that’s why people call it a sea.
The Aral Sea, which had no outlet, was fed by two rivers of Central Asia—the Amu
Darya and Sir Darya. For over the past ten thousand years the waters of the Amu Darya
(Figure 12.3) and the Syr Darya rivers have flowed through the deserts of south central Soviet
Asia to the Aral Sea. The Amu Darya which originates in Tajikistan and Afghanistan is over
2500 km long. It is formed subsequent to the merger of Vakhsh Rivers. This includes the waters
of Allai valley, Northern Pamir and Pianj, as well as the inflows from Gunit and Bartang,
which drains from the southeast Pamir Mountains. From the point of this merge, the length
of Amu Darya is about 1400 km. Another major inflow is from the rivers of Kafirnigan and
Surhandarya, which flows down from the southern slopes of Gissar Mountains, as well as river
Kunduz, that drains from within the borders of Afghanistan. The Syr Darya is formed by the
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  135
merger of the two rivers Narin and Karadarya. Its length from the place of merger is about
2200 km. These rivers had a combined average annual flow of 111 cubic kilometers (km3), or
90 million acre-feet (maf). The evaporation of the Aral Sea was to the extent of about 60 km
per annum. However, the inflows to the sea from Amu Darya and Syr Darya were sufficient
enough to offset the surrounding desert’s high net evaporation rates. Evidences show that the
level of the sea fluctuated less than 1 meter between 1910 and 1960.

Figure 12.3 The Aral Sea and the Syr Darya and Amu Darya Delta.

As on 1960 the Aral Sea had over 1100 islands out of which 12 were very large.
The largest island was Barsakelmes. The sea was surrounded by rich vegetation including a
particular type of reed which was unique to the region. The fish wealth was so abundant that
it provided USSR which about 13 per cent of overall income from fishing. The fishes included
barbell, bream, sazan, vobla, pike perch, Aral salmon, etc. (Ashirbekov and Zonn, 2003). The
sea also influenced the surrounding areas by softening the climate.

The exploitation of Amu Darya and Syr Darya

The economies of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan have traditionally
been dependent on the waters of Amu Darya and Syr Darya. Though the water of Amu Darya
has been diverted and used for irrigation since time immemorial, it was the decree signed by
V.I. Lenin in 1918 that initiated large scale use of its waters. Through this decree he assigned
136  Disaster Management

50 million Roubles for irrigational works in Turkestan.2 It was decided to construct channels
for the purpose of irrigation. This decree was followed by another decree in 1920 about
restoration of cotton culture in Turkestan and Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republics. In 1925
the First Turkmen Congress of Councils deliberated about the transfer of waters of Amu Darya
to southern and western part of Turkmenya.
In 1940, a decision was made by the Government of the USSR to further enhance
agriculture, in particular, cotton in the Turkmen SSR. This involved significant diversion of
Amu Darya waters through a channel from the basins of the rivers of Murghab and Tedzhen.
Toward this end, a canal (cherished Lenin Channel) measuring about 110 km was constructed.
The following years saw decisions by local governments of Uzbekistan to increase the cotton
cultivation multifold.
In 1943, the Kara-kum water reservoir was built with the 1200 km canal on Syr Darya.
The Kara-kum was followed by the construction of Farhad Hydro system in 1948, which
diverted water for irrigation of the Steppes. In 1949, the Council of Ministers of USSR decided
for further development of cotton production in Tadjik SSR and Uzbek SSR. These decisions
had detrimental effects on the already strained waters of the two rivers.
In 1950, the Council of Ministers of the USSR took a decision to construct the Main
Turkmen channel on Amu Darya so as to irrigate the plains of Western Turkmeniya, the lower
reaches of Amu Darya and the western part of desert of Kara-kum. The construction of the
channel was started in the same year. The following year saw the construction of the Bukhara
channel also. The year 1954 saw the Council of Ministers of the USSR deciding to “further
develop cotton production” in Uzbek SSR, Turkmen SSR and Tadjik SSR. Again in 1956, the
Council of Ministers of the USSR decided to irrigate the virgin lands of Steppes in Uzbek and
Kazakh SSR to enhance the production of cotton.
Not content with the quantity of cotton produced, the Council of Ministers, in 1958,
decided further expansion and acceleration of works for irrigation and land development in
Uzbek SSR, Kazakh SSR and Tadjik SSR. The following year the construction of Kara-kum
canal was completed and it was decided for the second-order construction of the channel to
Turkmen SSR. It is reported that the canal failed to utilize water-saving techniques that could
have improved irrigation efficiency. Seepage from the canal was enormous as it was unlined.
Since it was open the water was exposed to the desert climate of the region.
The USSR though its Central Command, without any practical forecast about the condition
of rivers, or the Aral Sea and the ecological consequences in Central Asia due to the diversion
of water; was focusing only on the enhanced production of cotton. All these steps had a bearing
on the Aral Sea, and the water level started decreasing. By 1961, the water level of the sea
touched 53.29 m.
Without taking note of the sings of peril, the government again decided for further
utilization of the waters of Amy Darya and Sir Darya. Again in 1962 the Council of
Ministers decided to enhance cotton production in Turkmen SSR for “liquidation of backlog
in production”. In 1963 the Council of Ministers of the USSR decided on land development of
Steppe Karshinsk in Uzbek SSR and Kzyl-kum in Kazakh SSR. The same year the construction
of Tahiatash hydro unit on Amu Darya was begun. This unit was expected to guarantee water

2. It was at this time that a resolution on the organization of Turkestan Autonomous Republic was accepted
in Tashkent.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  137
to about 9,00,000 hc in the lower reaches of Amu Darya. Everybody ignored the decreasing
water levels of Aral Sea. The water level in 1963 stood at 52.61 m. The Plenum of Central
Committee of the CPSU in 1966 decided about the “wide development of land reclamation
for reception of high and steady crops grain and other agricultural crops”. They prepared an
action plan towards this, including drainages of the grounds, for the next 10 years. By the end
of 1966 the mark of the Aral Sea came down to 51.89 m. The following year the Uzbek SSR
decided to take urgent measures to increase the production of paddy, increase water-security and
improve the condition of collective and state farms in Karalkalpak SSR. In 1970, the council
of ministers of USSR decided to accelerate the irrigation and land development work of Steppe
Karshinsk in the Uzbek SSR. This was a follow-up of the decision taken in 1963. This year
the construction of Tuyamuyunsk hydro unit from the mouth of Amu Darya was initiated. By
the end of the year the sea level receded to 51.43 m. The volume was 964 km, and the area
603 thousand km2. This prompted stopping of navigation across the sea.
In 1971 and 1972 it was again decided to further develop agriculture of Turkmen SSR,
and Uzbek SSR respectively. The sea level receded to 50.54 m in 1972. In 1973, the water of
Amu Darya was brought to the Steppe of Karshinsk, as per the decision taken by the Council
of Ministers in 1970. The sea continued to recede. The year 1975 saw the first effort towards
studying the influence of the socio-economic consequences of the decrease of level of Aral
Sea. The first coordination meeting was held in Tashkent under the leadership of Gerasimov,
I.P. an academician. In 1975, the water level came below the 50.00 m mark, to 49.01 m. The
construction of Tuyamuyunsk hydro unit was completed in 1979 and the reservoir was filled.
At one time irrigation accounted for more than 90 per cent of all water withdrawals from
the tributaries of Aral Sea (Micklin, 1988).

Realisation of the Problem

By 1980, the USSR Government became aware of the veracity of the problem faced by the
Aral Sea. The presidium of the USSR conducted a conference on ‘Problems of Aral and in
deltas of Amu Darya’. This was followed by the meeting of the State Committee on Science
and Technology (SCST) which authorized the conduct of an investigation into the mode of
action associated with the decreasing level of waters in the Sea to Mr. Souzgiprovodhoz.
It also sought to develop scientific basis and actions on the rational use and protection of
natural resources. In the year 1981 and 1983 though the meeting of SCST was conducted,
nothing fruitful emerged. By the time the water level came down drastically to 43.55 m. By
the early 1980s, 20 of the sea’s 24 native fish species had disappeared (Frederick, 1991). In
1985, the final All-Union coordination working meeting of SCST was conducted in Moscow.
In the meeting Mr. Souzgiprovodhoz submitted the Technical and Economic Report (TER) on
regulation of the water of the Aral Sea. Parallely, in 1986, the Council of Ministers of the
USSR took a decision to accelerate the development of Karakalpak SSR, through irrigation
and development of nearly 50 thousand hectares of land. By the time the water level of Aral
receded to 41.10 m.
In the academic sphere a group of scientists of Institute of Water Problems of AS of USSR
sent the letter to the Central Committee of the CPSU sounding grave alarm about the destiny
of water delivery for the different republics of Central Asia. Aware of the grave situation, in
138  Disaster Management

1987 the Ministry of Land Improvement and Water Conservation of the USSR created the
Basin Water Economic Associations of Amu Darya and Syr Darya. By the time, the water level
came down to 40.29 m mark. The volume was 401 km3, and the area came down drastically
to 411 thousand km2. By now, the mineralisation of water exceeded 20 g/l. Further, the small
sea got separated from big and there was a drained crosspiece.
Though belated, the year 1988 saw a lot of movement towards protection of the Aral
Sea from various quarters. The Central Committee of the CPSU and Council of Ministers of
the USSR deliberated about:
measures on radical improvement of ecological and sanitary conditions in area of Aral
sea, to increase of efficiency of use and strengthening the protection of water and ground
resources in its basin.
Further a report on the cardinal improvement of ecological, sanitary and epidemiologic
conditions in area of Aral Sea and lower reaches of the rivers of Amu Darya and Syr Darya was
prepared. By now the issue of Aral Sea had received wide attention. Many writers and editors
of leading newspapers came forward calling for rescue of the sea. In Nukus, an organization
called “Aralvodstroi” for the rescue of the Aral Sea was created. However, there was no respite
in the decrease of water level. By now the water level stood at 39.75 m.
By the end of 1989, the Sea receded into two parts—the southern Greater Sea and the
northern Lesser Sea. At this point of time, according to Kotlyakov (1991) the water level of
the Greater Sea were 38.6 m (area of 33,400 km2, volume of 310 km3 and mean salinity of
3 per cent) and that of the Lesser Sea 39.5 m (area of 3,000 km2, volume of 20 km3 and
salinity between 1.8 and 3.5 per cent). The hydrologic parameters of the sea between 1960
and 1989 are worth considering, for having a fair understanding about the devastation of the
area. The data are presented in Table 12.6.
Table 12.6 Hydrologic Parameters of Aral between 1960 and 1989

Sea level Sea area Sea volume Mineral content River runoff
Year
(m) (’000 km2) (km3) (gm/l) (km3)
1960 53.3 67.9 1090 10.0 40
1965 52.5 63.9 1030 10.5 31
1970 51.6 60.4 970 11.1 33
1975 49.4 57.2 840 13.7 11
1980 46.2 52.4 670 16.5 0
1985 42.0 44.4 470 23.5 0
1989 39.0 37.0 340 28.0 5
Source: Oreshkin (1990)

People from various walks including literature, culture and science of Uzbekistan came
together to rescue Aral in 1989. They even created a special fund to rescue the Sea. By now
the problem of Aral became a national issue and was discussed in various forums. In the Aral
Sea, the water level came down to 39.08 m and due to paucity of water, the Big Sea got
separated from small.
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  139
By 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR recognized that the zone has met with an
ecological accident. The local governments of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz, Tadjik,
Turkmen and Kara Kalpak republics came together to form a consortium on Aral. Under the
initiative of the Kazakh Association for the United Nations ‘The International round table
on How to save Aral’ took place in Alma-Ata. The UNEP also started involving in rescuing
the Aral Sea. In 1991, the Council of Ministers of USSR acknowledged Aral as ‘the largest
ecological accident of our planet’. The year saw a lot of activity towards rescuing Aral. Some
among include:
(i) The meeting of country leaders of the CIS, and the signing of the report on
intergovernmental agreement on problems of Aral, at Minsk.
(ii) The meeting of the International Working Commission of Experts of the USSR/
UNEP in Moscow for ‘preservation and restoration of Aral sea, normalization of
an ecological, sanitary-and-hygienic, medical and biologic and social and economic
situation in Priaralye’.
(iii) Another session of the International Working Commission of Experts of the
USSR/UNEP for ‘Assistance in preparation of the Plan of action on preservation
of Aral sea’.
(iv) A meeting of ministers of land improvement and water management of the Central
Asian republics in Tashkent were the application on the sharing of water resources
of Aral Sea basin was accepted.
Further, a number of ministries of the USSR including nature, health, and agriculture and
food production developed a concept for preservation and stage-by-stage restoration of Aral
Sea; in coordination with and taking into consideration the conditions of social and economic
development of the Republics of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. A decision was also taken to
suspend all constructions and commissioning of new large irrigation systems in the area of
Aral Sea. Despite all these efforts there was no letup in the receding water levels and it came
down to 37.56 m

The good old days

There was reportedly a harmonious balance in the Aral Sea area and the Amu Darya and Syr
Darya delta till the Soviet Union began a massive cultivation of water-intensive cash crops
(mainly cotton) in the upstream regions of the rivers. Evidences show that historically Uzbeks
used a highly successful crop rotation system consisting of cotton and alfalfa. They used to
grow cotton for one year, alfalfa in the next, and used to herd livestock on the fallow fields
the third year. This cycle, which was repeated since immemorial till the 1940s, helped in
maintaining the soil fertility levels at comfortable levels (Rumer, 1989). The centralized control
of the USSR led to the destruction of traditional ways of life for Central Asians followed since
time immemorial, and introduced them to collective/state owned farms, which was initially
successful due to large scale mechanisation.
The intensive monoculture of cotton introduced by the Soviets led to a situation that the
area is now facing such a catastrophe, from where there is no return. While the monoculture
developed in the region, food and industrial inputs were brought from other republics of the
140  Disaster Management

Union. This led to the so called ‘structural dependency’ between the Central Asian republics
and the other Soviet republics (Spoor, 1999).

The turning point

By 1991 the USSR broke up and all the five republics of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan proclaimed independence. The breakup affected the republics’
political and economic systems, and the consequent ramifications for the Aral Sea. Repeated
price shocks in the monoculture followed by the republics struck the economy at the base.
Discussions on the water crisis were initiated shortly after the five republics gained their
independence. A series of meetings of heads of water—economic bodies of the new Central
Asian republics took place in Almaty and Tashkent. A number of nations and world bodies
like Japan, Germany, Holland, UNEP, UNESCO, etc. met and proposed various measures to
protect Aral. The governments and parliaments of the Central Asian republics called on the
UN to declare the Priaralye zone as an ecological disaster and create an international body
for the coordination of actions of the world community on rescue Aral. The World Bank also
started involving in the affairs of Aral. This year also saw the creation of a scientific body
ICWC to deal with the water—economic problems of the Aral Sea. However, the level of
water continued to recede.
In 1993, “The Program of Aral sea basin” was presented to the World Bank. In the same
year, the five Presidents of the Central–Asian republics signed an agreement on joint actions
towards problem of Aral Sea and Priaralye, and the ecological improvement and maintenance
of socio-economic development of the Aral region. The heads of states of the Central Asia
took initiative to create an International Fund of Saving the Aral. The President of Republic
of Kazakhstan, Nazarbaev was elected president of the Fund. On appeal by the president of
Uzbekistan in the General Assembly of the UN, a Special Commission of UN on Aral was
constituted. A Scientific Information Centre (SIC) of ICWC was set up in Tashkent.
A joint mission of the World Bank, UNEP and UNDP was created in the Central Asian
republics for rendering assistance for establishment of priority projects for the five states of
Aral Sea basin. In Washington, the World Bank organized an international seminar ‘Crisis of
Aral Sea’. The water level again came down to 36.95 m. The years 1994 and 1995 saw a
number of seminars and conferences in various places like Varna (Bulgaria), Paris, Brussels
(Belgium). In a meeting of donors in Paris, eight projects for the Sea basin amounting to about
$ 40 million was approved.
In 1995 at Nukus, under aegis of the UN the International conference on steady develop-
ment of the states of the Central Asia was conducted. The conference became a meeting of heads
of the states of the Central Asia and the Nukus declaration was signed wherein Consortium Aral
was created. By the end of the year the water level stood at 36.11 m. The Almaty Declaration
was signed in 1997 by the heads of states of Central Asia. The organization, International
Fund for Rescue of Aral Sea (IFAS) was formed, with Mr. Karimov, President of Republic
Uzbekistan. This was followed by a number of seminars and conferences around the globe by
various bodies and nations.
However, the effectiveness of the seminars, conferences seemed to be at doubt with the
water level receding to 34.24 m by 1998 and 30.90 m by 2002. Although as many as 300 Aral
Sea basin related agreements were signed, they remained idealistic, with a negotiated sustainable
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  141
agreement regarding sharing of resources being elusive. The agreements had limited mechanisms
to enforce their clauses (Peachey, 2004). Further, the issue is also entangled in a web of
associations and donor agencies (around 15 to 20). Some of them include the Interstate Council
for Addressing the Aral Sea Crisis (ICAS) which overseas another two bodies—the Interstate
Commission for Water Coordination (ICWC) and the Sustainable Development Commission
(SDC), Interstate Water Management Coordinating Commission (IWMCC), International Fund
for the Aral Sea (IFAS). Peachey (2004) is of the opinion that the actions of international donors
have further complicated the situation. For instance the World Bank works in conjunction with
the UNDP and the UNEP, strived to strengthen the institutional capacity of the ICAS and the
IFAS. USAID works through the Interstate Council for Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan
(ICKKU), an economic cooperative organization created in 1993.

The after effects

Though belatedly the Soviet planners recognized that expanded irrigation had adversely impacted
the Aral Sea, they desperately failed to anticipate other consequences of their actions. The low
levels of inflows to the sea and the increasing salinity had devastating impacts not only on the
sea but on the people once dependent on its rich productive system. This resulted in one of the
greatest ecological disasters in history. In addition to declining agricultural productivity, and
sharp rise in mortality and morbidity rates, the recession of the Aral Sea have resulted in huge
dust storms. The climate has also become inhospitable to humans and vegetation.

Effects on the geography

When the sea started receding, large areas of the lake bottom became exposed. Since there
was high concentration of toxic salts in the upper layer of the exposed seabed, coupled with
lack of water and nutrients brought in a situation whereby it was virtually impossible to have
any sustainable vegetation. This lack of vegetative cover made dust storms to blow up. During
spring season these storms became common and started to increase both in frequency and
magnitude. The storms were so powerful that they could be observed from space. In addition
to soil, the dust contained a large number of salts—sulfates and chlorides—which are poisonous
to plants. According to early estimates, the storms which used to stretch between 150 and
300 km transported an estimated 15,000 to 75,000 metric tonnes of salts per year over vast
tracts of land around the sea (Kotlyakov, 1990). Each hectare of land in the lower Aral basin
is said to receive over 500 kg of salts annually (over 350 km of dry salts and over 200 kg of
precipitation). These dust clouds and salts started to harm the desert oasis and pastures during
spring seasons.

Effects on flora and fauna

The deltas of Amu Darya and Syr Darya were, till the early 60’s a productive ecosystem. The
deltas were like oases of flora and fauna, which provided natural feeding ground for livestock,
had enough stock for commercial hunting and trapping, source of reeds for industry, and had
enough diversity of fish. As the deltas dried up, rapid desertification occurred. This led to
sharp decline in livestock and fish, which had an adverse effect on the quality of diet of the
disadvantaged poor. According to the UNEP GRID (2000) before 1960, the river deltas were
142  Disaster Management

home to over 70 types of mammals and 319 types of birds, which have come down drastically
to 32 and 160 respectively. Further, the salt-hardy vegetation is currently replacing the salt-
sensitive native plants. Due to the loss of wetlands and increased pesticide concentration, native
bird populations have become either endangered or extinct (Micklin, 1988).

Effects on agriculture
The soils of the area were naturally saline. However, due to availability of adequate drainage,
the salts used to get leached from the soils. When the quantity of irrigated water became excess
of crop requirements, the drainage became a colossal issue. The excess water, which was much
more saline than the irrigation water applied got accumulated and started raising the level of
groundwater table. The unprecedented rise in groundwater table into the root zone curtailed
oxygen supplies of the crops. In addition to this, the capillary action drew salts from the shallow
groundwater tables upward to the surface. The rate of evaporation increased the concentration
of salts near the surface. This concentration of salts on the surface destroyed the agricultural
potential of the land. It is reported that, as on the year 1985 large tracts of irrigated soils in
Uzbekistan (60 per cent), Turkmenistan (80 per cent), Tadzhikistan (35 per cent), Kirghizstan
(40 per cent), and Kazakhstan (65 per cent) suffered from moderate to strong salinity problems
(Frederick, 1991). Increased salinity led to decrease in cotton yields. Tough attempts were made
to enhance the yields by application of more fertilizers; it boomeranged with soil salinity further
increasing. The area occupied by reeds shrunk from 5,50,000 to around 20,000 hectares, and
the productivity of pastures dropped drastically (Kotlyakov, 1990).

Effects on climate
The receding Aral Sea lost its moderating effect on the surrounding climate. Before receding
the sea influenced the climate of the land areas of 100 to 200 km2. But later the dust storms
stretched to over 150 km to 300 km. The evaporation of surface water increased markedly, and
moisture decreased by 10 per cent from its rate 50 years ago (UNEP, 2000). The area started
witnessing more extreme temperatures, with summers becoming hotter and winters colder.
According to Kotlyakov (1990), in the early 1980s, the difference between the mean monthly
temperatures between January and July increased by 1.5°C to 2°C. The vegetative season
(between the spring frost and the fall frost) decreased to 170 days, which was far below the
200 days required for growing cotton (Kriner, 2002).
The dust produced in the area also led to disastrous effect on the glaciers with their
accelerated retreat (UNEP, 2000). The retreat of these glaciers, where were perennial sources
of water, will lead to an even greater shortage of water, posing security threats that could
have the potential to destabilise the entire region due to growing tensions over this scarce
resource.

Effects on the human population

A main casualty, according to Micklin (1988), associated with cotton culture was the health of
the population in the area. Excessive use of pesticides contaminated the drinking water in the
lower reaches of the river basins. Adding to it the salt concentration also became exceedingly
high. The poor quality of diets inadequate sewage systems and limited access to basic medical
 Chapter 12 Environmental Degradation: Air and Water  143
services are also adding to the woes of the communities (Micklin, 1988). It is reported that
pesticides were detected in mother’s milk. Pesticides have even been detected in mothers’ milk.
The intensity and frequency of dust storms containing toxic salt residue increased
astronomically that the populations downwind (even hundreds of miles away) are compelled
to inhale these particles with carcinogenic properties (Weinthal, 2002). Even as early as in the
eighties, the health conditions of the population became so grave that the incidence of cancer
of the esophagus became 50 times higher than the world average, typhoid increased almost
30 times, hepatitis increased seven times, and certain other problems like respiratory diseases,
kidney disease, gallstone ailments, and chronic gastritis increased drastically (Micklin, 1988).
At the same period infant mortality rate was more than 50 per 1000 in the region. In certain
specific pockets the issue was so grave. For instance, in Karakalpak Republic, which is located
in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, the infant mortality was as high as 110 per 1000!
Most of the women and children were severely anemic.

Solution
The emphasis of the Soviet Union was on short-term production. They never considered the
aspect of long-term sustainable growth and development (Glantz, 1999). The monoculture of
cotton exacerbated the situation and resulted in the destruction of not just the Aral Sea, but
the entire Asian ecosystem. It put to peril the sustainable water resources for present as well
as future generations.
What is the solution? Is restoration of Aral Sea and the entire river basin a solution?
Estimates say that to restore the Sea Basin and its tributaries to their original boundaries would
require the flow of approximately 1000 cubic kilometers of water per year. It roughly works
out to 10 years of full flow of both the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers to the Aral Sea
(Wegerich, 2001). Sievers (2003) says that if this is to be achieved, the ‘economies would have
to be diversified, populations shifted, and consumption reduced’. These hypothetical changes
would cost tens of billions of dollars, which the Central Asian republics can ill afford. Neither
is anybody willing to subsidize. Peachey (2004) says that restoring the Aral Sea Basin to its
original pre-Soviet boundaries is as such not feasible.
The solution is, as such, focusing on mitigating the crisis. This can be achieved in part
by stabilizing the region’s water resource management, and ensuring its sustainability for future
generations—an aspect which is better said than done.

References

Ashirbekov, U.A. and Zonn, I.S. (2003). Aral: The History of Dying Sea, Dushanbe.
Centre for Science and Environment (1999). Perpetual Thirst: Faucets of the Problem, Down to
Earth, 7(19), February 28.
Frederick, K.D. (1991). The Disappearing Aral Sea, Resources 102 (Winter 1991), Washington
DC: Resources for the Future.
Glantz, Michael H. (Ed.) (1999). Creeping Environmental Problems and Sustainable Development
in the Aral Sea Basin, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
144  Disaster Management

Kotlyakov, V.M. (1991). The Aral Sea: A Critical Environment Zone, Environment, 33(1), 4–9.
Kriner, Stephanie (2002). Aral Sea Ecological Disaster Causes Humanitarian Crisis,
Micklin, P.P. (1988). Desiccation of the Aral Sea; A Water Management Disaster in the Soviet
Union, Science, 241.
Oreshkin, D.B. (1990). The Aral Catastrophe, Nauka O Zemle, 2(41).
Peachey, E.J. (2004). The Aral Sea Basin Crisis and Sustainable Water Resource Management in
Central Asia, Journal of Public and International Affairs, 15, pp. 1–20.
Rumer, B.Z. (1989). Soviet Central Asia: A Tragic Experiment, Boston: Unwin Hyman.
Spoor, M. (1999). Agrarian Transition in Former Soviet Central Asia: A Comparative Study of
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, Institute of Social Studies, Working Paper Series
No. 298 (September).
Sulphey, M.M. (2015). The Desiccation of the Aral Sea: Does its story hold out anything for India?
SAMSMRITI—The SAMS Journal, 9(1)
Sulphey, M.M. and Safeer, M.M. (2015). Introduction to Environment Management, Delhi:
PHI Learning.
United Nations Environment Programme GRID-Arendal. 2000. The Aral—CAR Problem.
Wegerich, Kai (2001). Not a Simple Path: A Sustainable Future for Central Asia, Water Issues
Study Group Occasional Paper No. 28. University of London School of Oriental and African
Studies.
Weinthal, E. (2000). Central Asia: Aral Sea Problem, Foreign Policy in Focus, 5, 1–3.
World Bank (1999). Annual Report, World Bank: Washington DC.

Questions

1. Classify air pollutants.

2. What do you mean by particulates?
3. Write in detail about atmospheric dispersion.
4. What do you know about plume behaviour?
5. What are the effects of air pollution?
6. Write in detail about acid rain.
7. What do you know about depletion of ozone layer?
8. Write an essay about global warming.
9. Write in detail about climate change.
10. What are the effects of climate change?
11. What do you know about degradation of water?
12. Write in detail about water pollution.
 13 Environmental
Degradation
Deforestation,
Desertification and
Others

DEFORESTATION
Deforestation is the long-term or permanent removal of forest cover and its conversion for non-
forested land use. This permanent removal of forest cover can be natural or manmade. Natural
(non-anthropogenic) events that lead to deforestation include earthquake, landslides, volcanism,
etc. The IPCC has expanded the definition of deforestation to add those land converted as
pastures, croplands, and other managed uses too.
Tropical forests are shrinking at a rate of about five per cent per decade as forests are
logged and cleared to supply various markets for wood products, cattle, agricultural produce
and bio-fuels. According to FAO (2006) during the period 1990–2005 deforestation has taken
place at an alarming rate of about 1,30,000 km2 or 13 million hectares, per annum. However,
figures show that the annual net loss of forest area around the globe is decreasing as a result
of tree planting and natural expansion of forests in certain countries and regions. Thus, taking
into account the gains and losses, the net loss in the forest area during the period 2000 to
2005, was 73,000 km2 per annum. One of the most important ramifications of deforestation is
its effect on the global atmosphere. Deforestation occurs due to host or reasons. The causes
of deforestation, which can be classified as direct and indirect, are presented in the following
sections:

DIRECT CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

Expansion of Farming Land

It is estimated that over 60 per cent of tropical forest is cleared for agricultural purposes. This
is followed by logging, construction of roads, urbanisation, etc. Destruction of tropical forests
145
146  Disaster Management

is likely to affect millions of settlers who live with less than one dollar a day. In addition to
this, degradation of land is likely to force people to migrate increasing the possibility of further
deforestation. Shifting agriculture which leads to ‘slash and burn’ also results in large scale
deforestation. In slash and burn, forests are cleared for raising crops. Agriculture is carried on
in that site until the soil is exhausted of nutrients or is overtaken by weeds. At this stage new
forest areas are cleared and the process continues. Growing number of shifting cultivators are
devouring large tracts of forest around the globe, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia. In
addition to shifting cultivation, direct conversion of forest for agriculture is also increasingly
consuming large tracts of forests.

Forest and other Plantations

Plantations are another major reason for deforestation. Though plantations have positive effects
like reducing the rate of deforestation, and removing pressure on natural forests for timber, in
reality it translates to more deforestation. It is also feared that timber plantations could turn
out to be disastrous to tropical forest ecosystems. Tree crops and rubber in particular plays a
more important role in deforestation in Indonesia than subsistence-oriented shifting

Logging and Fuel Wood

Though logging does not directly cause deforestation, it could seriously degrade forests. Large
areas of forests have been degraded in Southeast Asia due to logging. In addition to this fuel
wood gathering is another major cause of deforestation. In counties like Philippines, Thailand
and countries like El Salvador in Central America fuel wood gathering has been a major cause
of deforestation.

Overgrazing
Deforestation due to overgrazing is common in drier areas of the tropics. The pastures that
are degraded due to overgrazing are affected by soil erosion. Overgrazing has turned large
areas around the globe into deserts. Examples include Qinghai province in China, large areas
of grasslands north of Beijing, Tibet, Xillinggol Prefecture in Inner Mongolia, the Aral Basin
in Kazakhstan, etc. This problem is aggravated due to increase in the population of livestock.
While animals remove the vegetation, the winds blow away the top soil, thereby transforming
grasslands into desert.

Fires
Fires deliberate and otherwise, are a major reason for deforestation. It also wipes out large tracts
of grasslands every year. However, not all fires are bad. If fire is used responsibly, it can be a
valuable tool for forest as well as agricultural management. It is estimated that forests amounting
to approximately one per cent of the total global area is significantly affected each year by
forest fires. Development of roads through forested areas also lead to higher incidences of fires.
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  147
Mining

Though the actual area involved in mining is small, it contributes to large scale destruction
of forests. In many countries, especially in the African continent, deforestation due to mining
activities has increased multifold. In the Asian countries of India and Philippines, significant
areas under forest cover have been lost to mining activities. In the American countries of
Mexico, Brazil and Argentina also mining has claimed vast tracts of forest lands. In India,
large areas of forests in Nyamagari Hills of Odisha that has been threatened by the Vedanta
Aluminum Corporation’s plan mine bauxite has been saved due to large scale public protest.
The state of Jharkhand has lost substantial area of forest due to unchecked mining of coal, iron
and bauxite. Similarly, large tracts of ecologically fragile forest lands in Meghalaya and other
north-eastern states have been ravaged due to coal and limestone mining. In many parts of India,
large scale deforestation due to mining has created untold miseries including water scarcity. In
addition to deforestation, mining also leads to massive displacement of indigenous tribes. The
construction of infrastructure like roads, railways, and bridges to aid mining brings increasing
numbers of peoples to the forest area, thereby changing the topography of the entire area.

Urbanisation

Population explosion expands cities and towns very rapidly. Expanding cities and towns require
land to establish the required infrastructures for supporting growing population. This land is
obtained by clearing forests. These settlers usually colonize forest lands by using the logging
trails or new roads.

Industrialisation and Infrastructure

The world over tropical forests is a major target of infra-structure developments and other
activities, like oil exploitation, construction of dams for hydropower and irrigation, etc. These
activities often involve construction of roads in pristine forest lands. Construction activities
bring in increasing numbers of people to the area, further degrading the forests. It is estimated
that forest clearings due to developmental activities destroy carbon sinks and accounts for about
20 per cent of anthropogenic carbon emissions.

Air Pollution

Certain European and North American forests have been degraded due to air pollution.1
According to Raloff (1989) 52 per cent of West German trees were damaged by 1987 due to
this phenomenon. About half the trees in the Alps died due to this (Lean, 1990). This was also
evident in the high elevation forests of north-east and central US.

1. This degradation is known as ‘Waldsterben’. This phenomenon has led to high elevation forest death in
many continents including Europe and America.
148  Disaster Management

Tourism

Deliberately of inadvertently tourism is leading to destruction of forests. Though national parks

and sanctuaries are intended to protect forests and forest wealth, uncontrolled and improper
opening of these areas to the public for tourism is causing widespread destruction to the flora
and fauna. Most Governments of tropical and sub-tropical countries consider tourism as an
easy way of making money. They do so by sacrificing the long-term interests of the forest
land. Excessive wild tourism is threatening forests in countries like India, Indonesia, Tanzania,
Brazil, Argentina, Australia, etc.

Wars

Military operations are increasingly becoming a cause for deforestation. The massive scale and
notoriety of deforestation resorted to by the US army operations during the Vietnam War is
a classical example. The timber trade between Myanmar and Thailand has been taking place
in the shadow of the Myanmar’s civil war. Large scale destruction of forests in Central and
South America has taken place due to the involvement of military and wars.

Important Facts
How Eco-tourism Destroyed a Forest
In the Terai Duars of eastern India foothills of Himalaya, eco-tourism is encouraged. This is done
without developing adequate management plans. This area is famed for its ancient ruins deep in
the forest. The forest is home to a tree species Myristica longifolia. This tree oozes out a blood
like sap if injured. There is only a hand full of trees in the whole forest. A survey by an NGO
found that a number of trees in the vicinity of the ruins dried away due to repeated injuries caused
to them by the curious tourists.

INDIRECT CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

There are many who opine that deforestation occurs due to the present capitalistic social and
economic policies carried out in the name of development. It is in the name of development
that irrational and unscrupulous logging is done, cash crops are planted in vast stretches,
uncontrolled cattle ranching are practiced, large dams are constructed, and colonisation schemes
are implemented. These activities lead to the dispossession of peasants and indigenous tribes
of their native lands and vegetation. In addition to this, the ‘throw away’ culture practiced by
the industrialised and developed countries, is putting immense pressure on the tropical forest
resources. Another damaging trend is the export of this ‘throw away’ culture to the Third world
through advertising. Due to these ‘developmental’ activities and overconsumption, the world is
heading towards destruction and despair. Some of the indirect causes that lead to deforestation
are presented in the following sections:
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  149
Colonialism

Most of the colonies of European countries, like Britain, France, Spain and Portugal were in
the tropical rainforests. These countries have been unscrupulously exploited for their natural
resources. These rich colonial powers have also deprived indigenous people of all their rights
enjoyed since time immemorial. Colonialism has, in general, converted previously self-sufficient
economies into zones that would cater to their selfish interests. This exploitation, though not
exactly in the previous form, still continues in various parts of the world.

Corruption and Politics

Many world bodies have identified forest crime and corruption as a main cause for deforestation.
Bodies like FAO have highlighted the requirement of immediate attention towards these illegal
activities and corruption. Some illegal forest practices include granting illegal logging contracts
to private enterprises and corporates, illegal issuance of harvesting permits, under-declaring of
volumes of cut forest, harvesting of protected areas and trees, cross border smuggling of forest
products, procession of forest and wild products as trophies, processing of forest based raw
materials without license, etc.

Overpopulation and Poverty

Overpopulation in the Third World countries has been playing havoc with their economies.
Though a matter of controversy, overpopulation is putting pressure on the already strained
forest resources. According to the FAO poverty and rapid population growth are the main
causes of deforestation in many third world countries. Though unrestrained development and
excessive consumption habits of rich industrialised countries can be blamed for this, high rates
of population growth has a major role to play. Since the teeming multitude require more food
to eat and space to live in, larger areas of land are essential for agriculture and habitation.
This leads to more forest clearings. There is also population growth in the rich industrialized
countries. Due to their pattern of consumption rich countries exploit earth’s resources at a
higher level than the developing countries. Further, a clear and direct link has been established
between overconsumption in the rich countries and deforestation in the tropics. For instance,
large areas of rain forests in Sumatra of Indonesia are cleared to be used as throwaway tissue
and toilet papers in the developed countries. The irony is that the Third World countries are
emulating the rich industrialized counties in this unwanted extravaganza. Though development
is considered as the solution to world poverty, it seldom helps those who really need it the most.
Many governments and corporates use overpopulation as an excuse for deforestation. Small
farmers also convert forest areas for agriculture, thereby degrading the land beyond recovery.
These events results in a vicious circle with the poor remaining poor and the gap with the rich
widening day by day. Another aspect, which was discussed in the earlier sections, that leads
to deforestation is shifting cultivation in the forest areas.
150  Disaster Management

Exploitation by Industrialised Countries

It is estimated that 20 per cent of the world’s population uses 80 per cent of the world’s
resources. An individual in an industrialised country is said to consume more than sixty times
of the world’s resources than an individual in a poor country. Further, it is also commented
that there is more fruits in the rich man’s cosmetics than the poor man’s dish. Rich colonial
countries always had, and are still having deficit of various natural resources. They depend
on the rich natural resources of the financially poor countries in the tropics, affecting the
forests. The governments of these resource rich countries knowing or unknowing adapt a
policy that benefits the rich colonial powers, ignoring their own long-term sustainability. These
governments provide higher levels of emphasis on enhancing revenues through maximizing
exports of natural resources. Many of the producers in the third world are unaware of the fact
that they are realizing only low levels of prices for their natural resources. The uncontrolled
logging that is one in various islands of Indonesia is classical example of this exploitation.

Debt Burden
Most Third World countries are poor and have heavy international debt. Due to this they face
escalating interest rates. Most of such debts are in the process of repayment. These countries
badly require foreign exchange for repayment of debts. This situation compels the debt ridden
poor countries to further exploit their rich natural resources including forest wealth. There
have been instances in which construction of roads required for logging operations in some
South-East Asian countries being funded by the Japanese. This aid allowed the Japanese timber
industry to exploit the forests resources of these countries. While these timber companies made
profit through the exploitation of forests wealth, the countries were left owing money to the
Japanese, which were used for construction of roads.

Land Rights and Tenure

Most cultivators at the forest frontier do not have property rights. They are often displaced
by others who gain tenure rights over the land that they occupy. This leads to the cultivators
clearing more forest lands to survive. Thus, poorly defined land rights and tenure is bad for
people and forests. Certain countries do not have control of forests, making them ineffective
to regulate forest use. Lack of regulations and controls results in the degradation of forest
resources.

Economic Causes
The economic causes can be discussed under the following topics:
1. Development: There is a complex relationship between development and defore-
station. While one school of thought states that development will help in increasing
land productivity, thereby reducing the need to clear forests; while another states that
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  151
development will bring in further capital and an incentive to expand and clear more
forest lands.
2. Land conversion value: Profits from deforestation vary considerably. It could
vary between a few rupees to hundreds of thousands in value. While rich farmers
use superior technology to clear forests, this may not be possible by less privileged
individuals. In the event of lands fetching higher prices, the rate of deforestation
would be very high. Further higher prices for crops will also catalyse deforestation.
Even an expectation of a higher price will increase the probability of forest clearance
and conversion.
3. Fiscal policies: Many developmental policies have an adverse result, whereby they
support (knowingly or unknowingly) those who already have land, influence and
political backing. This leads to the alienation of the rural poor putting pressure on
forest lands.
4. Markets and consumerism: High levels of consumerism by the developed countries
are a major reason for tropical deforestation. The present ‘use and throw’ culture,
emulated from the developed countries has enhanced consumption even among the
poor countries. The opening up of tropical countries to the world commodity markets
has accelerated deforestation and land degradation. For instance, certain Central
American countries are producers and suppliers of coffee, sugar, bananas, cotton and
beef; while certain South Asian countries supply oil palm, rubber, timber and spices
to international markets. Whether these products fetch a fair price is at doubt.

Undervaluing the Forest

People are of the impression that forests are of value only when they are cleared, legal titles
obtained, used or sold off. Though extraction of non-wood forest products is a way of obtaining
added value, this is yet to gain traction. Appropriate valuation of environmental benefits by the
national governments would be a proper way of overcoming this wrong perception.

USES OF FORESTS
Forests provide a variety of ecosystem services. Some of them include carbon sequestration,
storage and transpiration of water required for precipitation, maintaining of soil fertility, forming
habitats for a diverse array of flora and fauna, etc. A large section of the population depends
on forests for many of their subsistence needs. Forests also provide essential commodities,
like firewood, timber, traditional medicines, food items, other forest products, etc. that are
essential for human well-being. If forests are destroyed all these would be severely affected.
Another important area that forests influence is climate. Forests regulate the amount of CO2
in the atmosphere through absorbing carbon and storing it in the wood, leaves and soil. Since
forests absorb and store carbon over an extended period of time, they are considered as carbon
sinks. Conservative estimates shows that forest ecosystems across the world store around 638
billion tonnes of carbon. This amount of carbon that is stored in the forest is more than what
is available in the entire atmosphere.
152  Disaster Management

Carbon that is stored in the forest will be released into the atmosphere when they are
destroyed or burned. In addition to deforestation, a number of other factors are found to affect
the health of forests. They are:
1. Increased GHGs: Increased amounts of GHGs would adversely affect the species
composition and the structure of ecosystems. This occurs as a result of limitation
imposed of certain types of organisms by the GHGs. Higher levels of CO2 would
also affect the primary productivity of forests.
2. Global warming: Global warming is likely to induce frequent forest fires due to
increase in the mean temperature. The forest fires could adversely affect forests and
its diversity. Forests in the high latitudes, especially boreal forests, will be more
affected due to global warming. This could lead to a decrease in the permafrost areas,
improve growing conditions, and will affect the quality of the ecosystem, in general.
Further, rising temperature will also facilitate enhanced pest activity.
3. Climate change: Climate change is expected to have long lasting effects on the
forests around the globe. It will adversely affect the productivity, health and resilience
of the forests. It could also affect species populations and migration, lead to increased
occurrence of pests and diseases, forest regeneration, etc. The temperate forests are
likely to lose their high degree of endemism, biological diversity, ecological stability,
and production potential.
Over and above the above factors, the spatial and temporal patterns of temperature and
precipitation could affect the distribution and productivity of the vegetation. Alteration to these
factors will induce geographical shifts in the ranges of the forest species as well as changes
in the productivity.

EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION
Deforestation has a number of adverse effects on—both direct and indirect, as well as short term
and long term. A few of the effects of deforestation are presented in the following sections:

Global Warming
Deforestation releases increased amounts of GHGs, leading to increase in the global mean
temperature. Global warming occurs because forests act as primary terrestrial sink of carbon.
The normal carbon cycle is disrupted due to deforestation, thereby increasing the concentration
of atmospheric CO2. It is estimated that roughly two billion tonnes of Carbon is released into
the atmosphere per annum due to tropical deforestation (Houghton, 2005). Further, the release
of CO2 as a result of global deforestation is equivalent to about 25 per cent of emissions from
fossil fuels (Asdrasko, 1990).

Climate Change
Deforestation is likely to alter the global energy cycle through micrometeorological processes
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  153
and increased concentration of CO2. Increased levels of CO2 will absorb higher quantities
of thermal infrared radiation. Further, deforestation could result in increased albedo of the
land surface, affecting the radiation budget. Deforestation could also affect various flows like
wind, water as well as the absorption of solar energy, influencing the local and global climate,
and induce stratospheric ozone depletion. Deforestation on lowland plains could move cloud
formation and precipitation to higher elevations. Another devastating effect of deforestation is
the disruption of normal weather patterns. This disruption could lead to creation of hotter and
drier weather leading to increased drought, desertification, crop failures, rising sea levels due to
melting of ice in the poles and mountain glaciers, coastal flooding and displacement of major
vegetation regimes, and so on. Desertification arises due to extremes in climatic variation and
unsustainable land use practices including large scale deforestation.

Water and Soil Loss and Flooding

Global water cycle is another casualty of deforestation. Due to deforestation there is all
possibility of the global water cycle getting disrupted. Further, forest clearing also affects the
water holding capacity of earth. This creates a drier climate. Thus due to deforestation a large
number of problems are created which include shortage of drinking water, negative impact on
fisheries and aquatic habitats, siltation of waterways and dams, damage to crops and irrigation
systems due to erosion and turbidity, and so on. Deforestation could also result in watersheds
that are incapable of sustaining and regulating water flows from rivers and streams, thereby
causing downstream floods and soil erosion.2 In the long term, as a result of exposing of
soil due to deforestation and lack of green cover, the intensity of tropical sun and torrential
rains will be heavy on these regions. This would lead to flash floods and dry season flows,
and consequent erosions and siltation. Siltation would lead to raised river bed and perpetual
overflowing, increasing the risk of constant flooding. These effects are now evident around
the world. Examples are the Yangtze River basin in China, and all major river basins in the
tropics of East Asia, South Asia and the Amazon.

Human–Animal Conflict due to Habitat Loss

Deforestation would lead to fragmentation of forests as well as shift of rainforests to grasslands.

This would affect the habitat of migratory birds and animals including the endangered ones.
This would result in increased incidence of human-animal conflicts. In many parts of India,
the elephant habitat has faced high degree of fragmentation. This fragmentation has resulted
in intense human–elephant conflict, causing loss to crops and large scale loss of human and
elephant lives. In Kerala, in the recent past, there has been a rapid increase in human–tiger
conflict leading to loss of life. This conflict is a common occurrence in the Sundarbans of
West Bengal.
2. Deforestation could increase flooding due to two reasons:
(a) Due to ‘tree fountain’ effect wherein soil gets fully saturated with water, causing additional precipitation
to run off; and
(b) ‘Soil compaction’ making the soil unable to absorb rain waters.
154  Disaster Management

Decreased Biodiversity

Tropical forests are storehouses of biodiversity, supporting two-thirds of known species. These
forests are said to contain around 65 per cent of the world’s 10,000 endangered species. Further,
loss of biodiversity is also likely to affect humans as majority of population relies on forests for
primary health care. Deforestation and degradation would destroy this biodiversity and trigger
abrupt and irreversible harmful changes. Some harmful changes include shift of rainforests to
savannas, hunting of protected animals for food, emergence of new pathogens, etc.

Economic Losses

Destruction of tropical forests results in loss of forest capital valued at around US $ 50 billion
per annum. Forest destruction also deprives the societies of all potential future revenues and
employment potential. The future revenue that could be gained as a result of sustainable forest
management would also be lost.

Social Consequences

Deforestation will have widespread long-term social ramifications. It would result in loss of
a host of ecological services provided by the forests like flood control, prevention of soil
erosion, treatment of water, pollination function, etc. This would have grave consequences
for the indigenous communities who depend on the forests for their livelihood and survival.
Deforestation would also cause destruction and change in their traditional life-style, customs
and religious beliefs, and the resultant breakdown of their social institutions that has been
prevalent since time immemorial. There would also be intrusion of outsiders in their society
leading to conflicts.

DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is a human-induced land degradation that occurs in arid, semi-arid and dry
sub-humid regions, and leads to a persistent decline in economic productivity of useful biota
related to a land use or a production system. A comprehensive definition was adopted at Rio
in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992. The conference
defined desertification as, ‘land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas,
resulting from various factors including climatic variations and human activities’. As per the
definition desertification occurs as a result of land degradation. Though in a number of literature
desertification and land degradation is used interchangeably, they are different.
One of the main components of land degradation is desertification. The prime cause of
desertification is over-exploitation of natural resources beyond its carrying capacity. Climatic
variations also have a role in intensifying desertification. Desertification occurs when land,
which is normally renewable, loses its ability to recover from a disturbance (resilience). The
measurable consequences of desertification could be the decline in economic productivity of the
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  155
land, and inhospitable living conditions for humans and animals. As a result of desertification,
land is degraded and loses its renewable potential. It is estimated that about 40 per cent of
global terrestrial area is susceptible to desertification.
The first official definition of desertification was arrived at in 1977 at the United Nations
Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) in Nairobi. According to this conference (UNEP,
1977) desertification is:
the diminution or destruction of the biological potential of land, and can lead ultimately
to desert-like conditions. It is an aspect of the widespread deterioration of ecosystems
and has diminished or destroyed the biological potential—that is, plant and animal
production—for multiple-use purposes at a time when increased productivity is needed
to support growing populations in quest of development.
From the definition it can be considered that desertification occurs due to:
1. Human action,
2. Degradation of land,
3. Decline in economic productivity of biota beneficial to man and animal,
4. Short-term and long-term climatic variability.
A number of definitions have thereafter been proposed. However, the one proposed by
UNCCD (1996) is accepted as the official definition. The UNCCD defines desertification as:
land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, resulting from various
factors, including climatic variations and human activities (Part 1, Article 1a).
According to the UNEP (1992), territories that are susceptible to desertification are
those which are seasonally dry in nature, wherein the ratio of annual precipitation to potential
evapotranspiration (P/ETP) falls within the range of 0.05 to 0.65 (UNEP, 1992). The highest
concentration of dry land is found in Africa followed by Asia and Australia. Other aspects
that lead to desertification include:
1. Increase in arable area: The world’s arable land area is said to have increased from
265 Mha in the year 1700 to about 1500 Mha by 1980 (Richards, 1990). There has
been an increase of over 25 per cent in the last 50 years. Further, due to increased
population in the developing countries, the need for arable areas has increased
multifold. New arable areas are normally obtained by clearing natural vegetation,
like forests and peat lands. These converted lands in due course become less arable
and suitable for farming, and thus vulnerable to degradation.
2. Loss of forest land: Considerable amount of forest land has been lost to
developmental activities in the last few centuries. This has increased exponentially
in the last few decades, and is continuing at a rapid pace. It is estimated that in the
last 50 years over 33 per cent of the world’s forest cover has been lost. Due to this,
the capacity of land to act as a sink for carbon dioxide has diminished considerably.
3. Loss of top soil: Due to repeated mono-cropping, salinity and deforestation,
considerable quantity of top soil has either been lost or rendered useless. Estimates
put the loss of top soil at over 25 per cent in the last 50 years (Gates, 1999).
4. Societal influence: There has been multifold increase in population, and industrial
growth. This has exerted immense pressure on the already strained natural resources,
156  Disaster Management

whereby land has become unsustainable. Further, due to increase in population, the
per capita availability of cropland has fallen drastically from 0.39 ha to 0.22 ha. The
possibility of adding further cropland has come down drastically, and is expected to
fall further in the immediate future.
5. Migration: Industrialisation and development opened up opportunities and enabled
large scale migration to cities. Since migration is not proportional to the population
growth, it has drained village communities of ‘able-bodied’ workers. Due to this
human-energy resources required for land-improving activities got severely depleted,
resulting in further impoverishment of the available land resources. In certain countries,
for instance Sudan, there is said to be more land than labour to cultivate it.
6. Increasing urbanisation: Due to increased urbanisation, the expanding cities require
more and more land for residential and commercial purposes. This requirement is
generally met at the expense of prime agricultural land in the urban peripheries. This
is happening almost all over India. This makes the available land less productive and
degraded.
7. Lack of holistic approach: A holistic approach towards development and land
management would have taken care of the needs of all stakeholders in a sustainable
manner. This would have preserved the quality of available land and prevented
degradation. However, the present-day high intensity farming practices which
concentrates only on high productivity has made this untenable. Now irrigation
mediated water logging and salination, excessive exploitation of underground water
and consequent intrusion of saline waters and drying of wells, unbalanced chemical
fertilizer and pesticide use induced micro- and secondary-nutrient deficiencies, the
pollution arising out of the indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides have created
untold miseries around the globe. All these have accelerating the loss of organic matter
and consequent global warming. These are evident in varying intensities in all parts
of the world—be it the Aral Sea Basin in Central Asia; the Lower Colorado and the
Great Salt Lake, Utah in the US; the Palar Basin in India.

LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

What is biodiversity?
Biological diversity is the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. According to the Global
Biodiversity Strategy (WRI, IUCN and UNEP, 1992) biodiversity is ‘the totality of genes,
species and ecosystem in a region’. It implies the variety of all forms of life, including
genes, species, and the ecosystems. This variety can be observed at three levels—the genetic
variability within a species (genetic diversity), the variety of species within a community
(species diversity), and the organisation of different species in an area into distinctive plant
and animal communities (ecosystem diversity).

Genetic diversity
Each member of an animal or plant species have individual characteristics that differs widely
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  157
from other individuals in their genetic make-up. Due to this a variety of combinations are
possible within the genes that give each individual certain specific characteristics. Genetic
variability enables a healthy breeding population of the particular species. In-breeding occurs
if there is a reduction in the number of breeding individuals in a particular species. This could
result in the eventual extinction of the species. ‘Gene pool’ is a term that is used to denote
the diversity in the wild species. It is from this gene pool that the current crops and domestic
animals have been developed from over thousands of years. Now biotechnology is used to create
new varieties of crops by using wild relatives of crop plants to create new highly productive
varieties. New medicines and a variety of industrial products are also manufactured through
the use of biotechnology.

Species diversity
Species diversity is the number of species of plants and animals that are present in a particular
region. Species diversity can occur in natural ecosystems and agri-ecosystems. Some areas
are richer in species than others. For instance the natural undisturbed tropical forests are rich
in species than forest or other plantations. A natural forest ecosystem would provide humans
with a variety of non-wood products like fruits, fuel wood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin and a host
of medicines. It has adequate genetic materials for agriculture, medicine as well as industry.
Plantations fail to supply such large variety of goods. It is often stated that in the long run,
the economic sustainable returns from non-wood forest products would be greater than the
felling of forest trees for timber. Modern intensive agriculture has lower species diversity than
farming systems where multiple cropping is done.
It is estimated that over 1.8 million species have been identified and categorized. There
are many new species being identified or waiting to be identified. Certain areas that are rich in
species diversity known as biodiversity hotspots of diversity. India is among the 15 nations that
are rich in species diversity. India houses two of the world’s 25 hotspots. These two hotspots
are located in the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas.

Ecosystem diversity
Earth has a large variety of different ecosystems. Each such ecosystem has their own distinctive
interlinked species based on the variations in the habitat. Ecosystem diversity can be based
on the specific geographical region or even a political entity like a country, State or district.
Examples of ‘natural ecosystems’ include landscapes such as forests, marshes, grasslands,
deserts, mountains, etc. It can also include aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes and sea. There
can also be ‘manmade or modified ecosystems’ like farmland, grazing pastures, etc.
Natural ecosystems, when overused or misused lose their productivity and resilience, and
eventually get degraded. Ecosystems all over the world are now in the threat of being degraded.
India is a country that is exceptionally rich in its ecosystem diversity. Based on the
geography, climate, pattern of vegetation and the communities of animals, birds reptiles and
insects the country is divided into 10 major regions. These regions could contain a variety of
ecosystems like forests, grasslands, lakes, rivers, wetlands, mountains, etc. All these regions
could have specific plant and animal species. The major bio-geographic regions of India are
provided in Table 13.1.
158  Disaster Management

Table 13.1 The Bio-geographic Zones in India

S. No. Zone % of land mass Areas and particulars

This consists of the mountain ranges north of the Himalayan
Trans- ranges. It is the extension of the Tibetan Plateau and
1 5.70
Himalayan includes the high altitude cold deserts in Ladakh and
Lahaul-Spiti. Vegetation is sparse in this region.
The whole of Himalayan mountain chain with all the
2 Himalayas 7.20
diverse biotic provinces and biomass.
This is the largest plain in India having alluvial soil and
Gangetic
3 11.00 the thickness of the sediments vary considerably. This
Plain
zone has some of the highest population densities in India.
North The plains and the non-Himalayan hill ranges. This zone is
4 Eastern 5.20 rich in flora and large number of orchids, bamboos, ferns,
Zone etc. is found here.
Consists of parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Kutch, etc.
Includes the arid areas west of Aravalli Hill Ranges, the
5 Deserts 6.90 salt desert of Gujarat, and the sand deserts of Rajasthan.
With rainfalls less than 70 cm, the climate is very hot and
dry during summer and cold during winter.
The areas between the desert and the Deccan Plateau
Semi-arid including Aravalli range. Natural vegetation of this zone
6 16.60
Zone is thorn forests. There is deficiency of soil water, and is
characterized by discontinuous vegetation cover.
This consists of the mountains along the west coast
of peninsular India. This constitutes one of the unique
Western biological regions of the world. The Ghats have varied
7 5.80
Ghats climates and topography as well as large number of
endemic species of flora and fauna. This zone is one of
the biodiversity hotspots which are recognized globally.
The south and south central plateau, south of the river
Deccan
8 4.30 Tapti. This is a semi-arid region that is found in the rain
Peninsula
shadow regions of the Western Ghats.
Consists of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Some of
9 Islands 0.03
the best preserved evergreen forests are found in this zone.
The Coastline of India extending over 5,500 km and the
Lakshadweep Islands. They vary in the characteristics and
10 Coasts
structure. The deltas of Krishna, Kaveri, Godavari, and
Mahanadi are also included in this.
Source: Sulphey and Safeer (2015).

Values of Biodiversity
Environmental services from various diversities are essential at different levels. Some such
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  159
services include production of oxygen, reducing in the level of carbon dioxide, maintenance
of the hydro cycle, protecting of top soil, and so on. Loss of biodiversity contributes towards
global warming and climate change.
Forests are natural reservoirs of carbon. They play a major role in the conversion of
atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbon and oxygen. Reduced forest cover, coupled with
increased emission of carbon dioxide and other gases from industries are contributing to
‘greenhouse effect’. As discussed earlier, the greenhouse effect is instrumental in causing
global warming. Global warming could result in the melting of ice caps and rise in the mean
sea level. Rising seas will result in the submergence of the low lying areas around the globe.
Global warming could also lead to certain other major atmospheric changes, like increase in
temperatures, droughts in some areas and excessive precipitation in other areas. Biodiversity
is an essential element for the preservation of the ecological processes. Some such processes
preserved though biodiversity include as fixing and recycling of nutrients, formation of soil,
circulation and cleansing of air and water, maintenance of water balance and protection of
watersheds, life support services like absorption of CO2, give release of O2, control of soil
erosion and flood prevention.
The values provided by biodiversity are:

Consumptive use value

Consumptive use value involves the direct utilization of materials like timber, construction
material, food, medicines, fuel wood, fodder and various other products from the ecosystem.

Productive use value

The concept of biodiversity is different for different people. A biotechnologist may use
biodiversity to search for potential genetic properties in plants or animals that can be developed
into better varieties of crops or livestock. A Pharmacist may look to biodiversity for raw
materials from which new drugs can be identified. For an Industrialist biodiversity offers
a rich store-house of various raw materials from which he can develop new products. An
Agricultural scientist could look upon biodiversity for the wild relatives of crop so that better
crops can be developed. Genetic engineering is now helping in selecting genes from one
plant and introducing them into another. This is helping in the development of better crop
varieties. Careful breeding is helping in the development of better and productive domestic
animals. This value is known as ‘productive use value’. A number of industries including
pharmaceutical laboratories are involved in identifying compounds of high economic value
from the wide variety of certain species of plants located in undisturbed natural forests. This
is called ‘biological prospecting’. Thus, biodiversity in general and wild species of plants and
animals in particular can be considered as building blocks for the betterment of human life.
Loss of biodiversity can cause great economic loss to mankind.

Social use value

Biodiversity has been preserved by traditional societies since they valued it as a resource.
They were aware and appreciated that depletion of biodiversity would result in immense loss
to their society. These societies considered consumptive and productive values of biodiversity
160  Disaster Management

to be closely linked to social concerns in. They valued and conserved biodiversity as part of
their livelihood and considered it as a life supporting resource. They also accorded cultural
and religious sentiments to the ecosystem and biodiversity. This is known as social use value.
In recent times the higher economic incentives have prompted farmers to go in for high value
cash crops for national or international markets. Farmers of such cash crops use higher amounts
of water for irrigation, and fertilizers and pesticides. The level of mechanization is also high,
resulting in unemployment. This has been creating a host of societal problems, like landlessness,
alteration of topography and the resultant increased vulnerability to drought and floods.

Ethical and moral values

Ethical and moral values of biodiversity are based on the requirement and importance of
protecting all forms of life provided by the Almighty. All forms of life are viewed as having
equal rights to exist on earth. Man is only a small part among millions of species on earth. The
ethical and moral values do not limit the importance of biodiversity towards economics, but
calls for sanctity of all forms of life. For over hundreds of generations the Indian civilization
has preserved biodiversity through local traditions. They accorded cultural importance for the
preservation of biodiversity. Sacred groves preserved even now in many parts of India are
examples of such local traditions. Now sacred groves are considered as gene banks of wild
plants.

Aesthetic value
Biodiversity provides beauty and wonder to humans. It adds to the quality of life and provides
a variety of beautiful and appealing aspects to human existence. For example, many species of
birds, animals, plants, etc. are appreciated for their beauty. Further, millions of humans enjoy
watching wildlife, hiking, fishing, camping, and other recreational activities that has its base
in nature.

Option value
Option value is maintaining the future possibilities open for further use. This is based on the
pretext that it is hard or near to impossible to predict future value of various varieties of crops
and animals.
The preservation of biodiversity is, as such, essential for the well-being and the long-
term survival of human race. It is integral to any strategy that aims at improving the quality
of human life.

Threats to Biodiversity

High levels of industrialisation have led to unsustainable use of resources. The productivity
and resilience capacity of forests, grasslands and other natural ecosystems have come down
drastically due to unsustainable use. In many parts of the world wastelands have increased
manifold due to unscrupulous exploitation of once productive forests and grasslands. The
productivity of agricultural land has come down due to intensive agriculture. Mangroves, which
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  161
are the breeding grounds of fish and other marine animals, have been cleared for fuel wood and
shrimp farming. Large tracts of wetlands, often revered as the liver of the environment, have
been drained and converted into agricultural land or to supplement urban housing. Water bodies
have been reclaimed to aid urban expansion. The destruction of the remaining tropical forests,
wild habitats and coral reefs is the biggest threat to biodiversity. Vast tracts of natural forests
are now invaded by alien and exotic species; devouring the land of large number of useful
native plants and vegetation (Examples include Eupatorium, Lantana, Hyacinth, Parthenium,
etc). These changes could pose grave implications to all economies in the long term. It is
estimated that at this rate of human activities, approximately 10 million species are likely to
become extinct by the middle of 21st century. The current rate of extinction is at the rate of
10 to 20,000 species per annum. This is between 1,000 to 10,000 times faster than the natural
extinction rate. Further, human actions are likely to exterminate over 25 per cent of the world’s
species within the next two to three decades. The sad part of it is that majority of these mega
mass extinctions are related to population growth, unchecked exploitation of natural resources,
industrialisation and the current unsustainable land-use patterns.

Conservation of Biodiversity
Conservation is the maintenance of environmental quality and resources or a particular balance
among the species present in a given area. It is defined as ‘the management of human use
of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generation
while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations’. It
involves the protection of the different varieties, species and genes in the ecosystems or
habitats. Conservation of biodiversity ensures the future provisioning of un-named and yet
to be discovered services. Conservation complements the direct maintenance of recognized
ecosystem services. As such conservation is the duty of every individual, or else the future
generations will be condemned to live in a biologically improvised world. Such a world will be
incapable of producing the required resources for the teeming multitude. The main objectives
of conservation are:
1. To maintain essential ecological processes and life-supporting systems,
2. To preserve the diversity of species or the range of genetic material found in the
organisms on the planet, and
3. To ensure sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems that supports the millions
of rural communities as well as the major industries all over the world.

Approaches of Conservation
Ecosystem has to retain its capabilities of life supporting system so that it can save and
maintain the various species, and the survival of human race. Though many efforts have been
made earlier in this regard; it was in 1987 that the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) put in serious efforts to streamline international efforts towards the conservation of
biodiversity. Presently there are two basic approaches to the conservation of biodiversity. They
are the following:
162  Disaster Management

In situ conservation
In situ conservation involves conservation of species in the natural ecosystem. This conservation
applies only to wild flora and fauna. In situ conservation involves setting aside large areas
(termed ‘protected areas’) for wildlife to save the entire area or certain endangered species.
The World Conservation Union defines protected areas as ‘an area of land and/or sea specially
dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated
cultural resources and managed through legal or other effective means’. In situ conservation
is best-suited for the long-term protection of biodiversity. In addition to conservation of
large number of species of living organisms, this strategy also provides opportunities for
evolution. Over the past few decades, in situ conservation has delivered good results in the
conservation of large number of known and unknown species. Some of the advantages of
in situ conservation are:
1. It is less expensive and more convenient.
2. Different levels of organisms (from producers to top consumers like carnivores) are
maintained at their natural environment.
3. Being the natural environment, the organisms evolve and continue to maintain their
ability to resist various environmental stresses like temperature fluctuation, drought,
fires, floods, diseases, etc.
Few disadvantages of in situ conservation include:
1. Small size of the protected habitats, which may not be able to house all the species.
2. Unless maintained properly, it may not be possible to protect the species from various
hazards.
The objectives of conservation are often diluted due to the above disadvantages.

Ex situ conservation
Ex situ conservation is the conservation of endangered species, under human supervision, away
from their natural habitat. It is the cultivation of plants and rearing of animals in captivity
under human care. In ex situ, conservation is done as a sample of genetic diversity and they
are maintained in botanical gardens; zoos; seed, pollen, gene and DNA banks; germplasm
collections; etc. Animals are conserved in ‘frozen zoos’ through storage of embryos, eggs, and
sperm. Through these, viable populations of many organisms can be maintained in cultivation
or in captivity.
Ex situ conservation is extremely costly in the case of most animals. It also involves
loss of genetic diversity, through founder effects and the high probability of inbreeding. The
advantages of ex situ conservation are:
1. The organisms are assured of food, shelter and security; thereby leading to longer
life span and breeding activity.
2. Since the species are under human care, their chances of survival increase.
3. Captive breeding can lead to the animals being reintroduced into the wild at a later
stage, or even used for supplementing the current population with new stock.
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  163
However, ex situ conservation have certain limitations, as under:
1. Due to limitations or space, finances, facilities, etc. only selected species can be
conserved.
2. Since conservation is under a set of favourable environmental conditions, the organism
is deprived of the opportunity to adapt to the changes in the environment. This would
make the gene pool to become stagnant, stalling the evolution process.
3. Inbreeding could make the organisms to become less resistant to stressors.

THERMAL POLLUTION
Thermal pollution is the heating of lakes, river, streams, and other water bodies due to the
discharge of warm water from electric power generating plants or by factories. This pollution
occurs when heated water used for cooling purposes is returned to its source. Some common
sources of thermal pollution include coal fired power plant effluents, industrial effluents and
effluents from nuclear power plants. These plants require steam to drive turbines to generate
electricity. The steam, after being used to drive turbines is condensed by taking water from water
bodies. This water gets heated up to a minimum of about 15°C over the normal temperature.
The water used for cooling is then discharged back into the water body. The heated water that
is released from a thermal plant does not readily mix with the cold water around it. The hot
water forms a stream-like mass over the cold water, similar to the spread-outs from outflow
pipes. This stream of hot water is known thermal plume. The ‘thermal plume’ mixes with the
surrounding water only gradually. It is the thermal plume that causes the adverse effects of
thermal pollution.

Effects of Thermal Pollution

The property of water is such that the quantity of any gas that can be dissolved varies inversely
with the temperature. As temperature of water rises, its capacity of solubility of oxygen reduces.
The warm water released from thermal plants thus decreases the solubility of oxygen in the
water bodies. Reduced oxygen alters the ecological balance of the water body. Though this
altered balance could promote the growth of certain vegetation and fish, the sudden alternate
changes in temperature could result in death of both flora and fauna. This occurs because
tropical marine life is unable to withstand a temperature increase of 2°C to 3°C. Further sponges,
mollusks and crustaceans perish at a temperature over 37°C.
When thermal pollution drives the water temperatures beyond a certain limit, the aquatic
and marine life will find it difficult to survive. While mobile organisms could migrate to other
parts of the water body, those immobile organisms like plants and shellfishes just perish. High
temperatures in water bodies could have certain other unexpected adverse effects also. As an
example, trout can swim less rapidly in water above 19°C (66°F) making them less efficient
predators. There are possibilities of certain organisms becoming susceptible to diseases in
warmer waters. For instance, the bacterium Chondrococcus columnaris is harmless to fish
and other organisms at less than 10°C (50°F). However, between 10°C – 21°C (50°F – 70°F),
164  Disaster Management

the bacteria is capable of infecting fishes and other organisms through wounds. It has been
established that at a temperature above 21°C (70°F) it could even directly attack healthy
tissues. Another aftereffect of thermal pollution is the creation of algal bloom. The runoff water
from farm lands carrying the excess nutrients, combined with thermal pollution could initiate
excessive algal growth and consequent bloom, especially of blue green algae. This algal bloom
could hinder oxygen supply and disrupt aquatic food chain.
Thermal pollution could also create a phenomenon called Urban Heat Dome. This is
created due to the development of ‘urban heat islands’. An urban heat island is a dome of
warm air over an urban area. This dome is created as a result of the heat released in the region.
Since human activity is at its peak in urban areas, the atmosphere here becomes warmer than
the surrounding areas. The levels of pollutants trapped in this urban heat island could reach
from five to as high as 25 per cent than rural areas. Further, fog and clouds also raise more
than twice the level of rural areas. Temperatures in such areas may be higher by 0.5°C to 2°C.
Wind speeds could also be higher by up to 30 per cent. All these changes could make urban
heat islands to produce evident and measurable climate changes. Urban heat domes could also
cause personal discomfort and a number of health problems to inhabitants.

Important Facts
A one megawatt nuclear power plant would require 1.3 billion gallons (five million m3) of
water per day for cooling purposes. Due to this such plants are usually built in close proximity
to abundant sources of water like lakes, river, ocean, etc. During the cooling process, this water
gets heated by about 63°F (17°C).

Control of Thermal Pollution

Control of thermal pollution is a tough proposition. The most viable way is to let out the heated
water into ponds where it is cooled before be let out into natural water bodies. Hot water can
be pumped into one end of this pond and cooler water is removed from the other end. This
will help in dealing with the plume behaviour of the water. Further, the heat would also get
dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere. The main disadvantage of this procedure is
that the large quantities of water gets lost due to evaporation and could heat the atmosphere
around the pond.
Other possible solutions are putting the heated water for other potential uses. For instance,
in colder areas this water can be used to heat buildings, to remove snow, as well as to operate
certain industrial processes that may need modest heat requirements.

SEA LEVEL RISE

The global mean sea level3 is rising at rapid pace, as a response to global warming. It is

3. Mean Sea Level is the height of the sea with respect to a local land benchmark, which is averaged over
a period of time. The time period can be a month or a year. However, the period has to be long enough
such that wide fluctuations caused by waves and tides are removed. The changes that occur in mean sea
level as measured by the coastal tide gauges is known as ‘relative sea level changes’.
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  165
estimated that, since the Industrial Revolution, the global average rise in the level has risen
about eight inches.4 The local sea level is influenced by a number of factors. Some of them
include certain meteorological events, the flow of ocean currents, various geologic factors,
flow of groundwater, activities like dredging, construction, and so on. The rising trends
have contributed towards various hazards like loss of life, damage to coastal property and
infrastructure, degradation of shorelines and loss of biodiversity. It is expected that the global
sea levels will continue to rise in the coming centuries, transforming the coasts drastically.
Change in sea level is an important consequence of climate change, which could have long
lasting consequences for the societies and the environment. Though the sea level varies due to
processes operating on a wide range of time-scales—from seconds to millions of years, climate
change related processes affect seas on the time-scale of mere decades to centuries.

Reasons for Sea Level Rise

The main contributor for rise in global sea level is the Global Warming that has occurred since
the Industrial Revolution. As discussed in earlier sections, human activities like burning of coal
and oil, and deforestation have drastically increased the atmospheric concentrations of GHGs.
Due to this Earth has warmed by around 1.4°F since 1880 (Hansen et al., 2010). The rising
atmospheric temperatures warm up the ocean waters. The warming ocean waters expand, and
this thermal expansion drives the global sea level to rise.
The problem has also been aggravated due to the accelerated shrinking of land ice due
to high temperatures. The land ice which includes glaciers, ice caps, and ice sheets store
approximately two-thirds of the world’s fresh waters. Traditionally, glaciers melt partially each
summer and grow in size each winter. Due to continued rise in temperature, the growth to ice
in winters is reduced, and there is accelerated melting during summers. This melting is adding
water to the oceans, thereby causing global sea level to rise (Cogley, 2009). It is estimated
that shrinking land ice has added about one inch to global sea level from the period 1993 to
2008 (Church et al., 2011). This amount of water has been the reason for more than half of
the sea water rise during the period. A recent study suggested that loss of land ice has added
about half an inch of water to global sea level during the period 2003 to 2007. This water is
said to have contributed around 75 per cent to 80 per cent of the total increase of sea water
(Cazenave and Llovel, 2010).
Another important contributor to sea level rise is the changes in the amount of water
stored underground, in lakes and reservoirs, as well as evapotranspiration rates. Extraction of
groundwater from aquifers in excess of the natural recharge is also causing sea level to rise.
Another area that contributes to rise in sea level is the reduction in the volumes of world’s large
lakes (like Aral Sea and Caspian Seas) as a result of drawing water for irrigation purposes.
This occurs because most of the waters extracted reach the ocean through the process of

4. According to Church and White (2011), global sea level rose by eight inches from 1880 to 2009. It had
risen about 0.8 inch per decade for the period 1972 to 2008. This was estimated by Tide gauges, land
benchmarks, and certain other measures. Scientists are also of the opinion that even if the level of global
emissions were to drop to zero by the year 2016, sea level would rise by further 1.2 feet to 2.6 feet by
the year 2100 (Schaeffer et al., 2012; Zecca and Chiari, 2012)
166  Disaster Management

evapotranspiration. Changes in the sea level can also occur as a result of Coastal subsidence
in river delta regions, accretion and erosion along the coast.

Important Facts
The Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets is said to contain water to raise the sea level by around
70 m! Among the two, the Greenland ice sheet is the most vulnerable to climatic warming.
Scientists using various models estimate that for a warming of 8°C, Greenland would contribute
about 6 m of sea level rise. A small fractional change in volume in either Greenland or Antarctica
is likely to have a significant effect on the sea level. The summer temperatures on the Greenland
ice sheet are rising drastically that they are causing widespread melting. The West Antarctic ice
sheet is estimated to contain enough ice to raise the sea level by about 6 m. Temperatures in
Antarctica are so low that surface run-off is virtually nonexistent. The ice sheets are found to
lose mass mainly due discharge of ice into floating ice shelves. At the underside they experience
melting and freezing, due to which they break to form icebergs.

Problems Associated with Rising Sea Level

Sea level rise is changing the dynamics that the coasts play with the coastal communities,
economies, and ecosystems. Those nations having coasts and low-lying land are highly
vulnerable due to rising seas and coastal storm surges. All along the history of Earth, shorelines
have been constantly changing—reshaped by waves, currents, and tides. Coastal storms often
accelerate these changes.
The main problems associated with rising sea level are given in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2 Problems from Rising Sea Level

Problem Description
Coastal storms could lead to storm surge and push water inland. When seas rise, the
Amplified storm surges that occur on top of elevated water level could create extensive flooding,
storm than a similar storm that would have occurred years back. Such surge could cause
surge catastrophic damage to infrastructure and buildings. Higher sea levels could result
in storm surges pushing water further inland.
Higher sea levels could increase erosion potential since the waves penetrate further
inland. This is likely to occur even during normal weather times. The rate of land
Shoreline loss from erosion will increase multifold when there is rise in sea levels. Unscientific
retreat development could also substantially lower the natural coastal defenses. This could
lead to a scenario wherein there should be forced investments in expensive measures
involving construction of artificial sea walls and repeated beach replenishment.
Storm surges could cause the water level in an area to rise temporarily. Increased
levels of sea level would result in higher floods increase the water level during a
Temporary flood by approximately, further flooding new areas and creating fresh flood zones.
flooding Raised water tables will exacerbate the flooding situation due to the decreased ability
of the land to drain out storm waters. Net result would be further erosion of shores
and higher and more damaging storm waves.
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  167
Problem Description
When sea level rises, the salt content of aquifers and estuaries would migrate further
landward. In coastal aquifers, there is a phenomenon whereby, a layer of fresh water
floats on top of the heavier salt water. There also exists some form of boundary
between the fresh and salt waters. With rising sea levels, this boundary will be
Salt pushed further inland. The landward and upward shift of this boundary will result
intrusion in freshwater wells becoming salty. Another aspect that could result in salt inclusion
is over exploitation of coastal aquifers. Rise in sea level could also increase and
push up the salinity of rivers and the estuaries. Another drastic change would be
the intrusion of salt water into coastal groundwater, thereby increasing the salinity
of water used for drinking and agriculture.
Rising sea level is likely to gradually inundate and claim the low-lying coastal lands.
This could be severe in places where high tides flood coastal wetlands. A recent
Permanent
estimate shows that a rise of two feet above the present mean sea level is likely to
inundation
put more millions of humans and trillions worth of property and structures at risk
of inundation (Moser et al., 2013).

Meeting this challenge calls for immense efforts from various quarters. Some efforts
towards this direction include considerable reduction in the heat-trapping emissions, and
focusing on building resilience of coastal communities.

Responses to Rising Sea Levels

Responding to problems arising out of rising sea level is a tough proposition. Some traditional
defensive approaches to rising seas include construction of seawalls and levees, replenishing of
sand along eroded beaches, etc. Certain other measures are detailed in the following sections:
1. Prevention of sea erosion requires keeping waves from attacking the shore. Other
steps include intercepting the waves well before it hits the shore through armouring
the beach. These offshore breakwaters have the capacity to keep waves from attacking
the shore as well as limiting the size of incoming waves.
2. Restoring certain mechanisms of natural systems can protect the shores against erosion
and storm surge. These mechanisms are cost-effective too. Some steps that can be
taken in this direction include:
• Maintaining sand dunes provides enough sand to slow down erosion of shores
and would also act as a levee against storm surges.
• Maintaining marshes would help in supplying sufficient sediments during floods
and deal with sea level rises. Marsh systems can be maintained by identifying
and reserving higher ground for migration, as well as planting appropriate marsh
vegetation.
Other steps that can be used in curtailing sea level rise include:
• Restoring natural buffers like barrier islands, tidal wetlands, and mangroves.
• Elevating the structures appropriately,
168  Disaster Management

• Using flooded land for temporary purposes when it is not flooded, and
• Constructing channels to drain out waters from flooded land.
These measures, according to Kimmelman (2013), could help in accommodating flooding
as well as gradual inundation of low-lying areas. It would also help in defending coastlines
and provide a host of additional ecosystem services. Certain vulnerable coastal communities
may however, have to consider the stark option of retreating from the inundated areas. Nations
will also have to share their experiences and expertise, and coordinate their policies and
actions blurring the local, state, regional, and national boundaries and jurisdictions. Another
serious problem is the salt intrusion. There is a definite need to either prevent or adapt to salt
intrusion. Preventive methods that focus on droughts can also be extended to deal with sea
level rise. Though these steps can help in protecting against flooding to a certain extent, it
may fail to provide sustainable protection to the shores in the long term (Moser, Williams,
and Boesch, 2012).

HUMAN INDUCTED DISASTER

Human induced disaster can be classified broadly under the head ‘Technological hazards’.
Technological hazard, according to USAID (2011) include those dangers originating from:
technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or
certain human activities, which may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage,
social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.
Human induced disasters are also termed as ‘anthropogenic hazards’. Examples of human
induced disasters include industrial pollution, nuclear activities and radioactivity, toxic wastes
from various sources, failure of structures; transport and industrial or technological accidents.
Due to such disasters explosions, fires or toxic spills could occur. All the above mentioned
hazards are detailed in various sections of this book.
Disasters occur when serious hazards, temporarily or relatively permanently affect
communities and households and destroy their livelihoods. A disaster could occur from a
combination of hazards, aspects like societal vulnerability, as well as the limited capacity
of communities or households to reduce the potentially negative impacts. Information and
recognition about the vulnerabilities should be accompanied by growing interest in understanding
and enhancing the positive capacities of people to cope with the impact of hazards. The
terminologies like risk, hazard and vulnerability presented in the above section is now
discussed.

References

Asdrasko, K. (1990). Climate Change and Global Forests: Current Knowledge of Political Effects,
Adaptation and Mitigation Options, Rome: FAO.
Cazenave, A. and Llovel, W. (2010). Contemporary sea level rise, Annual Review of Marine
Science, 2, 145–173.
 Chapter 13 Environmental Degradation: Deforestation, Desertification and Others  169
Church, J.A., White, N.J., Konikow, L.F., Domingues, C.M., Cogley, J.G., Rignot, E., Gregory,
J.M., van den Broeke, M.R., Monaghan, A.J. and Velicogna, I. (2011). Revisiting the Earth’s
sea-level and energy budgets from 1961 to 2008, Geophysical Research Letters, 33 (L01602);
doi:10.1029/2005GL024826.
Cogley, J.G. (2009). Geodetic and direct mass-balance measurements: Comparison and joint
analysis, Annals of Glaciology, 50, 96–100.
Gates, J. (1999). Whose Wealth of Nations? Global Futures Bulletin, 84, 15 May 1999.
Hansen, J., R. Sato, Ruedy, M. and Lo, K. (2010). Global surface temperature change, Reviews of
Geophysics, 48, RG4004; doi:10.1029/2010RG000345.
Houghton, R.A. (2005). Tropical deforestation as a source of greenhouse gas emissions, In Tropical
Deforestation and Climate Change, Moutinho, P. and Schwartzman, S. (Eds.) 13–20. Amazon
Institute for Environmental Research, Belem Brazil.
Kimmelman, M. (2013). Going with the flow, New York Times, February 13. Online at http://www.
nytimes.com/2013/02/17/arts/ design/flood-control-in-the-netherlandsnow-allows-sea-water-in.
html.
Lean, G. (1990). World Wildlife Fund Atlas of the Environment, Prentice Hall, New York.
Moser, S.C., Davidson, M.A., Kirshen, P., Mulvaney, P., Murley, J.F., Neumann, J.E., Petes,
L. and Reed, D. (2013). Coastal zone development and ecosystems. In: Draft climate
assessment report, Washington, DC: U.S. Global Change Research Program, National Climate
Assessment.
Raloff, J. (1989). Where Acids Reign, Science News, July 22, 56–58.
Richards, J.F. (1990). Land transformation, In The Earth as Transformed by Human Action,
Turner, B.L., Clark, W.C., Kates, R.W., Richards, J.F., Mathews, J.T., and Meyer, W.B.
(Eds.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 163–168.
Schaeffer, M., Hare, W., Rahmstorf, S. and Vermeer, M. (2012). Long-term sea-level rise
implied by 1.5°C and 2°C warming levels, Nature Climate Change, doi:10.1038/nclimate
1584.
UNCED (1992). Earth Summit ’92. The UN Conference on Environment and Development,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
UNEP (1992). World Atlas of Desertification, Edward Arnold, Sevenoaks, UK.
UNEP-UNCOD (1977). United Nations Conference on Desertification, 29 August – 9 September
1977.
USAID (2011). Introduction to Disaster Reduction, http://acds.co.za/ index.php?page=usaid-
project.
WRI, IUCN, UNEP, (1992). Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines for Action to Save, Study,
and Use Earth’s Biotic Wealth Sustainability and Equitability, WRI Publications, Baltimore,
MD.
Zecca, A., and Chiari, L. (2012). Lower bounds to future sea-level rise. Global and Planetary
Change 98–99 : 1–5. Abstract online at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0921818112001579.
170  Disaster Management

Questions

1. Write in detail about deforestation.

2. What are the uses of forests?
3. What are the effects of deforestation?
4. Write in detail about desertification.
5. Write in detail about biodiversity.
6. What are the values of biodiversity?
7. What are the threats to biodiversity?
8. How can biodiversity be conserved?
9. What are the different approaches to conservation?
10. What do you know about thermal pollution?
11. What do you know about sea level rise?
12. What are the problems associated with sea level rise?
 14
Risk

INTRODUCTION
The term ‘risk’ is used in a variety of contexts, and is multidisciplinary in nature. It is associated
with the degree to which humans cannot cope with a particular event or situation. Risk is the
expression of the chance of a disaster or a loss. It is the combination of the probability of an
event, and the negative consequences arising out of it. According to CSA (1997) risk is ‘the
chance of injury or loss as defined as a measure of the probability and severity of an adverse
effect to health, property, the environment, or other things of value’. Risk is also thought of
as ‘the degree of variation in the possible outcomes form an uncertain event, or as a variation
in actual outcomes from the expected outcomes’.
Risks occur within social systems. The intensity of a risk is based on the social context
in which it occurs. Due to the social circumstances, members of a particular community do not
share the same risk perception and their underlying causes. Risk is considered as the product
of probability and consequence. Risk can be put in the following equation:
Risk = Probability × Consequences
The intensity of the risk can be found out with the help of Figure 14.1

High Moderate risk High risk

Probability
Low Low risk Moderate risk
Low High
Consequence
Figure 14.1 Intensity of risk grid.

If the probability and consequence of a risk is low, then the risk can be categorised as
‘Low risk’. Inversely, in the event of a high probability and consequence, there would be a
possibility of a ‘High risk’.
171
172  Disaster Management

Some decisions, though highly risky, are the result of a conscious process. For instance,
people buy lake or river front properties for its aesthetics. This decision is taken with the
perfect knowledge that there would be very high possibility of the risk of flooding. Similarly,
the local authorities often take developmental decisions by balancing a number of factors like
economics, politics, health and environment. Inappropriate weightage to certain factor could
result in poor risk management decisions, and could place added demands on the already
strained system. This is why certain decisions taken by the local authorities result in negative
health consequences.
Each society, due to their unique social circumstances, has its own perceptions of risk and
their underlying causes. The concept of risk allows comparison of different hazardous events,
and helps in limiting their influence. Though knowledge about risk does not eliminate such
events, it helps in taking appropriate informed decisions to deal with it. Risk is sometimes
considered synonymous with probability or vulnerability. However, in reality risk is the product
of both these components.

CLASSIFICATION OF RISK
Risks can be classified in various ways. Classification of risks is presented in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1 Classification of Risks

Basis of
Classifications Details
classification
Risks were the occurrence of the event results in no change in
Outcome of the situation of the individual or organisation exposed to the
Pure risk
uncertain risk. Such risks could cause loss(es) and no gains. Examples
events include fire, storm, accidental injury, other natural disasters, etc.
Speculative risk Risks where the outcome may be either a loss or a profit.
Risks arising from changes that take place in the society,
Dynamic risk like economic, social, technological, environmental, political
Changes system, etc.
Static risk Risks that would exist in the absence of such changes.
Risks that affect the whole society, or a major part of the
society. These risks are impersonal in cause and effect.
Fundamental
Examples include risks arising out of economic or political
Extend system, natural calamities, etc.
Risks that affect an individual or a firm. Such risks could arise
Particular
out of factors over which one may exert some control.
Class I Risks whose losses do not disturb a firm’s basic finances.
Risks whose losses would require raising of additional finances
Size Class II
through borrowings.
Class III Large losses that might make a firm bankrupt.
 Chapter 14 Risk  173
WAYS OF HANDLING RISK
There are various ways through which risks can be handled. Some such ways in which risk
can be handled is presented in Table 14.2.
Table 14.2 Ways of Handling Risk

Method Description
Avoidance is the most drastic way of handling risk. It involves ceasing to
Avoidance undertake the activity that creates the risk, or performing it in another way,
or at some other place.
Risk reduction/loss This involves all methods employed to reduce probability of loss producing
prevention events, or potential size of loss.
This is the cheapest way of dealing with relatively small losses. In retention
small losses are dealt with from one’s own resources, or contingency funds.
Risk retention
Decision to retain risk may be either taken deliberately or out of ignorance
of the existence of risks.
Combination makes use of the law of large numbers. In combination the
Combination risks are pooled of the exposure at a centralized management, as in the case
of insurance.
Transfer can occur in two ways—either by transferring the activity that creates
risk, or through contractual arrangement made to transfer the responsibility
Transfer of uncertain events to another party. The most important form transfer of
contractual liability is through insurance. Contracts of indemnity are another
example.
Firms that enter into contracts to supply goods at a fixed price in the future
face the risk that a rise in prices between entering into the contract and the
Hedging delivery date may involve them in a loss. In such cases protection can be
obtained from the risk by hedging against price movements by entering into
forward contracts.
Research taken up to improve the information on which decisions are taken
Research
can help to reduce risk. Marketing research is an example for this.

Risk Management
Risk management is a comprehensive process of understanding risks and deciding about
appropriate ways to control the risks through addressing their consequences and/or likelihood.
It is defined as ‘the systematic application of management policies, procedures, and practices to
the tasks of analyzing, evaluating, controlling and communicating about risk issues’. It is also
defined as ‘the process of making and carrying out decisions that will minimize the adverse
effects of accidental or unforeseen losses upon the goals and objectives of the organization’
(Manitoba Finance, 1999). Risk management can be considered as a systematic process that
helps in the process of decision making pertaining to the addressing of risks. It is a systematic
process that quantifies and makes decisions about hazards.
174  Disaster Management

The critical component of risk management has certain internal and external factors. It
provides a host of services that favours a transition from problem identification (assessment)
to appropriate problem solving steps (mitigation and/or preparedness). In the organisational
context, risk management is practiced in relation to almost all management activities ranging
from budgeting, contracting, capital planning, project management, to a number of other
organisational tasks. DM framework incorporates all inputs provided by these practices to
deal appropriately with disasters. As a strategic measure, risk management helps in dealing
with hazards. This is done through mitigation and/or preparedness activities. Risk management
accomplishes this through transforming the qualitative information about a number of previous
extreme events, the vulnerability of the particular community, and availability of resources;
into quantitative aspect that can be measured and compared. The result of this process would
help in managing risk properly.
Risk management provides four options for dealing with a risk:
1. Elimination: Elimination removes the risk through the prevention of interaction
between the extreme event and the community.
2. Reduction: Risk reduction decreases the likelihood that any interaction will lead
to damage. The most common method for risk reduction is loss reduction. Loss
reduction can be:
(a) Preventative: Involves eliminating the cause of loss,
(b) Protective of quasi-preventative: Protecting things or persons exposed to damage
or injury,
(c) Minimizing: Limiting the loss to as small area as possible,
(d) Salvage: Preserving as much as possible of the value of damaged property or
the abilities of injured persons.
3. Transfer: Transferring involves shifting the responsibility for dealing with the
negative impacts. This is normally accomplished by professional bodies, through
the medium of insurance. Insurance is however, able to address only the quanti-
fiable financial value of an impact. It cannot deal with a host of intangible or
consequential losses that may occur to an individual, organisation or community.
Further, insurance cannot cover the loss of lives, the sense of safety, or the loss of
opportunities.
4. Acceptance: Acceptance is the conscious acknowledgment that the adverse conse-
quences of the risk have to be faced, as and when the event occurs. This decision is
arrived at after a risk management process, and does not involve mere ignoring of
a risk.
The first three options are considered as disaster mitigation. The identification and
implementation of mitigation strategies is based on understanding that hazards occur as a
result of interaction between an extreme event and a community that is vulnerable. Mitigation
activities are relatively permanent in nature, and does not normally require a triggering event
to be implemented. Those activities undertaken when the event actually occurs, or imminently
threaten to occur are termed ‘response’ or ‘preparedness’ activities.
 Chapter 14 Risk  175
Defining an acceptable level of risk
Anywhere in the world, individuals as well as societies will have to face various types of risks
having different severities. It would be impossible to remove all risks. The different levels
of Governments in hazard-prone areas have to decide on the level of risks that is deemed
acceptable and tolerable in their area. Though there are various models and methodologies
regarding assessment of vulnerabilities, the ultimate decision about the level of protection to
be offered will be based on the following:
1. The availability of resources,
2. The political scenario prevailing in the land, and
3. The perceived importance of hazards against other serious demands on the various
budgets—national or local.
There should be a fine balance between costs related to providing preparedness and
mitigation prior to an event; and relief and rehabilitation activities subsequent to a disaster.
The tolerable or acceptable level of risk in one society will vary drastically with the other.
This level is dynamic and could change with the different stages of development of the society.
The level of acceptability of risk by a society is based on the following:
1. The level of knowledge about vulnerability and the ways of protection at various
levels;
2. The level of economic progress in a community. A society denoted by growing assets
will not be prepared to endanger their assets. Due to this, there will be greater demand
on governments for a relatively safer environment;
3. The recognition of the respective Governments that the potential risk will pose
unacceptable levels of losses, hampering economic welfare and survival; and
4. Drastic changes in the patterns of hazards and vulnerabilities have made certain
communities becoming aware that a host of new risks have arisen due to the current
economic and social equations. Now poor families are aware of the reality that since
they do not have alternative places to settle down, they have to live in disaster-prone
areas like floodplains, beside mountains, etc.

Steps in risk management

The different steps involved in risk management are provided in Figure 14.2.

Figure 14.2 Risk management steps.

176  Disaster Management

Each of the steps is presented in the following sections:

1. Risk analysis: The first step in risk management is risk analysis. In this step the
risks are identified and evaluated so that it is possible to identify the risk to which
exposed.
2. Risk identification: Risk identification can be done through listing:
(a) All those events which may bring about a deterioration in the welfare of human
being with respect to:
(i) Physical and mental wellbeing,
(ii) Current income, and
(iii) The value of one’s assets.
(b) Other events that may frustrate fulfillment of future welfare plans.
3. Risk evaluation: For risk evaluation, the relevant data must be collected, collated,
analysed and the results should be interpreted in an intelligent manner. Risk evaluation
involves:
(a) The probability of loss-producing events occurring: Probabilities are mean values
conveying useful information when the decision maker has large number of
exposure units in his disposal. However, smaller the number of units, the larger
will be the variation in outcomes from the expected based on probability.
(b) The potential losses.
4. Risk handling: A whole range of risk handling options are available to individuals,
organisations and communities.

Risk management programme

The logical sequence of the risk management programme is the following:
1. Identification of all exposures to risk,
2. Evaluation of all exposures according to:
(a) Cause, and
(b) Effect. The aim of this step is to quantify probabilities and severities.
3. Investigation about the possibility of avoiding or eliminating the risks. Based on this
appropriate steps can be taken.
4. Risk reduction measures can also be explored and implemented.
5. After this, the residual risk can be evaluated so that decisions can be taken regarding
the best alternative to finance them.
6. Based on the changing conditions, the outcome of the whole programme can be
monitored and revived regularly.

Disaster Risk
The UNISDR (2009) defines disaster risk as potential ‘disaster losses, in lives, health status,
livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur to a particular community or a society
 Chapter 14 Risk  177
over some specified future time period’. Disasters are not merely caused by hazards. It is also
considered to be ‘the potential (not actual and realised) disaster losses, in lives, health status,
livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur in a particular community or society over
some specified future time period’.
It is the product of the possible damage that could be caused by a hazard due to the
existence of vulnerability within a community. According to the UNISDR (2002), disaster risk
is the product of the combination of vulnerability, coping capacity and hazard. Disaster risk
can be presented as:
Vulnerability (V)  Hazard (H)
Disaster risk (R) =
Capacity (C)
Disaster risk is created by a combination of exposure, vulnerability and hazard risk (Lavell
et al., 2012). There are host of underlying factors that lead to disasters. Their origins include
natural, socio-economic, political, etc. (Gaillard, 2007). Disaster risk as a topic started getting
importance due to the worldwide concerns about rising human and economic costs of disasters,
and the alarming rate at which they were negatively affecting development. This concern of the
global community culminated in the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015) at the World
Conference on Disaster Reduction in 2005. Thereafter phenomenal and whole hearted efforts
have been taken worldwide towards reducing disaster risks.
The effect of hazards on the population varies substantially with the level of coping
mechanisms available within that particular community. Coping capacity for disaster risk
reduction is the ability of people, organizations and systems to face and/or manage adverse
conditions such as hazards or disasters. Communities that are poor would find it difficult than
those who have the capacity to cope. The coping capacities of a particular community would
contribute to the reduction of disaster risks (UNISDR, 2009). Coping capacity could, as such,
depend on:
1. All those that a community internally possesses, and
2. External structures or infrastructure available to them to depend on.

Disaster risk management

Disaster risk management is a systematic process of using administrative directives, available
organizations, as well as operational skills and capacities so as to implement the strategies,
policies and improved coping capacities; thereby lessening the adverse impacts of hazards
and the possibility of a disaster. Disaster risk management attempt to lessen, avoid or transfer
adverse effects of hazards through strategic management activities, like prevention, mitigation
and preparedness. It involves all forms of activities, including structural and non-structural
measures that help in avoiding, or limiting adverse effects of hazards. While avoidance can be
considered as ‘prevention’, limiting is ‘mitigation and preparedness’. Disaster risk management
is thus the application of disaster risk reduction. Disaster risks can be reduced through:
1. Systematic analysis and management of the factors that causes disasters,
2. Reduction in the exposure to hazards,
3. Lessening the vulnerability of people and property,
178  Disaster Management

4. Wise management of land and the environment, and

5. Improved preparedness for all possible adverse events.
Disaster risk reduction can also help in counteracting the added risks that may arise out
of climate change.

Disaster risk reduction

According to the UNISDR (2009) disaster risk reduction (DRR) is:
the systematic development and application of policies, strategies and practices to
minimize vulnerabilities, hazards and disaster impacts throughout a society, in the broad
context of sustainable development.
DRR according to USAID (2011) is:
the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to analyse
and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to
hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the
environment, and improved preparedness for adverse effects.
The aims of DRR are to reduce the vulnerabilities and disaster risks. DRR protect
livelihoods and the assets of individuals and communities from the impact of hazards through
measures like advocacy, prevention, mitigation, and preparedness. It forms a complementary or
integral part of many other programmes. DRR require the active adoption of certain perspectives
and wide range of measures like risk assessment, which identifies the probability of a hazard
occurring and its likely impacts on a given community; and certain programmes to reduce the
risks.
DRR also acts as a means of bridging the gap between development and humanitarian
programmes, as it is often found to reduce poverty and strengthen livelihood security. For
instance, in countries that faces recurrent crises, it would be possible to sustain development
only through making the community to properly understand the negative effects of disasters
and the required response towards it. Further, DRR interventions could also reduce vulnerability
and increase opportunities for pursuing sustainable livelihoods. Disaster risk reduction strategies
could include:
1. Vulnerability and risk assessment: This includes the assessment of vulnerabilities
of critical facilities, as well as social and economic infrastructure.
2. Institutional capacities and operational abilities: This could include use
of appropriate early warning systems, application of various available scientific,
technical, and other skilled abilities towards DRR.

Principles of DRR
In DRR, risk assessments are carried out to identify hazards that are most likely to occur
and would have the highest impact. This is conducted with the help of Hazard Analysis,
and Vulnerability Analysis. These analyses would help in identifying the hazards that would
occur within a given time-frame, and determine the ones that will have severe impact on the
 Chapter 14 Risk  179
assets and livelihood of communities. The following three categories of measures could help
in reducing the risk identified with the help of the above analyses:
1. Mitigation: Mitigation can be either infrastructural or non-infrastructural measures.
It would help in reducing the frequency, intensity, scale and impact of the hazards.
2. Preparedness plans: The focus of preparedness plan is on capacity building. This
plan is knowledge based and also includes an early warning system that monitors
and predicts hazards. After prediction of hazards contingency plans are prepared
for effective response and recovery. The contingency plans are implemented by the
community based on requirement.
3. Advocacy: Advocacy attempts to favourably change the prevalent policies and
practices through networking and influence. Advocacy is meant to influence the wider
political, economic, social and environmental context so as to reduce vulnerability of
a community.

The UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction

The UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction has developed a framework that displays
the various components of DRR. This framework is based on the precinct that DRR and all the
interrelated processes linked to it are highly complex in nature. The DRR framework is closely
linked with sustainable development. By sustainable development it is meant that the current
resources are used and the developmental planning are done in such a way that the abilities of
future generations to develop, utilizing the same set of resources is not compromised.
The activities that are undertaken for development and those linked to disaster risk
reduction are similar in nature. Both the activities aim at improving the current level of
development. The DRR framework put forth by the UN International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction suggests that if sustainable development efforts are successful, it will help in
reducing risks of disasters considerably. For instance, sustainable development consists of the
domains of socio-cultural, political, economic, and environmental domains. Almost all the
vulnerabilities also exist in these areas. As such each of these domains could either contribute
towards overcoming or exacerbating disaster risks. The framework is provided as Figure 14.3.
The disaster risk framework starts with the vulnerability domains and hazards. While the
required disaster risk information is provided by vulnerability and capacity analysis, disaster risk
information is provided by hazard analysis and monitoring. This helps in risk identification as
well as the assessment of the possible impact of a hazardous event on vulnerable conditions.
A properly identified disaster risk can be managed with ease. Risk management can then be
done through creating awareness towards a behaviour change. A behavioural change, in turn,
could create a need for political will or commitment towards DRR. Political commitment would
ultimately result in changes in policy and governance, which will enhance DRR capabilities
and institutional capacities. Political will and commitment could positively impact community
actions and the community’s ability to own up the various DRR efforts.
Though, through political commitment certain DRR measures can be implemented,
it requires a trans-disciplinary outlook. It would require drastic changes with respect to
environmental management and socio-economic development practices. Some such areas that
180  Disaster Management

Source: UNISDR (2004).

Figure 14.3 UNISDR framework.

need be focused include better law and order, poverty alleviation, secured livelihoods, gender
equality, universal education, better health, sustainable agricultural and forestry practices,
social safety schemes, inclusive banking, market-based financial instruments like insurance,
and so on. Certain other physical and technical aspects like appropriate land-use planning,
urban and town planning, protection of critical infrastructure like water and sanitation, proper
electricity and communications facilities are also indispensable for disaster reduction. The next
requirement is the forming of partnerships and networks. It can be public-public, public-private
or private-private. The identified disaster risks should form an input for the risk reduction
measures.
 Chapter 14 Risk  181
Despite all the above frameworks and action plans, in real life, it is impossible to have a
complete and flawless knowledge about disaster risks. It may also not be possible to completely
reduce the consequences of disaster risks. However, it helps to put us in a position to understand
the various hazard characteristics, and work as an early warning system. This will in turn
goes a long way in assessing the preparedness as well as activation of appropriate emergency
management contingencies. The UNISDR framework thus makes it clear that DRR functions
does not end in disaster but is a broad domain than the mere event.

DISASTER RISK GOVERNANCE

Disaster Risk Governance (DRG) is a new and evolving area. As the name denotes it is the
governance of disaster risk. Any welfare state has the sovereign responsibility to protect its
citizens, infrastructure, and other economic and social assets from disasters. Other responsibilities
of the state towards citizens include ensuring their safety, welfare and livelihoods, and protection
of natural resources. As discussed earlier, the goal of DRR programmes is the reduction of
disaster risks through capacity building and increasing the resilience of communities. This in
turn will help in enhancing the security and wellbeing of the members of the community. All
these can be done only through increased involvement and commitment by the Government. To
accomplish this, there should be a central responsibility of the State, which should be involved in
providing proper and effective institutional framework and capacities for disaster risk reduction
and disaster risk management. Towards this, Government should involve in a host of aspects
like policy formulation towards DRR, enhancing and streamlining operational capabilities and
capacities, and initiating varied forms of relationships among various stakeholders.
The general principles and objectives to be followed for the sake of DRG are:
1. Prioritising disaster risk management and elevating it to the level of policy;
2. Generating political commitment in all levels of government authorities, so that
disaster risk management is promoted as a multi-sectoral responsibility;
3. Assigning of appropriate accountability for disaster losses and its impacts;
4. Allocation of the necessary resources for the sake of disaster risk reduction;
5. Enforcing the implementation of disaster risk management and reduction; and
6. Increasing of gender sensitivity, and facilitation of wholehearted participation by
various stakeholders, including civil society and private players.
The success of DRG lies in ensuring the necessary support within all levels of government.
Now there is a broad consensus that Governments must accord top priority to DRR. The
following measures have been advised to carry forward DRG:
1. Development and implementation of appropriate DRR policies, laws, regulations,
directives and standards;
2. Establishing required structures that will facilitate governing of DRR like:
• National and regional centres,
• A national multi-sectoral coordinating platform,
• Appropriate decision making structures at all levels of government,
182  Disaster Management

• Required civil society structures, and

• Engagement with and involvement of private sector.
• Conduct of appropriate nationwide disaster risk assessments;
• Integration of disaster risk reduction measures into the developmental agenda;
• Encouragement of research, training, education and public awareness;
• Ensuring that adequate emergency and contingency measures are in place; and
• Allocating adequate funds required to sustain various DRR efforts.
At the international level DRR has become a priority that a number of policies and
frameworks have been developed since 1990s. Some of them include the Yokohama Strategy
and Plan of Action (1990–1999), the Hyogo Framework of Action: Building the Resilience
of Nations and Communities (2005–2015), and many other regional frameworks. The essence
and contents of these frameworks have been adapted by various member states, and it can be
expected that they will lead towards sound DRG.

Some Important Facts

The Hyogo Framework of Action
The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2010, endorsed by the UN set out a comprehensive
approach to reduce disaster risks. The framework involves building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities towards disasters. The expected outcome of this is substantial reduction of disaster
losses, in terms of lives, social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries.
A number of policies and measures ideal for reducing disaster risks and promoting adaptation to
climate change were considered. Some of the policies are the following:
Strong institutional basis: In order to implement the policies and measures, that reduces disaster
risks, and strengthens the institutional, legislational and operational mechanisms; there is a need to
foster political commitment and community participation. This involves integration of DRR into
the process of development planning and decentralization. Towards this the human and financial
needs should be assessed scientifically, and the required resources allocated.
Risk knowledge and early warning: The data on disaster risks should be collected and used in
such a way that it helps in the development and maintenance of capacities and infrastructure. It
should help in observing, analysing and forecasting the hazards, vulnerabilities as well as disaster
impacts. An early warning system that is people-centered should also be developed and integrated
into the decision making processes.
Raising levels of awareness and education: There should be in place a certain level of
information-sharing systems and services. Dialogue and cooperation among scientific communities
and practitioners need be promoted. In addition to this, DRR should be introduced in school
curricula. Appropriate training and learning programme on DRR should be implemented at the
level of the community, the local authorities and other targeted sectors. The research capacity
should be strengthened, and the media should be engaged so that the level of awareness is raised.
Addressing the underlying risk factors: There should be the sustainable use and management
of the ecosystems, land use, and natural resources. There should be an integration of DRR
strategies and climate change. This also calls for promoting food security and integrating DRR
planning into the health sector. Another important area is the promotion of the critical public
 Chapter 14 Risk  183
facilities and appropriate social safety nets. Certain other areas that needs to be focuses is the
promotion of income diversification options, financial risk sharing mechanisms and establishing
of appropriate public–private partnerships. There should also be an integration of disaster risk
considerations in the land-use planning and the building codes.
Disaster preparedness for effective response: There should be in place a plan and programme
to assess and strengthen existing policy, technical and institutional capacities. An early warning
system, contingency planning and response readiness, arrangements for maintaining essential
services and supplies, etc. should also be in place. There should be a periodic review, rehearsal
and modification of all relevant plans. Towards this the necessary financial resources, including
an emergency fund should be allocated.

Though there are different approaches to disaster management, in reality disasters are not
managed efficiently. This occurs due to various reasons. Important among them is the fact that
disasters vary in intensity and extent based on the geographical areas. Further, it is difficult to
define and generalize the impacts of disasters on people and property. The models however,
present a detailed and simplified understanding about the processes, methods, sequences,
approaches, and activities involved in the management of disasters. The various phases help
in reducing the vulnerabilities of the disaster and also assist in the post-disaster development
phases.

DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT AND INSURANCE

It was the Hyogo Framework that called for an appropriate financial risk sharing/transferring
mechanism to deal with hazards. There are many financial risks transferring mechanisms
available in the markets. Though such risk transfer tools do not reduce the risk as such,
they are capable of reducing the financial and economic impacts caused by the hazardous
events. Disaster risk financing requires thorough knowledge about the local risk, and social,
economic and climatic conditions. It also requires specialist knowledge to create a framework of
appropriated instruments. Some of the prominent risk sharing instruments includes catastrophe
bonds, weather or index-based derivatives, micro-insurance and the traditional disaster insurance
policies. A few financial instruments available in the market are presented in Table 14.3.
Table 14.3 Risk Sharing Financial Instruments

S. No. Instrument Particulars

Insurance guarantees financial protection against losses due to insured
perils, in return for a premium. There are various types of insurance
Traditional coverage’s that protect various assets and liabilities of the insured person.
1
Insurance Insurance is a common across most countries, with developed countries
have a matured insurance market. In certain countries insurance against
automobile liability is compulsory.
Micro-insurance is a tailor made policy for the low income groups who
Micro- cannot afford the traditional insurance protection. This insurance is
2
insurance characterised by low premiums and coverage. It is possible to cover a
wide range of risks under micro-insurance including health, crop, livestock,
184  Disaster Management

S. No. Instrument Particulars

etc. Certain companies also offer ‘Weather Insurance’. The Government
of India has introduced one of the largest micro-insurance schemes—the
Weather-based Crop Insurance Scheme, which protects more than 7,00,000
farmers against drought.
Reserve Catastrophe Reserve Funds are set up by the Governments to cover the
3
fund costs of unexpected losses. It could also be created from donations.
Risks pools through the aggregation of risks allow individual risk holders
to spread their risk geographically. Through this spreading, participants
Risk are allowed to gain catastrophe insurance in their terms and at the same
4
pooling time access collective reserves if a disaster strikes. In India risk pooling
is prevalent in many industries. One such highly successful pooling exists
among fishing boat owners of certain towns in Kerala.
Insurance-linked securities or catastrophe bonds helps in risk sharing
Insurance-
broadly with the capital markets. These bonds are issued by risk holders like
linked
5 insurance companies or Government. These bonds trigger payments in the
securities
event of occurrence of specified perils. Such bonds have been successfully
in vogue in Mexico against earthquake risks.

Though insurance would help in risk management and adaptation, it does not have
the capability to reduce risk and advance adaptation, unless accompanied with disaster risk
reduction measures. Insurance as an instrument may also fail due to:
1. Lack of understanding of the instruments due to large number of exclusions and
limitations,
2. Ineffectiveness of legal system to enforce various insurance contracts,
3. Strong exposure by an entire or majority of the population to risk,
4. Incomplete risk information and resultant high transaction costs.
Due to these there are doubts regarding the utility of insurance as a risk reduction tool.
Further, traditional insurance is incapable of assisting the poor in tiding over poverty. Though
certain insurance schemes have attempted to link up with disaster risk reduction frameworks, a
comprehensive product is yet to evolve. Micro-insurance programs have the problem of being
still in the ascent stage, and lack direct links and coverage to provide protection from losses
due to disasters.

References

UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). (2002). ISDR background
paper for WSSD. Geneva: UN.
UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). (2009). UNISDR
terminology on disaster risk reduction. Geneva: UNISDR. 30 p. http://www.preventionweb.
net/files/7817_UNISDR TerminologyEnglish.pdf Date of access:
USAID (United States Agency for International Development). (2011). Introduction to disaster risk
reduction, Botswana University, http://acds.co.za/index.php?page=usaid-project
 Chapter 14 Risk  185
Questions

1. Write a detailed essay about risk.

2. Classify the risks.
3. Describe the ways of handling risk.
4. Elaborate on risk management.
5. What are the steps of risk management?
6. What do you know about disaster risk?
7. Differentiate disaster risk from disaster risk management.
8. Write in detail about disaster risk reduction.
9. It is time that we move from disaster risk reduction to disaster risk governance. Elaborate.
10. Write a brief about Hyogo Framework of Action.
11. Elaborate on the importance of insurance on risk reduction.
 15
Vulnerability

INTRODUCTION
Vulnerability is the propensity of damages occurring due to a hazard. It is the ‘degree of loss
to a given element at risk (or set of elements) resulting from a given hazard at a given severity
level’. According to UNISDR (2002) vulnerability is ‘a set of prevailing or consequential
conditions arising from various physical, social, economic and environmental factors which
increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards’. It is also defined as the
characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to
the damaging effects of a hazard.
Vulnerability has certain distinct underlying causes. Certain socio-economic causes for
vulnerability include high birth rate, inadequate sanitation, non-availability of safe drinking
water, problems related to land tenure and lack of economic opportunity. It is also compounded
by improper allocation of available scarce resources for basic human needs of an ever expanding
population. Due to high birth rate, population increases and the best land in both rural and
urban areas are taken up by the affluent. Those seeking land thereafter for various purposes like
farming or housing would be forced to accept lands that are degraded or less productive. This
hampers physical and economic safety, and renders the community vulnerable to various hazards.
The magnitude of each disaster which is measured in terms of the number of deaths, damage
to property, or costs incurred to establish normalcy increases with increased marginalisation
of the population.
Vulnerability is the degree of loss that results from a potentially damaging phenomenon
or hazard. It is the extent to which a community gets degraded due to a specified set of
hazards. Vulnerability is expressed in terms of a percentage loss for the severity of a hazard.
It is normally expressed as a value between 0 and 1. For identification of vulnerability, the
expected damage level at each level of severity of the hazard has to be defined. Vulnerability for
a series of events of varying severities can be stated by means of a damage probability matrix.
186
 Chapter 15 Vulnerability  187
FACTORS OF VULNERABILITY
Many scholars have attempted to describe the factors that compound or alleviate vulnerability
(Blaikie et al., 1994; Jegillos, 1999). The factors identified as the constituents of vulnerability
include political, physical, social, economic and environmental factors. The factors are described
in the following sections:

Political factor
The political will of a community is fundamental to its DRR. The level of vulnerability
that a community is susceptible is linked directly to the political will and commitment to
developmental concerns. A community that is characterized by denial of aspects, like human
rights, mechanism to redress complaints, access to power, access to quality education, access
to health care benefits, appropriate employment opportunities, availability of land tenure,
availability of and access to resources, access to infrastructure, basic services and information
to its availability, etc. are likely to have extreme levels of vulnerability.
Any community that is governed by a people-centric democratic setup is sure to adapt
an approach that would help reduce vulnerability in the event of a disaster. This has been
demonstrated in various places around the globe when disaster stuck. The classical example
of political factor doing wonders was the reduced vulnerability in South Africa in the post-
apartheid era. The government of the post-apartheid era involved in total reform of the disaster
management policy and legislation. This has helped in alleviating vulnerabilities. Radical
change was also evident in many nations that had the political will, and has involved in the
democratic change process. Democratic change is followed by economic reforms process, which
would have a positive effect on development, poverty and vulnerabilities.

Physical factor
Physical vulnerability, according to UNISDR (2002), is the susceptibility of individuals,
households and communities to loss due to the physical environment in which they find
themselves. The level of population density, the accessibility of settlements, availability
of infrastructure facilities, materials used for construction, and the like determine physical
vulnerabilities. A few aspects as listed down in physical factor by UNISDR (2002) include
access to suitable land, land use planning, housing design, building standards, materials used
for building houses, engineering, accessibility to emergency services and other similar aspects.
In many third world countries communities live in densely populated settlements. Most
of these settlements are poorly planned and lack basic infrastructure including sanitation
facilities. This enhances the possibility of diseases and epidemics among the population. Women
and children are exposed to higher levels of vulnerabilities. Further, the materials used for
construction of houses are inferior and highly inflammable. Houses are built in close proximity
with each other, which again enhance the possibility fire as well as access by emergency
services in the event of a disaster striking.

Economic factor
Economic status of a population is a crucial factor in dealing with vulnerabilities. One of
188  Disaster Management

the most important vulnerabilities faced by people in the developing countries is poverty.
Eradication of poverty is as such an indispensable factor in the reduction of vulnerabilities
in such countries. Economic status, in addition to exposing communities to vulnerabilities,
also negatively impacts their capacity to cope with and recover for adverse fallouts of
disasters. Wealthy communities survive hazards and their after effects without much of adverse
effects. They also recover quickly from the adverse fallouts and the impacts of the disasters
(USAID, 2011).
The world over poverty is found to create a lot of problems. Experiences show that
poverty prompts people to settle in uninhabitable areas, and work in unsafe conditions. These
areas would lack safety and basic services. For instance, poverty compel people to settle down
in areas that are prone to landslips, on the banks of rivers that are prone to floods, or even on
the sides of streams that carry stinking garbage and sewage.
There is also a pattern with respect to the hazard of drought and its after effects like
famine. Droughts are found to normally victimize only poor subsistence farmers. Similarly,
famine victimizes only the poor who lack the purchasing power to buy food, rather than the
actual absence of food materials. Experiences show that the wealthy are spared by famines.
This all show the importance of economic factors in vulnerability.
Poverty also induces migration of people across geographies (from rural to urban) and
national boarders for the sake of survival. Migrations have a number of other after-effects
and pose challenges to the local government authorities. Some of them include impossibility
of providing assistance to displaced persons, swelling of unplanned settlements that affect
the long-term planning and development, temporary and unsafe dwellings in dangerous
locations constructed with unstable materials, lack basic amenities, like water and sanitation,
overcrowding, etc. These problems have cascading effects as lack of access to basic services,
like water and sanitation pose the risk of diseases and epidemics.
Another after-effect of poverty is environmental degradation and flooding. For instance,
lack of electricity or alternative fuel sources for cooking force people to chop down trees which
would lead to environmental degradation. Fire used for cooking and heating would also pose
atmospheric pollution, and fire risks in settlements. Since most settlements spring up beside
rivers and streams, free flow of water would be hindered and lead to flooding and breach of
embankments, causing further damages to infrastructure. Thus poverty leads to increase in
population and crowding in certain unsafe locations. In such cases, there is the potential of
conflicts arising between communities for limited resources and employment. In the event of
a disaster in crowded places, large numbers of people are vulnerable as a result of insufficient
infrastructure and lack of facilities for evacuation.
As these aspects point towards the need of Governments to have long-term sustainable
planning so that poverty is eradicated and the formation of slums are prevented. Further, all
developmental planning should have an element of sustainable livelihoods and disaster risk
mitigation.

Social factor
Social well-being has a direct impact on the level of vulnerability to hazards. There is a definite
need for a well-organised and cohesive civil society. Such a society will be capable of bringing
in social well-being through higher levels of education, literacy and training; better safety,
 Chapter 15 Vulnerability  189
security and human rights; equity and awareness; adherence to strong cultural and traditional
believes and values, good governance. In addition to social wellbeing, social factors bring in
physical, mental and psychological health. This would help in reducing vulnerability, which is
never equally distributed. For instance, the aged, orphaned, women, children, disabled, minority
groups, etc. are susceptible to more vulnerable than the others.
The social factors are dealt with under the following heads:
1. Awareness: Awareness and access to information about the availability of facilities
can work in reducing vulnerabilities. Availability of information and communication
can help in warning people of any impending disasters and about various protective
measures. Poverty could lead to lack of information and the consequent awareness
about the measures than needed to be taken in the event of evacuation, the safe
routes that need to be pursued and the procedures to be followed. Poor may also
lack awareness about when and where to turn for assistance during distress.
2. Traditional and cultural practices: It can be observed that in all societies,
widespread changes are taking place with respect to traditions and cultures. According
to the UNISDR (2002):
A great social cohesion and regulation improves the coping capacities, whereas social
insecurity increases vulnerability. In this sense the decline of traditional structures, civic
groups or communities formerly engaged in the collective wellbeing, or in the protection of
the weakest people, can strengthen the disastrous consequences of a hazard.
Almost all societies, anywhere in the world, are constantly changing and are in a continual
state of transition. For instance, there is large scale urbanisation in almost all regions, shift from
agriculture based to industrialised societies, all societies moving up from one economic level to
the other, nomadic societies becoming sedentary, and so on. Though it is expected that these
transitions facilitate better standards of living; experiences shows other ways. Many transitions
have become often extremely disruptive and uneven, and have increased the vulnerability of
societies towards hazards. This is leaving yawning gaps in the social coping mechanisms.
Some of the instances wherein changes in tradition and culture and increased urbanisation are
impacting social cohesion and the resultant vulnerability include:
1. introduction of new and modified construction materials as against the traditionally
proven materials,
2. change in designs which normally goes against the topography of the area, and
3. lack of social and moral support system.
These problems negatively affect the relief and recovery operations, post hazards. The
communities may also become increasingly dependent on outside interventions in the process
of relief and recovery as the traditional coping mechanisms may not exist in the changed
setting. Conflicting traditions and cultural practices of different religions could also lead to
civil conflict. For example, a section of the community may be averse to the tradition of
another, as they may see it affecting their beliefs. A classical example is the conflicts that
arise in certain societies in India due to differences in attitude towards non-vegetarianism.
Such conflicts also take its toll in various nations across the globe. The xenophobic violence
in South Africa in the mid-2000s, the communal tensions that are occurring in certain central
190  Disaster Management

African states, the Sri Lankan Tamil issues, the tribal violence in north-eastern states of India,
etc. are examples.

Environmental factor
A close examination of the innumerable disasters that we are experiencing around the globe
are caused or exacerbated due to environmental degradation. Environmental aspects of
vulnerability and disaster risk reduction can be discussed only in the backdrop of sustainable
development (SD). This factor should cover broad range of issues with respect to economic,
social and ecological aspects. They are presented in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Perspectives of Sustainable Development

Dimensions Particulars
Development to be sustainable should be economically sustainable. For this the
system must be capable of:
Producing goods and services on a continuing basis,
Economic
Maintaining manageable levels of government and external debt, and
Avoiding extreme sectoral imbalances which damage agricultural or industrial
production.
The systems should have the quality of social sustainability. A system is said
to be socially sustainable if there is:
Distributional equity,
Social
Adequate provisions for various social services, including health and education,
Gender equity, and
Political accountability and participation.
The system should also be environmentally sustainable. For this the system must:
Maintain a stable resource base,
Avoid over-exploitation of renewable resource systems or environmental sink
functions, and
Environmental Deplete non-renewable resources only after making investment in suitable
substitutes.
Further, biodiversity, atmospheric stability, and other ecosystem functions
not ordinarily classified as economic resources should also be protected and
maintained properly.
Source: Sulphey and Safeer (2015).

UNISDR (2002) identified the following five key aspects of environmental vulnerabilities:
(a) The extent of natural resource depletion;
(b) The state of resource degradation;
(c) Loss of resilience of the ecological systems;
(d) Loss of biodiversity; and
(e) Exposure to toxic and hazardous pollutants.
 Chapter 15 Vulnerability  191
When the availability of natural resources become scarce due to the above reasons, the
options available to communities becomes limited to a very great extent. This leads to reduction
in the availability of coping solutions in the event of a hazard. It also retards the resilience
or recovery following disasters. The environmental factors could eventually lead to increased
vulnerability of communities through creation of fresh undesirable patterns of social discord,
conflict, economic deprivation, forced migration, and so on.
Environmental degradation that could lead to catastrophic disasters includes:
1. Deforestation: Deforestation leads to a cascading effect on the environment. The
apparent and immediate effects include rapid rain run-off, flooding, soil erosion, loss
of top soil and vegetation, flooding, and so on. On the long term it could lead to
drought condition and at the extreme end desertification.
2. Persistent drought conditions: Drought conditions are now prevailing in large tracts
in almost all continents. Drought conditions are created due to natural phenomena as
well as anthropological reasons. Some of the reasons as to why drought conditions
are exacerbated include:
(a) Changed and undesirable cropping patterns,
(b) Overgrazing,
(c) Loss of top soil,
(d) Unplanned development,
(e) Lack of conservation techniques; and
(f) Unchecked urbanisation.
3. Depletion of water resources: The surface and subsurface water are getting depleted
due to various reasons. Prime among them are the unplanned diversion of water
from rivers, unchecked exploitation of water resources for industrial and agricultural
purposes, acute pollution of reservoirs, etc. Depletion of water due to over exploitation
is leading to various hitherto unknown phenomenon. For instance, in early January,
2015 in the perennially drought prone district of Anantapur of Andhra Pradesh, ‘sink
holes’1 appeared in the Chitravati river bed. A massive such hole having a depth of
30 feet with a diameter of 25 feet was witnessed in Godduarri village of the district.
The sink hole was triggered due to a number of factors that included overexploitation
of groundwater and the absence of recharging of water table due to scanty rain falls.
4. Pollution: Polluted environment is causing problems of untold dimensions to the
population. No country, be it developed or developing, is free from the fallout of
pollutions. Pollution affects humans, flora and fauna as well as structure. For humans
it is causing high incidence of diseases. Such diseases are draining out budgets and
putting strain on the developmental pans of local government authorities. Productivity
of crops is severely affected due to pollution. Hitherto unknown pests have been
attacking vegetation affecting them severely. Being difficult to cope with adverse
effects of pollution, animals are threatened with extinction.

1. Sink holes are formed in soils having rocks of gypsum, dolomite, or limestone. These stones melt in the
water available in the sub surface, which could lead to sudden collapse into itself. Experiences show that
this phenomenon is caused by unchecked exploitation of water through innumerable bore wells.
192  Disaster Management

Vulnerability analysis
Vulnerability analysis is the process of identifying the vulnerable conditions that may be exposed
to natural hazards. In the event of an area being exposed to multiple hazards, this analysis has
to be carried out for each hazard. The vulnerabilities so identified can be depicted on maps.
This can be done either as a single vulnerability map for each hazard or even as a multi-hazard
vulnerability map. Vulnerability analysis will provide valuable information about the following:
The sectors at risk can be:
1. Physical vulnerabilities: Physical vulnerabilities can be the following:
(a) Buildings: The vulnerabilities of buildings are based on the location of the site,
the design, materials used for construction, construction techniques used, and its
proximity with other buildings. Each hazard would be based on the different
forces that affect the structures. As in the case of buildings, the vulnerabilities
of infrastructure are also specific and based on the type of hazard.
(b) Infrastructure: In considering infrastructure, three broad groups are to be
considered—they include transportation systems like roads, railways, bridges,
airports, etc., utilities like water supply, sewerage facilities and power supply;
and telecommunications network.
(c) Other critical facilities: Critical facilities are vital to the functioning of the
societies during times of disaster and are considered as lifelines. Examples include
hospitals and other essential services; emergency services; communications systems;
buildings and structures with cultural importance; and certain structures such as
dams that are essential to the long-term sustainability of the economy.
2. Social aspects: Social aspects like the vulnerable groups, their livelihoods, their
perception about the risk, the various local institutions, the level of poverty, etc.
Certain groups of people like single parent families, pregnant or lactating women,
mentally and physically handicapped people, children and the elderly require special
attention and focus. Certain other groups like migrants, people residing at remote
areas also require special attention. Risk perceptions for these groups have to be
assessed, and the required awareness programs have to be initiated. The structure and
content of such programmes should be based on factors like the level of poverty, the
perception towards such programmes and the frequency of hazards in the area.
3. Economic aspects: Economic aspects could include:
(a) Direct losses potential: Direct losses could include damage or destruction of
physical and social infrastructure and the likely cost incurred to repair or replace
it. It could also include costs related to the damages to crops and other means
of production.
(b) Indirect losses potential: Indirect losses include the impact due to loss of
production, employment, income generating activities, other vital services, as well
as a host of secondary effects like the epidemics that may occur as a result of
the hazard, the likely inflation in the society, the sufferings in the isolated areas,
and so on. While direct cost is easy to calculate, assessment of indirect costs is
difficult.
 Chapter 15 Vulnerability  193
The type of risk could include damage to the public infrastructure, the various production
facilities, housing, or other forms of casualties.

Evaluation of Resource Requirement

The next step, after vulnerability analysis, is evaluating the resources required for mitigation.
The requirement of resources for mitigation purposes is proportional to the level of each risk.
The evaluation of resource requirement will help in achieving a harmonious balance between
risks and the available resources. Proper and scientific disaster preparedness will help in
identifying the required resources well before the onset of the emergency situations.

Decision Making

The next step after vulnerability analysis, which has provided the required information, and
evaluation of resource requirement, is the ‘decision making’ with respect to safety levels.
Decision making has to be with respect to ‘who or what to protect’ as well as to ‘the level of
safety’. Various options are available for decision making. Some of them include:
(a) Not to proceed with any form of mitigation, as it would be prohibitively expensive
to provide protection, or the perceived risks are so minor to be accorded any
consideration.
(b) Proceed with further analysis about the degree of protection required and relative
priorities of assets or structures that need to be protected.
Decision making could include:
1. Economic appraisal: Economic appraisal that assesses disaster mitigation activities
has three different stages pertaining to cost-benefit analysis. The stages are:
(a) Enumeration of the benefits and costs of an anticipated activity so that the risk
can be reduced.
(b) Expressing the costs and benefits in money terms.
(c) Discounting all future benefits and costs to current value terms.
Based on economic appraisal, combined with a probabilistic estimate of the likelihood of
the hazard, the option as to whether the present value of proposed mitigation is positive and
greater than that of available alternative actions is assessed. This assessment is fraught with
certain methodological problems (Carter, 2008). They are:
(a) Quantification of the social, psychological, or political risks in terms of economics,
and monetarily assessing human life, emotional stress and strain, or political changes
is a tough proposition.
(b) Determining the monetary value of avoiding probable losses and disturbances are
near to impossible. Certain other difficulties include measuring the value of security
derived from living in disaster resistant house or areas, evaluating the political benefits
from government moves which imposes safe building codes, etc.
194  Disaster Management

(c) Arriving at a monetary value on the loss of certain nonrenewable national re-
sources like arable land lost through erosion, landslides or floods is a tough
proposition.
(d) There is also the methodological problem relating to discounting of future benefits
and costs and incorporating them into possible future disaster events. There are
also no ready solutions to resolve limitations regarding the assessment of costs
and benefits of mitigation measures.
2. Levels of safety and priorities for protection: Decision will also have to be taken
regarding the levels of safety and priority with respect to protection. Certain factors
that influence this decision are:
(a) availability of resources;
(b) the value of the area, economic assets, buildings or structures being protected
against other priorities;
(c) the standards set by each nation regard disaster protection; and
(d) the declared specific aims of mitigation.

Models of Vulnerability

One of the most important models that deal with the progression of vulnerability is the Disaster
Pressure and Release Model. The model was first published by Blaikie, et al. (1994) and
modified by Wisner, et al. (2004). The model suggests that certain underlying causes, dynamic
pressures and unsafe conditions contribute to vulnerability. Linking the causes, pressures and
conditions to an event that is hazardous could increase the risk. In this model, vulnerability is
depicted as the progression of three different stages:
1. Underlying causes: The underlying causes are a set of factors that are deep-rooted
within a society. These factors together form and maintain the vulnerability.
2. Dynamic pressures: This is the translating process that channels the varying effects
of a negative cause into a set of unsafe conditions. This process occurs due to a lack
of basic services, infrastructure or provisions. It could also occur from a series of
macro-forces prevalent in the community.
3. Unsafe conditions: This is the sage where the vulnerable contexts exposes people
property to the risks associated with disaster. A number of factors like the fragile
physical environment, an unstable economy, higher levels of population, low-income
levels, lower knowledge levels, etc. also add to the intensity of the disaster.
The significance of the model is that it depicts the progression of vulnerability that plays
an integral part in understanding community vulnerability and why they are susceptible to
risks associated with disasters. The main focus of the model, that is intended to reduce risks
in communities, is to put pressure on a significant number of developmental as well as socio-
political issues. The pressure through the progression of vulnerability needs to be reversed. The
model also helps in creating safe communities through risk reduction activities.
 Chapter 15 Vulnerability  195
References

Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., Davis, I. and Wisner, B. (1994). At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s
Vulnerability, and Disasters, London: Routledge.
Carter, W.N. (2008). Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook. Mandaluyong City,
Phil.: Asian Development Bank.
Jegillos, S. (1999). Fundamentals of disaster risk management: How are southeast Asian countries
addressing this? In Holloway, A., Risk, Sustainable Development and Disasters: Southern
Perspectives. Cape Town: Periperi Publications.
UNISDR (United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction). (2002). ISDR Background
Paper for WSSD. Geneva: UN.
Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T. and Davis, I. (2004). At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s
Vulnerability and Disasters, 2nd ed., London: Routledge.

Questions

1. Define vulnerability.
2. Write in detail about the factors of vulnerability.
3. How is sustainable development and vulnerability related?
4. What are the steps involved in vulnerability analysis? Elaborate.
5. Describe the models of vulnerability.
 16
Impact of Disasters

INTRODUCTION
Disasters can have national and international ramifications. Most Governments come under
heavy pressure when disaster strikes. This applies to developed and developing nations. Disaster
prone countries like Philippines and Bangladesh are stretched to their limit when disasters
strike. Even a country like USA found it difficult to cope when Katrina struck its eastern coast.
USA was compelled to accept aid from nations around the world during the days following
the land fall of Katrina.
Disasters can affect a nation’s stability and its standing and image before the international
community. The population expects a lot from their respective Governments at times of
disasters. Any bungling by the government will result in political backlash from the population.
This was evident subsequent to the major earthquake that struck Nepal in April 2015. Post-
disaster, the tolerance level of the population was put to ultimate test. The public were highly
uncomfortable, dispirited and doubtful about their political leadership. Such situations will
result in national and international effects and damage the nation’s prestige. They can also
have major repercussion on both current and long term developmental agendas. The effects of
disasters on the development arena are discussed in the following sections:

EFFECTS ON CURRENT DEVELOPMENT

In any nation disasters can have very serious effects on their current developmental plans. The
disaster may stall the contemporary progress and development, and it may take quite some
time before the economy is put to track. These effects will be evident in both revenue earning
and infrastructure areas. Some such effects include the flowing:
1. Loss of crops: Standing crops could be seriously damaged. In some instances crops
that have been developed over a period of time could be destroyed. For instance, when
196
 Chapter 16 Impact of Disasters  197
the tsunami struck the Indian coasts it destroyed large tracts of coconut plantations in
Southern parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In addition to affecting coconut oil output,
the destruction also resulted in destruction of the source of production—the coconut
trees. This could also include loss to agricultural implements, equipment, facilities
and so on.
2. Loss of livestock: Loss of livestock due to natural disasters or through outbreak
of animal disease could devastate valuable national resources and spell doom to the
farmers—especially small and marginal. For instance large number of poultry was
lost due to avian flu or was culled to prevent its spread in India in 2013 and 2014.
This led to large scale losses to livestock farmers.
3. Degradation of land: Land inundated by a cyclonic storm surge or tsunami could
be subjected to salinisation. This could have severe adverse consequences to the
food security of the communities. Example of this disaster includes the farm lands
in West Bengal that were inundated by saline water when the cyclone Ayila struck;
and the fields of Kerala and Tamil Nadu when the Tsunami struck its coastal areas.
Droughts could also result in degradation of soil, making the fields severely affected
and making it unsuitable to grow crops. These disasters could have immediate effect
on the domestic and export markets.
4. Infrastructure loss: Loss of infrastructure due to disasters could cripple the society.
Some such losses include:
(a) Loss of roads and bridges: Such losses would curb transportation and also delay
ongoing construction and other programs.
(b) Loss of buildings and facilities: Losses to buildings, machinery, etc. can hamper
developmental activities, and the conduct of business, commerce and other social
security schemes.
(c) Damage to harbours, wharfs and landing yards: Such damages will hit the
maritime transport capability drastically restricting transportation and commercial
activities.
(d) Loss to airport and aircrafts: These losses will also create serious constraints
as in the case of maritime loss.

EFFECTS ON LONG-TERM DEVELOPMENT

Disasters can have a cascading effect on ongoing programmes and could adversely affect the
long-term interests of the society. A disaster could lead to material and economic losses. Such
losses could cause delays in upstream projects and programs. Another effect is the loss of
viability of the disaster affected income generating schemes. For instance, a disaster stricken
coconut plantation could require near to a decade to be replaced. By this time the commercial
viability of the plantation would have been lost due to change in demand, tastes or even loss
of customers to other competitors. There is also the danger of long-term unsuitability of land
areas. There could be the cost of relocating of the communities involved. Another major long-
term effect includes deprivation of vital resources, which could affect developmental process.
198  Disaster Management

Replacement of such resources would involve time and money, thereby crippling the economy
further. Examples of such vital resources include communication facilities, power supplies,
roads and transportation, housing, water supplies, medical facility, loss of productivity of soils,
etc. Costs involved to bring such facilities on track would further detract the available resources,
adversely affecting the long-term development.
The planning process is another victim of the impact of disasters. In most economies the
developmental process is based on national development plans. The planning process could
be seriously upset in the event of a disaster striking. Causalities with respect to the planning
process include:
(a) Disruption of the current plan.
(b) Unanticipated delays in the planned process due to unexpected pressure on the
available resources.
(c) Impossibility of predicting and forecasting development progress and its likely status
at the end plan period.
(d) Disasters would also place impediments in the formulation and contents of the
subsequent national development plans.
Thus the rhythm of development may be lost, and threaten the subsequent plans in the
areas of forecasting, budgeting, planning and the implementation of developmental programmes.
Another undesirable effect of disasters is on the third party or international assistance
programmes. For instance, a funding agency or nation could have agreed on a five-year
programme in the area of health assistance. In the event of a disaster in between the
commencement of the programme, there would be a host of unexpected loss factors. This
could adversely affect the interests to the donor agency as well as the beneficiary country.
The donor agency could suffer serious losses and setbacks due to the disaster. For instance,
the donors would have to restart the work all over again, disregarding all its earlier efforts,
money and resources expended for the last couple of years.
Over and above all these factors, there is also the problem of the disaster significantly
weakening a nation’s capacity to absorb further future shocks. This problem would be severe
for developing countries. Developed countries with adequate resources and better resilience
will be able to cope with the impact of all these situations, counter setbacks efficiently, and
be right back on the path of development.

ATTITUDE OF DISASTER VICTIMS

Carter (2008) quoting Frost (1993), who has over 45 years of experience direct involvement
with disaster victims, identified the following post-disaster characteristics:
1. Devastation: This stage occurs when there is a state of general shock and a certain
element of numbness or failure to comprehend about the situation, and what has
actually occurred. At this stage, victims are often likely to burst into tears and repeat
certain things that have been indelibly imprinted on their memory. They may even
be incapacitated, either partly or completely, from comprehending the situation.
 Chapter 16 Impact of Disasters  199
2. Realisation: This phase develop when the person returns to the site of the
destroyed dwelling. They may search amid the rubble for specific items of value.
An overwhelming depression may descent on them due to the realisation of what has
occurred.
3. Rationalisation: In this stage the victims could starts assessing their past, present
and future. They may lament as to why it occurred to them, and even think that it
is God’s punishment. Rationalisation in its real sense will make people to think in
a constructive way and could make them to start all over again. Rationalisation will
also help them to assess what is best for future, and moving towards this direction.
4. Accusation: This is a phase wherein victims accuse people, whom they think have
been responsible for their suffering. With the advent of the mass and social media,
this has increased by leaps and bounds.
5. Accumulation: After accusation, accumulation starts creeping in. In this stage,
high levels of greed and avarice set in such that most victims involve in unsavory
behaviour and think in terms of what they would really like or want, which would
be much higher than their actual needs.
Though there will be variations of the above characteristics based on countries, regions
and circumstances; they provide an understanding about the frame of mind of victims involved
in the process of recovery.

References

Carter, W.N. (2008). Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook, Mandaluyong City,
Phil.: Asian Development Bank, 2008.
Frost, D.P. (1983). Report on a Major Bushfire, Chair, State Relief Committee, Australia: Victoria.

Questions

1. What are the major impacts of disasters on developmental process?

2. Briefly describe the various attitudes of disaster victims.
 Part III
DISASTER MITIGATION
 17
Disaster
Management

EVOLUTION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The concept of ‘disaster’ has undergone a remarkable transformation in terms of meaning
and content over a period of time. In the early days almost all the cultures considered
disasters as acts of God, or even as bad omen or luck. Some cultures considered disasters
as inevitable events that impacted human race due to his inability to please God. Some also
considered it as the wrath of God. Development in the field of science and technology gradually
transformed the thought process of the human race, and they started to look at disasters in an
altogether different manner. Modern man’s inquisitive mind started to investigate the intrinsic
nature of disasters, its causes and results, as well as the human reaction to it. The earliest
known work on disaster and risk within the discipline of social sciences can be traced to Carr,
as early as in 1932 and Sorokin (1942). Their work, more or less in similar nature, questioned
the influence of catastrophe on the then social patterns. Though their work did not evoke the
required responses at that point of time, they succeeded in influenced subsequent works in
the area.
Serious works in the area of disaster and risk were undertaken only after the World
War II. A large number of works were undertaken in the area in the 1950s and 1960s. Notable
among the works in the 1950s include that of Eldenman (1952); Fritz and Williams (1957);
Moore (1956); Powell, Rayner and Finesinger (1952); Quarantelli (1954, 1957); etc. Pioneering
studies in the 1960s include that of Drabek and Quarantelli (1967) and Dynes and Quarantelli
(1968). In the 1970s a large number of studies emerged in the area, with a new science taking
shape.
In the earlier period, the concept of disaster was approached from a social science and a
natural and physical science perspective. Further, major contributions to this area till the 1970s
were from European scholars. However, since the 1980s there were substantial contributions
from American scholars.
203
204  Disaster Management

Social Science Perspective

Social science provided emphasis on the reaction and perceptions of the communities during
and after emergency situations. It did not focus on the issue of risk, mitigation of risk and
disruption of services during or after an event (Cardona, 2003; Kreps, 1998). Social science
approached the study of disaster from the following three different perspectives (Gilbert, 1998):
1. Content research: Under this perspective disaster was viewed as a duplication of
war. It identified disaster as an external agent against which communities need react
(as if against an act of aggression).
2. Chronological development: This perspective views disaster as an expression of
social vulnerability. According to this disaster occurs as a result of certain community
logic or social processes.
3. Cleavages: According to this perspective disaster was perceived as an entrance to
a state of uncertainty. Identification and defining of disaster was seen something as
near to impossible. As such disaster is an attack on our perception and known reality.

Natural Science Perspective

The natural science perspective of disaster laid emphasis mostly on the hydro-meteorological,
geodynamic, technological and anthropogenic components of hazards. It focused on phenomena
such as earthquakes, floods, mudslides and rockslides, droughts, cyclones, industrial and other
transportation accidents, nuclear fallout, etc. The studies under this perspective were limited
to understanding the dynamics of various hazards (Smith, 2002). Attempts were also made
to determine the quantitative impact of such hazards on human beings, their physical assets
and the environment through simulations. Many experts, for instance Dombrowsky (1998),
have criticized this approach due to the inherent limitation that it is impossible to recreate
reality based merely on certain algorithms. Further, this approach failed to address the social,
economic, and political realities of countries affected by disasters. However, the natural sciences
perspective succeeded in bringing in the issues of probability and risk, and based them on
quantifiable hazard variables. The silver lining during this period was the shifting of focus to
‘risks’, rather than disaster.
The natural sciences perspective developed further in the 1980s. During this time it was
realized that disaster is not merely about the occurrence of the physical event; but the inability
of the affected community to tide over the impact, despite its limitations with respect to its
capacities and constraints (Lavell, 1999). Thereafter, the focus completely shifted to risk from
disaster.

Modern Perspective about Disaster

Modern understanding of disaster risk evolved from the social and natural sciences perspective.
It is derived from a variety of disciplines like sociology, anthropology, geography, geology,
architecture, agriculture, meteorology, economics, actuarial science, engineering, law, public
administration, etc. Two distinct schools of thought have developed with respect to disaster
 Chapter 17 Disaster Management  205
risk—Constructivist and Objectivist (Cardona, 2003). Both these schools of thought have
succeeded in bringing in a paradigm shift from the so called pure disaster oriented focus to
that of ‘disaster risk’. Kelman (2003) and Smith (2002) have provided ample inputs towards
this shift. These two schools of thought are now detailed.

Constructivism
This school of thought is also identified as realist school of thought (Cardona, 2003). In
constructivism risk is viewed as a behavioural or social construct. This approach considers the
social representations and perceptions, as well as the interaction between various social actors
and the given phenomena. It is inferred that disasters occur as a result of the conditions and
attitudes to risk rooted in the societies. These conditions and attitudes to risk are also based
on the economic conditions of the country. For instance in the developing and least developed
countries, the prevailing economic conditions force poor vulnerable societies to accept and face
risks. However, rich societies could have the resources and will power to avoid risks.

Objectivism
The objectivist school, also referred to as realist school has its base in the natural and physical
sciences. According to this school of thought, risk is something that can be quantified and
judged objectively. Focus of this school of thought, as such, was on the quantification of disaster
based on natural and physical sciences. Objectivism also brought in the economic and actuarial
sciences, which determined the quantum of risks through mathematical formulae.
Yet another view is that of Behavioural and Structural/physical paradigms (Smith, 2002).
However, experts now normally group the Behavioural paradigm under constructivism, and
Structural/physical paradigms under objectivism. Now the main point of discussion is—is
there a difference between disaster risk management and disaster management. The following
areas attempt to put in perspective the aspects of risk, risk management, disaster and disaster
management.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disaster Management (DM) is defined as ‘a continuous and integrated multi-sectoral, multi-
disciplinary process of planning and implementation of measures aimed at prevention &
mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery of disasters’. It aims to reduce, or avoid the
potential losses from hazards, assures the required prompt and appropriate assistance to victims
of the disaster, and aid in achieving rapid recovery. According to Warfield (2003) the primary
aim of DM is to promote sustainable human habitats, and their protection and recovery in the
event of disasters. It also aims to ensure the safety and development of habitats from disasters.
DM is concerned with the formulation and implementation of policies and practices that
reduces the risks associated with disasters. The main components of DM are:
1. Reduction in the existing levels of vulnerabilities,
2. Prevention and mitigation,
3. Responses to disasters, and
4. Rehabilitation and reconstruction.
206  Disaster Management

DM requires a holistic approach wherein all the stakeholders; including the various levels
of government, institutions and agencies; should be organised such that there is an effective
response and recovery from the disasters. DM is a sequence of events that provides for an
integrated prevention, mitigation and preparedness anticipating a disaster. In normal parlance
DM refers to all those programs, measures and steps that are designed to prevent, mitigate,
prepare for, respond to, and recover from the effects of disasters.

Monitoring and Evaluation

DM is often described as a ‘dynamic application of solutions to an uncertain and changing
set of challenges’. It is an ongoing process that evaluates the progress of various programs by
constant monitoring of the physical, social and economic environments. Monitoring is crucial
to maintain the dynamism of the DM system, so that it stays relevant for the prevailing local
conditions. Monitoring also provides inputs to determine whether there is a requirement for
the community to adjust its current level of preparedness. It should be comprehensive so
that all the components of the preparedness program are monitored. The components that need
to be provided extra thrust include the plans, staff skills and the resources. Other areas that
need be monitored include the information that are used or generated in the hazard assessment
process, in the risk management decision making process, mitigation and preparedness activities,
etc. There should be clear understanding about the personnel who are responsible for the
monitoring activities. A scientifically and systematically done monitoring would go a long
way in acting as an indicator of the level of preparedness and assess whether it is suited to
meet the perceived risks.
Due to the dynamic nature of the risks, there should also be an ongoing process of
evaluating the level of mitigation and preparedness measures, and identifying the shortcomings.
Evaluation of disaster preparedness can be best achieved by exercise. ‘Peer review’ is another
technique that would help in evaluating mitigation and preparedness plans and activities. Such
reviews can compare the solutions to common problems and review the decisions made. Peer
review would ensure that no unintentional bias has crept into the decision making process.
It would also help in looking at the problem in a fresh perspective. An integrated disaster
monitoring and evaluating system will ensure that the disaster management strategy delivers
the desired goals. It will also ensure that the disaster management program is implemented
as desired in the strategic plan. An Integrated Disaster Management Model is presented in
Figure 17.1.
An integrated disaster management will ensure that:
1. The impact of disasters are avoided or reduced,
2. Prompt assistance is provided to the victims, and
3. There is a rapid and effective recovery.

Disaster Management Cycle

DM is a cyclical process, wherein one phase initiates the other. However, it is not necessary
that one phase of the cycle has to be completed for the next to start. There is the possibility of
 Chapter 17 Disaster Management  207

Source: Manitoba Health (2002).

Figure 17.1 Integrated disaster management model.

several phases occurring concurrently. Timely and accurate decision making is required in each
phase for disaster mitigation. Such timely decisions would aid in greater preparedness, better
early warnings, reduced vulnerability to hazards, as well as prevention of future disasters. A
DM cycle (Figure 17.2) include varying aspects like drawing up and shaping of public policies
and plans having capability to address the causes of disasters, as well as their mitigation. This
would help in reducing adverse effects on people, property, and infrastructure.

Figure 17.2 Disaster management cycle.

208  Disaster Management

Each phase of the DM Cycle is now discussed in detail:

1. Mitigation: Mitigation involves all the measures that are put in place so that
the after effects of the disaster is minimised. Mitigation activities could involve
developing codes for buildings, zoning of the areas involved, land use management
and planning, conducting of vulnerability analyses, educating the public regarding
mitigation steps, etc. The effectiveness of mitigation will depend mainly on the
availability of information about hazards and the counter-measures implemented. The
measures of this phase are more curative in nature, than preventive.
2. Preparedness: Preparedness is planning in advance how to respond in the event of
a disaster. This step aims at ensuring preparedness in anticipation of a disaster, and
enables governments, organizations, communities and individuals to respond quickly
to disaster situations. Preparedness could include plans, emergency exercises/drills,
training the staff and the community, the advance warning systems, etc.
3. Response: Response involves initial actions that are taken as the actual event
unfolds. It could include a host of efforts and activities initiated to minimize the
hazards that may be created by the disaster. Response actions could include emergency
evacuation, search and rescue operations, emergency relief to those affected, etc. This
step provides affected communities with prompt assistance. All measures are focused
on minimizing the impacts created by the occurrence. This include evacuation of
victims, emergency medical assistance to affected, disaster control, providing food
and pure water, and other related assistance.
4. Recovery: This is a crucial phase in DM. Recovery involves returning the
community to the normal or an improved position. This phase ensures the rapid and
effective recovery from the impact of a disaster. It is expected that the affected areas
are put in a condition that is either equal to, or better than it was before the event
has occurred. Recovery could include reconstruction and rehabilitation activities like
temporary housing, clothing, food supplies, medical care, preventive health actions,
etc. Now post-disaster recovery is also considered as a developmental activity as it
that integrates with the overall development process, as it effects reconstruction and
development more effectively.
The first two phases occur as DM improvements are made in anticipation of a disaster.
It involves preparing the members of the community to effectively confront disasters. The
response phase is an urgent and generally a short-term phase. However, estimating its exact
duration depends on the type of disaster, its impact, and the extent of geographical scale. All
the other phases are long-term. Post-disaster phases especially disaster recovery, which involves
restoration, rehabilitation and reconstruction is now identified as a development activity, and
not just a disaster management activity. The disaster mitigation and preparedness phases are
also increasingly viewed as a developmental approach and is now incorporated as an integral
part of the development plan of the affected area.
The DM cycle is an ongoing process by which various stakeholders like Governments,
civil society and businesses plan in advance and reduce the impact of disasters. It also provides
the course of action to be taken at the time of disaster, during and immediately after a disaster.
It also provides the necessary steps for the recovery after the disaster. Appropriate planned
 Chapter 17 Disaster Management  209
actions at all phases of the DM cycle could lead to better preparedness and warnings, reduced
vulnerability, or even the prevention of disasters during the next iteration of the cycle. DM
cycle also involves the shaping of public policies and plans that could facilitate modification of
the causes of disasters; and mitigating their effects on people, property, and infrastructure. The
different phases of the cycle may not be in a sequence. It could occur in isolation, or could
even overlap. Further, the relative length of each phase could be dependent on the severity of
the disaster.
The steps in DM cycle could also be discussed in the following manner:
1. Pre-disaster: All activities taken to reduce human and property losses due to a
potential hazard are included under this head. Pre-disaster activities could include
carrying out awareness campaigns, strengthening the protective structures, preparation
of comprehensive disaster management plans at various levels, involving all stake
holders, and so on. The pre-disaster measures include the mitigation and preparedness
activities discussed earlier.
2. During a disaster occurrence: During a disaster, initiatives are taken to ensure
that all the needs and provisions of victims like food, shelter, medical care, etc. are
met and there sufferings are minimized to the maximum possible extend. Activities
taken during a disaster occurrence is called emergency response activities.
3. Post-disaster: All the initiatives taken subsequent to a disaster to achieve an early
recovery and the proper rehabilitation of affected communities for post-disaster
activities. These initiatives can be considered as recovery, as presented in the
above cycle.
The DM Cycle presents a range of initiatives that needs to be undertaken during the
Emergency response and Recovery stages of a disaster. While some activities cut across stages,
certain others are unique to each stage. For instance coordination and ongoing assistance cut
across all stages. Activities like Early Warning and Evacuation are done during Mitigation and
Preparedness stage. Reconstruction and Economic and Social Recovery are done during the
Recovery stage. Proper mitigation activities aid in preparedness since required improvements are
made in the society and the infrastructure, in anticipation of an event. Sustainable development is
a prerequisite that can facilitate a community to mitigate a disaster and improve the conditions.
DM involves itself in the immediate response to the disaster as well as in the long-term recovery
phases. The DM cycle is presented with all the constituents in Table 17.1.

STAKEHOLDERS
The word ‘stakeholders’ is commonly used in Disaster Management. The answer to the
question ‘Who are stakeholders?’ is not that easy. Since most disasters are dynamic and vary
considerably with respect to geographic scale, duration, and impact on people and structures;
the management processes will require the cooperation of various institutions from different
disciplines. The first stakeholder is the civil administration as it is their responsibility to manage
disasters. Other stakeholders include the district/local administration, police and para-military
forces, various ministries and departments of all levels, NGOs, and (inter)national aid agencies.
Based on need, some countries seek the assistance of the armed forces to manage disasters.
210  Disaster Management

Table 17.1 DM Process

Position Phase Details Constituents

• Risk analysis
• Vulnerability analysis
Reduces
the impacts • Zoning and land use management
Mitigation of disaster • Building codes and use regulations
on the • Safety codes
community
Pre disaster

• Preventive health care

• Public education
• Preparedness planning Education and training
Ensures Establishing communication systems
preparedness • Public information
Preparedness in
• Evacuation plans
anticipation
of a disaster • Creating resource inventories
• Mutual aid agreements
• Disaster control
Ensures • Medical services
prompt • Logistics and transport systems
Response assistance
to affected • Public works and infrastructure
population • Housing and shelter
Post disaster

• Food and water supply

• Supply of food and water
• Security
Ensures • Public health and sanitation
rapid and
Recovery • Communication
effective
recovery • Livelihood
• Education
• Environment

Almost all countries, including India, have well-defined organisational structure for
disaster management. Depending on the intensity, spread and duration of disasters, different
authorities are assigned responsibilities to mobilise the available resources at their disposal.
There are many NGOs, corporate and other private organisations that play significant roles in the
management of disasters. Certain international organizations like Red Cross, UNDP, USAID,
etc. also assist civil administration at times of disasters. The media, both print and electronic,
play their role through reporting of factual and ethical reporting of disaster situations. This was
evident when Katrina struck the eastern coast of USA. Of late the social media is also playing
a significant role in the instant reporting of disaster around the globe. All these players can
be considered as stakeholders of disaster management. The various functions, stakeholders and
their roles are presented in Table 17.2, which will bring out the complex web of DM.
 Chapter 17 Disaster Management  211
Table 17.2 Functions and Roles of Stakeholders in Disaster Management

Functions Stakeholders Roles/tasks

Fire fighting, handling of hazardous
Fire and rescue department, police, material, search and rescue operations, law
Disaster control
residents, people and order, transport, traffic management at
and near site
Law enforcement, protection of property,
Police, para-military, military,
Security crowd control, investigations, traffic regu-
home guard, security guards
lations
Civil supplies department, water Providing food, ensuring emergency fresh
Food and water
supply authorities, voluntary orga- water supply, maintenance of water supply
supply
nisations, NGOs lines
Department of health, hospitals, Emergency medical care at site, transpor-
Medical care clinics, voluntary organisations, tation of victims, medical care at hospitals
NGOs
Inspection of food and water to ensure
Health department, military and quality, emergency sanitary services, insect
Public health
para-military forces, municipal and vector control, emergency mortuary
and sanitation
authorities, dispensaries service, disposal of dead animals and bio
wastes
Transportation State transport authorities and Supply of provisions, traffic management,
and logistics departments, freight operators transport and handling of disaster aid
Municipal authorities, Public Temporary shelters, temporary and perma-
Housing and
works department, schools, private nent housing, shelter for evacuees
shelter
builders, NGOs
Ensuring the availability of communication,
Information centres, radio/TV sta-
Communication maintain emergency message system, docu-
tions, telecommunication providers
mentation of disasters
Electric supply authorities, munici- Providing emergency fuels, restoration and
Energy supply
pal authorities maintenance of electric supply lines
Damage assessment, restoration of essential
Public works department, municipal
Civil structures services, removal of debris, rebuilding of
authorities, private builders
damaged structures
Finance department, banks and Disaster related records, funds for disaster
Economy financial institutions, insurance related procurements, funds for rebuilding
companies livelihoods and economy
Department of home affairs, Public awareness, disaster management
Education
voluntary organisations, NGOs campaigns and exercises
Providing weather related information,
Department of environment, Meteo-
environment impact assessment, deter-
Environment rological authorizes, municipal
mining safety of structures, conservation
authorities, PWD, NGOs
of environment
212  Disaster Management

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org/we/inform/publications/657 Date of access: 15 April 2015.
United Nations International Strategy for Risk Reduction. (UNISDR) (2009). UNISDR Terminology
on Disaster Risk Reduction. [online] Available at: <http://www.unisdr.org/files/7817_
UNISDRTerminologyEnglish.pdf> [Accessed 25 APRIL 2015].

Questions

1. What are the various perspectives of disaster management?

2. Define disaster management.
3. Write a note about integrated disaster management.
4. Write in detail about disaster management cycle, describing its various phases.
5. Elaborate on the disaster management process.
6. Write in detail about the various stakeholders.
 18
Mitigation

INTRODUCTION
Mitigation is the set of actions taken well in advance of disasters to avoid or reduce disaster-
related damage. According to the NRC (2006) ‘hazard mitigation consists of practices that
are implemented before impact and provide passive protection at the time impact occurs’. It
involves all the actions that are intended to eliminate or reduce the risk from hazards to the
vulnerable community. Both the individuals and the community have the responsibility for risk
mitigation. At the community or local government level mitigation measures include appropriate
land-use practices, coastal zone management practices, building codes, and a host of other
long-term loss reduction techniques. It could also include preparedness for an event as well as
long-term risk reduction measures. Carter (2008) of Asian Development Bank provides a crisp
definition when he defines mitigation as ‘Measures aimed at reducing the impact of a natural
or man-made disaster on a nation or community’. The basic assumption of this definition is
that while certain disasters can be prevented,1 application of certain specific measures and
programs can moderate or reduce disaster effects.
Mitigation is prompted by the potential risk of a hazard, rather than an imminent threat.
It would help in reducing the risk by managing its likely impact, the vulnerability to the
community, or transferring the risk. Mitigation decisions consider aspects like costs, politics,
past experiences and a number of other related issues. There is no limit to what can be added to
the process of mitigation. It could range from moving vulnerable settlements to other locations
to avoid future losses, involving in specific projects like elevating buildings for flood protection,

1. Prevention involves all those measures that aim at impeding the occurrence of a disaster event and/or
preventing occurrences that may have harmful effects on the communities. Preventive measures could
include activities like constructing of a bund, a dam or levee to control floods, controlling the burning
hazardous plastics in cities to prevent breathing of poisonous fume, creation of ‘fire lines’ in the forested
areas to prevent fires from spreading into residential areas, etc.
214
 Chapter 18 Mitigation  215
to future mitigative activities like vulnerability analyses. Mitigation is also used to refer to
actions designed to contain impacts, taken after the occurrence of an event.

PRINCIPLES OF MITIGATION
Carter (2008) provides five principles of disaster mitigation (Table 18.1).
Table 18.1 Principles of Mitigation

S. No. Principle Description

Mitigation can be introduced within three diverse contexts that
include reconstruction, new investment, and the existing environment.
1 Initiation
Each context presents a set of different opportunities to introduce
appropriate safety measures.
Mitigation measures are complex and interdependent. It requires
an effective leadership and coordination, as they involve a web of
complex responsibilities from various areas.
Mitigation measures will become effective only in the event of safety
measures being spread through a wide diversity of integrated areas
and activities.
2 Management It would be better to carry on with the old adage—prevention is better
than cure. Proactiveness would be better than reactivity. It would
be ideal to take ‘active mitigation measures’ that lays emphasis on
incentives, rather than ‘passive mitigation measures’ that are based
on restrictive laws and controls.
Mitigation should be seen as being different from related elements of
disaster planning like preparedness, relief, and reconstruction.
Since mitigation involves dealing with limited resources, priority
3 Prioritisation should be accorded towards protection of key social groups, critical
services, and vital economic sectors.
Continuous monitoring and evaluation should be done on mitigation
Monitoring and
4 measures so as to respond to the dynamic patterns of hazards,
evaluation
vulnerability, and the available resources.
Appropriate steps should be taken to make the mitigation measures
sustainable as well as to resist public apathy during the long intervals
5 Institutionalisation between disasters.
Unstinted political commitment should be maintained as it is vital in
all stages of mitigation.

MITIGATION MEASURES
A few mitigation measures as identified by Carter (2008) are as under:
1. Strengthening buildings to make them resistant to cyclones, floods, earthquakes, and
other disasters.
216  Disaster Management

2. All future developmental structures and buildings to be built in such a manner that
hazard resistance are incorporated into it.
3. Planting only those types of crops that are less prone to disasters that are likely to
strike a particular area.
4. Altering cropping patterns and cycles in such a manner that it is possible to harvest
the crops prior to the onset of disasters prone seasons like flood or cyclone.
5. Adopting land-use patterns and controls such that developmental activities are not
carried out in high-risk areas.
6. Adoption of economic diversification so that losses in one sector are offset by
increased production or output in certain other sectors.
7. Education and training of the members of the society and officials dealing with
disaster mitigation about the need and modalities of mitigation activities.

HAZARD MITIGATION PRACTICES

Hazard mitigation practices can be either passive or active. Mitigation practices are presented
in Figure 18.1.

Figure 18.1 Mitigation practices.

The practices are detailed below:

1. Passive: These are practices implemented before the impact of the hazard and
provide passive protection during the actual occurrence. Passive mitigation activities
are further categorised into process/non-structural and project/structural mitigation.
While the former measures leads to policies, practices and projects that reduce risk;
the latter avoid or reduce damages occurring from the hazardous events.
2. Active: All the emergency preparedness involving development of the required
plans and procedures; recruitment and training of staff; and acquisition of facilities,
equipment, and materials required for the protection during emergency responses are
termed active practices.
The passive mitigation practices are of two types:

Process mitigation/Non-structural mitigation

This is aimed at managing the activities that is likely to make a community vulnerable or
contribute to the risk. These activities lead to policies, practices and projects intended to reduce
 Chapter 18 Mitigation  217
risk. Examples of such activities include assessing of hazards, vulnerability and risk; identifying
projects, policies and practices and setting priorities; educating decision makers and creating
political will; appropriate selection, design, funding and construction of projects; land-use
planning; building codes to reduce losses from earthquake and fires; and designing buildings
that could facilitate the required surveillance. This involves all those policies and practices
that would be raising the awareness regarding the hazards and encouraging developments that
would help in the reduction of the impact of the disasters.

Project mitigation/Structural mitigation

Structural mitigation techniques depend on physical measures to eliminate or reduce the risk.
This involves construction projects that could reduce the economic and social impacts from
hazards. Examples include projects undertaken to elevate, acquire and/or relocate buildings
and structures threatened or likely to be threatened by floods; strengthening of buildings to
resist earthquakes, or winds; and preventing floods though improving drainage facilities, land
conditions, and dams and levees. It could also involve disaster-proofing buildings and the
removal of buildings from hazard zones.
It is possible to put in place both structural and non-structural techniques at a facility
level. To be successful mitigation measures must be in place before an impact. A harmonious
blending of mitigation measures with response actions could also help in improving their
effectiveness. Another way to achieve effectiveness in mitigation is considering it as part of
normal planning and budgeting processes. In such a situation it would be easy to incorporate
elements of structural mitigation measures in the planning process or during the implementation
of new developmental projects.

Mitigation Strategies
The success of a mitigation strategy is the responsibility of the individuals, and the community
as a whole. Each individual and all the organisations within the community have to play their
respective roles to encourage and support mitigation activities. Mileti (1999) identified six
principles to make mitigation more effective and sustainable. They are:
1. Maintaining and enhancing environmental quality.
2. Maintaining and enhancing the quality of life.
3. Fostering local resiliency and responsibility for disasters.
4. Recognising that sustainable and vital local economies are essential for mitigation.
5. Identifying and ensuring both intra- and intergenerational equity.
6. Adopting a consensus-building approach, involving all levels, starting at the local
level.
There are two aspects pertaining to mitigation strategies. They are discussed below:
1. Hazard identification and vulnerability analysis: A hazard could lead to a series
of incidents like natural disasters, man-made incidents as well as resource crises. This
could be the concern of not just a few people, but the entire community. As such
the communities should be ever prepared to deal with hazards of various nature and
218  Disaster Management

intensities. However, in reality preparedness to a particular hazard or disaster could

increase the risk of another. This could be overcome by adapting the best possible
practices for the most likely scenario. It could also be ideal to be best prepared for
hazards that have the greatest potential. Vulnerability analysis can also be extended
to various social groups or economic sectors in the locality.
2. Adjusting normal development programmes to reduce losses: The adjustment
of normal development programmes is such a way that it could reduce potential
losses will go a long way in dealing with hazards. For example areas that are prone
to floods, droughts or cyclones can be planted with crops that are resistant to them.
Areas prone to earthquakes should have only quake resistant structures and buildings.
Certain other programmes that would help in the reduction of loss are the following:
(a) Economic diversification: There are certain areas wherein, in the event of
occurrence of a hazard, the principal source of the income could be threatened.
In such areas attempts should be made to diversify the economy. They should
also think in terms of introduction of such economic activities and enterprises
that are less vulnerable to the hazards.
(b) Developing disaster resistant economic activities: There are certain economic
activities that remain relatively unaffected by disasters. For instance, it would be
ideal to construct a warehouse in a highly populated area than a manufacturing
facility. Coconut plantations could be suitable than any other cultivation in a
coastal area that is prone to cyclone.
However, dealing with new generation hazards like chemical spills, ecological disasters,
explosions, and major transportation accidents are a matter of real concern; as their intensity
and impact are unpredictable. In such an instance, it would be ideal to decide on the most
likely hazards that could have the greatest potential to affect the area, and consider mitigation
strategies accordingly.
A mitigation strategy to be successful, there should be a full understanding about the
nature of the threat. This is because nature, location and intensity of hazards vary drastically.
For instance some areas are prone to floods or drought; certain coastal areas could be prone
to cyclonic storms, and there could also be the risk of earthquakes in other areas. Certain
countries, due to their level of industrial development, are prone to a combination of ecological
and technological hazards. The recent Fukushima nuclear accident initiated by the tsunami is an
example of this. The effects such hazards are likely to be devastating with damages extending
to people, their livelihoods and existing infrastructure. Due to these reasons, knowledge about
the hazards that are most likely to occur is an absolute necessity. A properly planned mitigation
measure will help in protecting people and structures, saving lives and reducing various costs.
It will also help in the preservation of properties and services, thereby limiting and eliminating
cost that may be involved in repairs and restoration. It will also help in reducing business
interruptions and the consequent costs involved.
For this to happen, mitigation should be accorded strategic importance. It should be
well thought out and planned in advance, and should in no way occur as a consequence of an
afterthought to the normal planning process. Through the integration of mitigation activities
to the overall development process, it would be possible to reduce the intensity of hazards as
well as the costs associated to it.
 Chapter 18 Mitigation  219
Requirements for Effective Mitigation
A few requirements for effective mitigation are the following:
1. A clear and comprehensive national disaster policy and mitigation measures that
addresses all related aspects of disaster management. It should ensure that mitigation
is given proper consideration and priority at all concerned levels.
2. Proper assessment and monitoring of hazards and its vulnerabilities. This will help
in identifying and defining the need for appropriate mitigation measures.
3. Proper support for various forms of traditional mitigation measures, where ever it
can be put to best use.
4. Accurate analysis of all reasonable and possible mitigation projects.
5. Readiness and willingness of the respective governments to institute and carry through
appropriate mitigation programs.
6. A clear organisation and planning that is centered on a permanent disaster management
center. This center has to keep a constant watch on all aspects of disaster management
and advice the government on needs for mitigation programs, and the priorities that
need to be applied.
7. Mitigation measures have to originate from various and all levels of Government,
including local.
8. Appropriate public awareness and education programs that would assist communities
in playing their respective part in mitigation measures.
9. All round support to self-reliance and self-help at the community level.
To effectively cope with issues, there is the need for a participatory approach that involves
all levels of governments, the communities and all others who are concerned to be valuable.
This approach can assist in identifying the needs, finding practical solutions to issues and a
sense of responsibility in implementing the various programmes.

References

Carter, W. Nick (2008). Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook, Mandaluyong

City, Phil.: Asian Development Bank, 2008.
Mileti, D., 1999. Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States.
Washington: Joseph Henry Press.

Questions

1. Elaborate on mitigation.
2. What are the principles of mitigation?
3. What are the various mitigation measures?
4. Describe about active and passive mitigation measures.
5. Describe about mitigation strategies.
6. What are the requirements of an effective mitigation?
 19
Response to
Natural Disasters

REDUCING DEFORESTATION
Reduction in deforestation can be achieved only through integrated development of forest
frontiers. The strategies should be based on the requirement of each particular region, as there
cannot be one solution for all problems. Any strategy would be failure if it is not capable of
eliciting the cooperation and goodwill of the stakeholders. Thus of effective implementation
of any strategy, there essentially should be stakeholder participation, development of
management plans, effective monitoring, enforcement and evaluation. All the strategies should
have quality of recognising the critical roles of national, state and local governments on one
hand, empowering the civil society and the corporate sector on the other hand. The civil
society and the corporate sector should work in close coordination, and should take a pro-active
role in reducing deforestation. A few possible steps that can help reduce deforestation are
presented below:

Reduction in Population Growth and Increase in Per Capita Income

Reduced population growth will go a long way in reducing deforestation. There should also be
an increase in the per capita income, which will help in reducing pressure on forests.

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

Many international organisations under the auspices of United Nations and the World Bank
have developed a host of programmes to curb deforestation. These schemes are implemented
through Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +). This is
done through the use of direct monetary or other incentives, so that developing countries are
encouraged to limit and roll back deforestation.
220
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  221
Increase in the Area and Standards for
the Management of Protected Areas

Protected areas help in conserving biodiversity. Tropical and temperate forests have the highest
proportions of their forests as protected, and boreal forests have the least. However, mere
declaration of a forest as protected area is insufficient, as without its proper management the
objectives would not be met.

Increase in the Area of Forest Reserved for

Timber Production/Forest Plantation

Lack of dedicated forests for timber production is an impediment for sustainable forest
management. Timber production offers long-term incentive to care for the long-term interests
of the forest. Appropriate steps to increase the area of forests reserved exclusively for timber
production will help in reducing deforestation considerably. Though this may not be possible
in all countries, it may be done in places where there are surplus land resources. In addition to
this there can also be an increase in the area of forest plantations. Towards this the vacant or
unused lands by the road sides, along railway tracts, avenues, boundaries and land not suited
for agricultural production can be utilised. If trees are planted outside forest areas, it will
considerably reduce the pressure on forests for timber, fodder and fuel-wood.

Increase in the Value of Forests

Governments can take steps to impose realistic prices on the stumpage and forest rent. The
revenue so earned can be invested in improving productivity and sustainability of forests.
Beneficiaries of forest services can be made to pay for the environmental services from them.
Many schemes have been implemented in various parts of the world to collect payments
for environmental services, like carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, catchment
protection, soil protecting, ecotourism, and so on. The livelihood of the poor stakeholders
bordering forests can be improved by ensuring rights and tenure, with equity in resource and
benefit sharing.

Sustainable Forest Management

The forests should be managed in such a manner that it is sustainable ecologically, economically
and socially. To achieve ecological sustainability extra care is to be taken to see that the
forests are not degraded in any way. The management should be such that it will not affect
the biodiversity, prevents soil erosion, soil fertility is not lost, and forest health and vitality
are safeguarded. For economic sustainability to be achieved, the developed world should be
prepared to transfer sustainable technologies and share costs. To achieve social sustainability, all
the stakeholders should be taken into confidence and be involved in all management activities.
222  Disaster Management

Encouraging Substitutes

Use of timber and related materials should be reduced to the minimum. Wood or other material
substitutes should be used where tropical or other timber is used. Another step that can be
taken is initiating a labelling scheme, wherein consumers can distinguish environmental friendly
timbers and make choices accordingly.

Participatory Forest Management and Rights

If forest management is to succeed, all parties in the frontier areas having interest in the fate
of forests should be involved in its planning, management and profit sharing. Towards this,
community participation in the state-owned tropical forests has to be encouraged. However,
restriction should be imposed on the extraction and conversions. Another area that need be
given priority is the recognition of traditional laws of the indigenous peoples and their rights.
Evidences show that wherever, the traditional communities have been given the due importance,
the rate of deforestation has come down drastically.

Strengthening of Government and Non-government

Institutions and Policies

A strong and stable government having will power is essential to reduce deforestation. Strong
environmental NGO’s can also contribute towards forest conservation, as they are better
equipped to bypass corruption and they are highly effective at advocacy and opinion building.

Increase Investment in Research, Education and Extension

The stakeholders should be provided training and education about ways and means to prevent
and reduce adverse environmental effects that are associated with deforestation and forestry
activities. Research would help in understanding various problems, its underlying cause and
mitigation. Paucity of funds has been delaying these activities. There is also a lack of knowledge
and information in the community about the importance of forests. Extension activities will
act as a bridge in dealing with this problem and educating the community of the complexities
regarding the ecological, economical, social, cultural and political factors of forests.

Improvement in the Information Base and Monitoring

Globally, there is paucity of information about forests and biodiversity. Knowledge about
forests is a prerequisite for managing it. New technologies like remote sensing have made
it possible to identify those areas where deforestation is occurring in an uncontrolled
manner. Such information will assist policy makers in framing appropriate rules, regulations
and policies.
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  223
Compliance of Policy and Regulatory Measures
Though a wide variety of policies, rules and regulations have been established, their enforcement
is not satisfactory. The respective Governments should take effective steps to ensure compliance
of these rules and regulations. Necessary modifications or adjustments are to be put in place
to update redundant and outdated rules. Further, the laws, policies and legislation should be
such that they encourage local people and institutions to participate in forest management and
conservation efforts. It should also safeguard the rights of the indigenous people.

SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT (SFM)

Sustainable Forest Development (SFM) ensures that the value derived from forests meet present
day needs, while ensuring that it maintains certain quantity and quality that are capable of
contributing to the long-term development needs. According to Helms (1998) SFM is:
the stewardship and use of forests and forest lands in a way, and at a rate, that maintains
their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality, and potential to fulfill,
now and in the future, relevant ecological, economic, and social functions at local,
national, and global levels, and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems—note
criteria for sustainable forestry include:
(a) conservation of biological diversity,
(b) maintenance of productive capacity of forest ecosystems,
(c) maintenance of forest ecosystem health and vitality,
(d) conservation and maintenance of soil and water resources,
(e) maintenance of forest contribution to global carbon cycles,
(f) maintenance and enhancement of long-term multiple socioeconomic benefits to meet
the needs of societies, and
(g) legal, institutional, and economic framework for forest conservation and sustainable
management.
SFM, according to this definition, includes protection as well as setting aside of areas to
be managed as plant or wildlife reserves to conserve biodiversity, maintaining the vitality and
productivity of the forest system, etc. It also includes maintenance of soil and water resources,
regeneration of wastelands and degraded forests and establishment of forest plantations. SFM
promotes integration of trees in farming landscape and agro-forestry.
Various national and international efforts have been initiated to develop appropriate
criteria and indicators for SFM. The efforts of World Commission on Forests and Sustainable
Development (WCFSD) are worthwhile in this regard. They proposed harmonisation of various
approaches and suggested that the criteria and indicators should be based on a strategy for SFM
reflecting several broadly applicable objectives. Some of them include:
1. Satisfying the needs for timber, fiber, and non-timber forest products,
2. Ensuring the conservation of soil and water,
3. Sustaining the resilience and renewal capacity of forests,
4. Supporting food security and livelihood needs of forest-dependent communities,
5. Conserving biological diversity,
224  Disaster Management

6. Achieving the various goals in a manner that is consistent with the incremental
productive capacity of forests and the requirements for ecological security,
7. Realising a more equitable sharing of benefits from uses to which the forests are
put to,
8. Increased management, cultivation, harvest, and utilisation of minor forest products as
potential pillars of sustainable forestry so as to sustain livelihoods from the available
resources,
9. Secure certain tenural rights of forest-dependent populations as a means of promoting
conservation, etc.
The Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) has also developed certain criteria
and indicators that are site specific and could help in the management of natural forests. CIFOR
developed the criteria and indicators based on their research in large-scale natural forests that
are managed for commercial timber production. Their criteria and indicators provide a useful
framework for evaluating environmental, social, and production aspects of SFM. There were
several concerted efforts from various quarters thereafter to establish criteria and indicators at
national and sub-national levels. This enabled in building on the international approaches as
well as in adapting them to the respective national and local forest conditions. The criteria have
also been redesigned at various levels to readily adapt it to different local conditions, tropical
plantations and community-managed forests.

SFM in India

India aims at sustainable development of 76.5 million ha of forests by implementing an ambitious

programme known as the National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP). The programme also
envisages enriching of tree cover over 31 million ha of forest land and also bringing over
29 million ha of non-forest area under tree cover through schemes like agro-forestry, farm
forestry, urban forestry, etc. This is as per the report submitted to the United Nations Forum
on Forests (UNFF), by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. The
programme, to be implemented by all States and Union territories would require a total
investment of about ` 1330 billion over next 20 years. Main areas to be covered include:

Protection of existing forest resources

This would help in broad aspects like forest protection, soil and water conservation, and
biodiversity conservation. This would be accomplished through surveying the forests,
demarcation and mapping, protecting the forest boundary, preparing inventory of forest
resources, prevention of illicit activities like thefts, pilferage and encroachment, control of
deforestation, establishing system of legal deterrents, biodiversity conservation, protected
area management, etc. This would be followed up with rationalisation of shifting cultivation,
settlement of tenural issues, preventing conversion of forests, protection of forests from grazing,
pests and diseases, protection against poaching and fire, control of desertification, watershed
protection, protection of fragile ecosystems including mangroves, development of conservation
strategy, ex situ and in situ conservation of genetic resources, joint forest management, eco-
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  225
development, ecotourism, introduction of appropriate incentives, strengthening working plan
and other related issues, etc. would also be undertaken.

Improvement of forest productivity

Under this it is envisaged to undertake:
• rehabilitation of degraded forests,
• research and technology development,
• development of non-wood and forest products, and
• assisting private initiatives with community participation.
This would help in bringing in improved technology, soil and water conservation,
regeneration, rehabilitation and afforestation, bio-prospecting, promoting better growth and
yield through better management, integrated management for wood and NWFPs, other forms of
multiple use management, increased use of lesser known and secondary species, etc. In addition
to this the valuation of forest derived services, and non-use values, domestication of species
both flora and fauna, research on short rotation, high yielding and genetically improved varieties
for plantations, nursery technology improvement, mixed cropping and multiple cropping, fuel
wood and pasture development, establishment of GIS, etc. is also envisaged.

Reduction of total demand

This would be accomplished by the efficient use of fuelwood and fodder, timber, and NWFPs.
These steps would reduce the demand on forests and forest products through techniques like
enhancing the technology of preservation, seasoning, substitutions, and other measures for
the efficient utilisation of forest products. It will also facilitate establishing extensive biomass
plantations, waste-free and low-impact harvesting of forest products, pre-harvest and post-
harvest operations, improvement of processing technology for high conversion factor and
reduced wastage, chemical treatments, better cooking practices through improved chullas and
alternative fuels, rotational grazing and stall feeding, promotion or substitution of solid wood,
reducing demand through market manipulation mechanisms, etc.

Strengthening of policy and institutional framework

By strengthening of policy and institutional framework it means maintaining:
• A central forestry administration,
• Central forestry institutions, and
• State forestry administration and institutions.
This also envisages development of infrastructure like buildings, communications, etc.,
and strengthening of staff including HRD. This is expected to cover aspects relating to capacity
building, forest policy and legislation, public forest administration and organisational structure,
research, planning and budgeting, rationalising the revenue system, safeguarding intellectual
property rights relating to forestry, development of data systems, investment analysis, monitoring
and evaluation, extension and public education, dissemination of information, etc.
226  Disaster Management

Expanding forest area

Expansion in forest area by:
• Planting trees on forest and non-forest lands, and
• People’s participation in plantations and its protection.
This is expected to be done by the creation of forest plantations through wasteland
reclamation, afforestation and promotion of agro-forestry, desert reclamation, strip plantations
along roads, railway lines, canals, farm forestry, urban forestry, shelterbelts, industrial
plantations, greening and landscaping, etc.

JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME

Since independence, India has initiated a number of programmes aimed at conserving forests.
Almost all these programmes failed to recognise the role of local people in forest management.
At times the local people were kept out of the forests and even selective logging was banned.
This led to untold miseries for the local communities which included acute shortages of
firewood, small timber, and non-timber forest products. To tide over this situation, the local
communities started taking initiatives to protect the available local forests. It is from this effort
that the Community-based Forest Management (CFM) systems evolved. This system has been
operating successfully in states like Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, etc. The
voluntary CFM was a prelude to the concept of Joint Forest Management (JFM). JFM is a
sustainable forest development initiative based on the socio-economic realities of the country
based on its multi-cultural and ethnic backgrounds. JFM involves in forest protection activities
and recognises the rights of the local people and protecting communities over forest lands.
JFM was initiated due to the realisation by the policy makers that forest protection activities
can succeed only if the involvement of the people living in and around protected forests is
ensured (Sulphey and Safeer, 2015).
JFM committees are initiated by the state and draw a lot of support from the Forest
Department as well as donor agencies, and NGOs. The first formal step towards JFM was taken
with the introduction of the National Forest Policy of 1988. The policy calls for involving the
villagers adjoining the forest areas in the rehabilitation of the degraded forests. JFM involves
local communities and the respective Forest Departments, making them to jointly plan and
implement forest regeneration programmes. The communities are rewarded for their efforts in
protection and management of the forests. Substantial areas of forests have so far been brought
under JFM. The programme has succeeded in protecting and conserving the existing forests,
regeneration of degraded forests, raising forest plantations, and contributing to carbon stocks.
The JFM strategy is to involve in participatory planning, which encompasses participatory
objective settings, strengthening of local institutional structures, management agreements,
monitoring, review, etc.
The basic element of JFM is to establish grass root level community based institutions
for the protection and management of forests. It empowers the local people through their
active participation as partners in the management of forest resources as well as in sharing the
benefits derived from its protection and management. Since JFM links forest development to
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  227
the overall development of land-based resources, it strives to optimise returns to the community
and to minimise conflicts. It also aims at building technical and managerial capability at the
grassroots level.

How JFM Works

JFM has a simple structure. The primary bodies, known as JFM Committees (JFMCs), are
sponsored by the Government through the Forest Department. The JFMCs are to be registered
with the respective Conservator of Forests. JFMCs can also be supported by certain other
donor agencies, NGOs, etc. A common structure is established among the committees in each
JFM village. They would cater to a particular village in the vicinity of a forest area and is the
implementing agency at the grassroot level.

Growth of JFM
JFM is presently an important intervention that facilitates the management of forest resources.
It recognises the livelihood and sustenance needs of various stakeholders through the principle
of ‘care and share’. The new guidelines issued by the Central Government calls for JFM to be
extended to the good forest areas. It also requires the increased participation of women. There
should also be proper monitoring of the programme, for which a JFM Cell has been set up in
the Ministry of Environment and Forest. In addition to this, a JFM Network has been set up
in the Ministry under the Chairmanship of the DGF & SS. The Network is mandated to collect
permanent feedbacks from all the stakeholders. All these measures has been taken so that the
JFM programme becomes the central point of all future forest development projects that would
be funded by the Government and related agencies.

CLIMATE CHANGE
As presented earlier, climate change is likely to cause a variety of untold miseries in diverse
proportions. Climate change is likely to threaten food production, increase water stress, result
in sea-level rise that could flood low lying areas including coastal settlements, and increase
the occurrence of diseases like malaria. Majority of the population in developing countries are
dependent on climate sensitive natural resources. They rely heavily on agriculture, forests and
fisheries for their livelihood.
Various countries are now adopting mitigation strategies to deal with climate change. A
few tools ideal for developing counties towards adaptation of climate change are the following:
1. Empowering of their communities to reduce vulnerability.
2. Education, training and awareness of the communities.
3. Introducing sustainable livelihood practices like rural development, providing
renewable energy technologies using local resources, etc.
4. Inclusive development of the society.
5. Appropriate insurance to protect against floods, drought, cyclone, crop damages, etc.
228  Disaster Management

6. Utilisation of environmentally-friendly technologies.

7. Research in areas related to adaptation so that resilience and coping capacity of
vulnerable communities are increased.

Dealing with the Effects of Climate Change

The implications of climate change can be local, regional and global. As such the preparedness
for adaptation and mitigation strategies must include mutually beneficial frameworks of
cooperation among all concerned. A good adaptation strategy should consider the socio-
economic and natural systems of the area, their sensitivity to climate change, and their inherent
ability to adapt to changes. Nations around the world are now putting in their best efforts to stop
climate change, help their citizens to adapt to the changes that have already occurred, as well
as to prepare them for future changes. All efforts taken in this direction by the Governments
are in close association with various international organisations. They work jointly to make
policies and strategies with respect to major issues pertaining to climate change. A few such
efforts taken at the national and international level are presented in the following sections.

National efforts
Now almost all Governments are putting in their best efforts, to mitigate climate change and
reduce the aftereffects. Some measures initiated include policy making, and adopting of fresh
approaches that will allow sustainable development and at the same time lessen the impact
of climate change. Developed countries are taking such steps that will reduce the emission
levels of GHGs considerably. Developing countries are being assisted by world bodies like
the UNFCC and other specialised international organisations with the required funds and
technology so that they can develop sustainable strategies for the reduction of GHG emission.
National Governments, with the assistance of UNFCCC and other organisations are also taking
safeguards to protect forests and other ecosystems that will help in mitigating and adapting to
climate change.

International efforts
At the international level the UN is involved in policy making. Since 1972, a number of
initiatives were taken up by the UN and its various bodies to address the problem of climate
change. The history of the international response to climate change is presented in Table 19.1.
Table 19.1 International Response to Climate Change

Year Effort Purpose

Stockholm Laid the foundation of the contemporary environmental
1972
Declaration policy.
Issued a declaration calling the world’s Governments
‘to foresee and prevent potential man-made changes in
World Climate
1979 climate that might be adverse to the well-being of humanity’.
Conference
Planned to establish a World Climate Programme (WCP)
under the joint responsibility of the World Meteorological
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  229
Year Effort Purpose
Organization (WMO), the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), and the International Council of
Scientific Unions (ICSU).
Also known as ‘Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer’, it dealt with a major group of
Montreal
1987 industrial gases, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). In the
Protocol
Protocol there was a wide consensus and effective action was
mobilised quickly to deal with ozone-depleting substances.
Inter- The panel was established by UNEP and WMO. It had the
governmental mandate to assess the state of existing knowledge about
1988 Panel on Climate the climate system and climate change; the environmental,
Change (IPCC) economic, and social impacts of climate change; and the
established possible response strategies.
IPCC released its The report confirmed the scientific evidence of climate
First change. The report had a powerful effect on the policy
1990
Assessment makers and the general public. It provided the basis for
Report negotiations on the Climate Change Conventions.
Approval of the Based on the approval, the Intergovernmental Negotiating
start of treaty Committee for a Framework Convention on Climate Change
1990
negotiations by (INC/FCCC) met for five sessions between February 1991
December
the UN General and May 1992.
Assembly
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) was signed by 154 states and the
European Community. The Earth Summit was the largest
ever gathering of Heads of State. Certain other agreements
1992 Earth Summit at
the Rio Declaration, the Agenda 21, the Convention on
June Rio de Janeiro
Biological Diversity, and Forest Principles were also adopted.
The Convention came into force on 21st March, 1994. The
Conference of the Parties (COP) was made the Convention’s
ultimate authority.
The first session Delegates from 117 Parties, 53 Observer States, over 2000
of COP (COP-1) observers and journalists participated in COP-1.
1995 held in Berlin
from 28th March
to 7th April.
IPCC finalises The report that was widely acclaimed was written and
1995 the Second reviewed by over 2000 scientists and experts from around
December Assessment the globe.
Report.
1997 Kyoto Protocol The high profile event (COP-3) in Kyoto, Japan was attended
December adopted by over 10,000 delegates, observers, and journalists.
230  Disaster Management

Year Effort Purpose

The Kyoto Protocol, the most significant legally binding
protocol, came into force on the 16th of February 2005. It
provides for quantified emission limitation and reduction
commitments for the developed countries, and mechanisms
2005 Kyoto Protocol
to facilitate review as well as compliance with the targets.
Under this protocol, the countries promised to reduce GHG
emissions and to look for alternate sources of energy that
will lead to lesser CO2 emissions.
This was adopted at the UNFCCC meeting in Bali, Indonesia
(COP 13). The countries agreed to a course of action for a
new negotiating process to tackle climate change. The goal
was to make decisions on aspects like what would be included
in a new agreement after the Kyoto Protocol. The UNFCCC
countries decided that addressing forest degradation was
2007 Bali Action Plan
also important and REDD was formed. Discussions also
have been done as to how REDD could be part of a new
agreement to reduce GHGs after the Kyoto Protocol ends in
2012. The Conference attracted a great deal of attention as
the Fourth Assessment Reports by the Inter-Governmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was released.
The Accra Declaration of UNCTAD, which took place on
25 April, stated that Climate change adaptation and
Accra mitigation need to be urgently addressed, in accordance with
2008
Declaration the provisions and principles of the UNFCCC and declared
that adequate financing and technology will be critical to
help developing countries to meet the challenge.
The accord which took place at Copenhagen, Denmark,
discussed several important points for a future agreement
which included commitments to reduce emissions and long-
Copenhagen
2009 term funding plans for supporting action to stop climate
Accord
change. Though not a legally binding agreement, this accord
is a step toward reaching agreement at the next annual
UNFCCC meeting in Cancun Mexico.
The UNFCC meeting at Cancun, Mexico, took place from
November 29 to December, 10, 2010. The meeting discussed
about differentiated actions and measurable support in the
form of finance and technology are required from developed
country emitters like the United States, the European Union, the
2010 United Kingdom, Germany, Japan and Russia for meaningful
November 29 actions in the developing countries, so as to achieve science-
Cancun
to based emission reduction targets in the short, medium and
December 10 long-term. Cancun concurred to agreements on measures
to establish frameworks for protecting the world’s forests,
establish Green Climate Fund to provide poorer countries
with the resources they need to adapt to and mitigate the
effects of climate change, and also a technology mechanism
that is meant to facilitate the sharing of clean technologies.
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  231
Year Effort Purpose
The post Kyoto arrangements were discussed at the Durban
Conference (COP 17). The Conference aims at reducing
November– the aggregate emissions of GHGs of Annex I parties by
December at least 25.40 per cent below 1990 levels by 2020. The
Durban
2011 commitment period would begin on 1st January 2013 and end
either on 31st December of 2017 or 2020. The rationalisation
of Green Climate Fund and making it more effective is also
envisaged.
The conference (COP 18) aims at social and economic
November– development and poverty eradication of developing
December countries. It views low-emission development strategy as
Doha
2012 central to sustainable development. It is expected that the
share of global emissions from developing countries would
grow.
In the Conference (COP 19) member states agreed to work
towards curbing emissions as soon as possible, targeting the
November
Warsaw first quarter of 2015. Talks were also focused on the aid
2013
that developed countries would pay to help cut emissions
by developing countries.
The conference (COP 20) aimed at reducing GHGs to
December
Lima limit the global temperature increase to 2°C above current
2014
levels.
The Conference (COP 21) intends to reduce GHGs emissions
2015 Paris and to limit the global temperature increase to 2°C above
pre-industrial levels.
Source: Sulphey and Safeer (2015).

MITIGATION OF FLOODS
Floods are local and short-lived events that happen suddenly and mostly without any warning.
Most floods occur due to intense storms that produce higher levels of runoff than the area
can store, or a river/stream can carry within its normal capacity. Rivers could also flood its
surroundings in the event of dams failing, due to landslide or ice blocking the course of the
river, as well as when snow melts rapidly.
Due to the unique topography and climatic characteristics of the Indian Sub-continent,
many of its parts are susceptible to different types of disasters. It is estimated that over four
crore hectares of land is vulnerable to floods, and about 54 per cent to earthquakes. Such
disasters lead to enormous economic losses, demanding additional revenues. There is also the
probability of reduced revenues from affected regions. The unexpected and unplanned budgetary
allocation towards disaster recovery could hamper developmental activities and result in various
unmet, planned developmental targets. Flood is one of the most common natural disasters that
need to be coped.
232  Disaster Management

Some Important Facts

Various Types of Floods
River flood: Flooding of rivers occur natural and frequently. While most floods occur seasonally
during monsoon or spring rains, torrential rains could also produce flooding.
Coastal flood: Ocean water is driven to the shore due to winds generated from tropical storms
and hurricanes, tsunamis, tidal waves, or offshore low-pressure systems. This flooding that drives
ocean water inland is known as coastal flooding.
Urban flood: Due to urbanisation, the land loses its ability to absorb runoff. During rainy seasons
streets are converted into swift moving rivers due to inadequate carrying capacity of drains, and
the entire area becomes flooded with water.
Flash flood: Flash floods are floods that rise rapidly and fall even faster. It allows scope for
little or no advance warning. Flash floods occur usually due to intense excessive rainfall over a
relatively small area. Other reasons include failure of dam, or landslides.
Ice jam: Ice jam is a dam like natural or artificial obstruction due to accumulation of ice,
stopping the flow of water and causing floods. Rapid melting of snow can also cause floods.

An ideal strategy to tackle flood is to proactively manage them. This requires the
identification of the risk, development of strategies to reduce the risk, and creation and
implementation of policies and programmes. This would help in evaluation of all the schemes
so that the overall risks are reduced. The relevant steps in this direction include assessing the
potential of the hazard to occur, conducting vulnerability analysis to have an understanding
about the consequences in case an event occurs in certain magnitude and frequency. Thereafter,
various mitigation measures can be decided and their ability for reducing risk be assessed.
Based on this appropriate disaster management plans and specific mitigation measures can be
identified. The chosen mitigation plan should then be implemented in the right earnest. Other
steps include preparation of detailed maps of the flood-prone areas, developing an acceptable
level of risk through participatory process, and evaluation process. All these steps would enable
the community in better understanding of the various actions that can decrease the particular
risk exposure, and the resultant participation of the community in developing appropriate
solutions to flooding problems.

Zoning
The most ideal course in dealing with floods is to define several zones within the flood-prone
area, depending on the velocity of the river and certain other physical factors. The flood-prone
area may be classified as components like floodway and flood plain (Figure 19.1).

Floodway
Floodway is the normal river channel and an expanded high water area. It is identified using
the flood frequency or extreme event information. It is that part of the flood-prone area that
usually has high velocities, high potential for soil erosion, and high exposure to flow of
significant quantities of debris. Only critical infrastructure such as bridges is to be allowed in
the floodway. The floodway is as such to be reserved for the river and not for humans.
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  233

Figure 19.1 Flood zoning.

Flood plain
Flood plain is that residual area outside of the floodway wherein the water velocities are
usually less. In this area flood protection activities as well as flood-proofing measures may be
considered. Zoning a river based on floodway and flood plain is known as two-zone approach.
One-zone approach is used when no incompatible development exists in the floodway, and no
234  Disaster Management

fresh incompatible development will be allowed. At times areas beyond the flood plain may also
be subject to flooding by rare events. The 2014 flooding in Uttarakhand was a classical example
of this. Zoning of rivers and flood proofing measures will help in controlling development,
hence reducing flood damages. However, the effectiveness of these measures is dependent on
enforcement and maintenance of the plans.

Delineation of Flood Areas

Various designs are available to map and delineate an area that is likely to be affected by
floodwaters. Such designs are based on “acceptable” level of risk. A few approaches that are
adopted to arrive at such designs are:
1. To arrive at an acceptable level, a historical worst-case scenario approach (an event
that has happened in the river basin or could most likely happen also known as storm
transposition) is made use of.
2. A second approach is to create a theoretical model maximising the meteorological
factors, which could happen in the given area, leading to the worst possible flood
conditions.
3. Yet another approach is to use a probability analysis wherein the actual records
and historical information on the past flooding are used to develop a probability of
occurrence and its magnitude.

Measures to Combat Flooding

Experiences show that one of the most common reasons for aggravation of flood problem is
illegal encroachments into the flood plains over the past few years. To mitigate this problem
there is the need to take various structural and non-structural measures. Structural measures
for flood management are physical in nature, and are aimed at preventing flood waters from
reaching residential or other areas. Here we ‘keep water away from people’. Non-structural
measures are involved in ‘keeping people away from flood waters’.
1. Structural measures: A number of structural measures are adopted to control
floods. A few such measures are:
(a) Construction of embankments: One of the most important and popular structural
measures for control of flood is construction of embankments. Embankments,
including ring bunds and town-protection works, are one of the most popular
structural measures for flood protection. Embankment restricts the flow of
river within its existing course and prevents it from overflowing the banks.
Embankments are normally constructed with materials that are easily available
in the nearby areas. However, in areas where land is very expensive, concrete or
masonry floodwalls are constructed to serve as embankments. Embankments have
traditionally provided an array of positive benefits through ensuring protection
against floods and river spills. Embankments on which roads have been built
have provided useful connection and communication links. During floods these
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  235
roads are the only means of escape and communication for the local populace.
There are however, divergent views about the utility of embankments as a means
for flood protection. Certain NGOs have voiced serious criticism about using
embankments as a measure of flood prevention. However, there are others who
favour construction of further embankments to mitigate flood problem. Breaches in
embankments have time and again resulted in large-scale inundation of protected
areas. There are also a number of drawbacks for embankments. For instance, such
structures could lead to poor drainage in the protected areas, thereby leading to
drainage congestions. Other problems include deposition of silt in the protected
area and the consequent and rise in bed levels. This would decrease the carrying
capacity of the river, thereby aggravating drainage congestion. They also tend
to interfere with the natural drainage system, thereby depriving the protected
areas of fertile soil and groundwater recharge. These concerns are usually met
through proper design of the embankments. Some such measures include locating
embankments away from active river edge; maintaining sufficient space between
the embankments; maintaining adequate height, width, slopes, etc. Other measures
include providing the required number of sluices of adequate size and capacity for
drainage and spilling so as to allow water from the river to spill to the protected
area after the river water reaches a certain level.
(b) Dams and reservoirs: Lakes, dams, tanks, and reservoirs (both natural and
manmade) store significant quantities of floodwater, thereby reducing the propensity
of flood. Waters stored in such places can also be used subsequently for irrigation,
power generation, and other needs.
(c) Channel improvement: Channel can also be constructed to carry flood discharges.
However this is an expensive affair and hence not resorted to widely in India.
However, in areas where channels have been built, it goes a long way in mitigating
floods.
(d) Watershed management: Alluvial Rivers are usually prone to erosion and silting
at various locations. There is a natural phenomenon of loss of land at one location
and gain at some other due to erosion and silting. The general tendency is of
a progressive meandering downstream. There is the possibility of bank erosions
upstream, which should be taken care of thorough protection of the banks.
Desilting or dredging of rivers where the rivers emerge from the hills into the
plains, at convex bends and near their outfall into another river or lake or sea,
will help in devouring the river of silt. This will help in increasing the depth of
the rivers, thereby reducing the possibility of floods. This step is however yet to
gain traction in India.
(e) Diversion of flood water: Diverting parts of the discharge from a river into
a natural or artificial channel outside the flood plains will help in reducing
floods. The water so diverted should not be returned downstream, and can be
drained into a lake or sea. This has been successfully used in India. Examples
include the flood spill channel of Srinagar city, and the supplementary drain in
Delhi. These channels divert excess water and prevent flooding of large tracts of
urban areas.
236  Disaster Management

(f) Drainage improvement: Absence of surface water drainage or clogging of

drainage systems results in flooding in many areas. Improving the capacity and
efficacy of the drains in such areas can effectively control flood. Care should
be exercised to see that natural drainage channels are kept free of reclamation,
clogging and illegal encroachments, so that congestion and water-logging can be
avoided.
(g) Catchment area treatment/afforestation: Watershed management measures like
developing the vegetative cover and conservation of soil at catchment areas can
help in reducing runoff and the consequent soil erosion. This can be achieved
through afforestation, and structural works like check dams, detention basins, etc.
This however should be done taking into consideration the ecological sensitivities.
(h) Prevention of bank erosion: There are a host of measures that can be taken to
minimise bank erosion. Such steps will help in deflecting the force of water current
away from the river bank. One of the measures is the revetment or pitching, along
with launching apron and spurs of earth protected by armour of stones or stones
in wire-mesh crates that are aimed at increasing resistance of the bank to erosion
and at the same time deflecting the current away from the bank. Other measures
include permeable spurs, porcupine spurs constructed either of bamboos or RCC
that could reduce the velocity of flow, thereby preventing erosion or siltation near
the banks. Recently geo-synthetic material or woven geo-textiles have been used
in India in various forms like big bags and tubes in a highly successful manner.
These geo-textiles are filled in-site with riverbed sand to form groynes, spurs and
revetments, as the case may be.
(i) Coastal protection works: Sea erosion is a serious problem in various parts
of India. Construction of sea walls and coastal protection works in the form of
groynes help in preventing erosion in coastal areas. Of late planting of mangrove
trees along the coast is also taken up in a big way to prevent sea erosion.
2. Non-structural measures: Steps taken to keep people away from flood waters are
non-structural measures. Such measures strive to use the flood plains judiciously.
Such steps also permit vacating of the flood plains as and when required. This would
allow the use of flood plains in such a manner that disasters are reduced to a very
large extent. A few non-structural measures used include:
(a) Flood forecasting and warning: The prime non-structural measure that needs
to be taken in the event of a flood is forecasting and warning. This step helps
in forewarning the general population as to when the river will flood its flood
plain, to what extent, and the duration.
(b) Flood plain zoning: Overflow by rivers along flood plains during heavy downpour
is natural. It is often the extensive and unplanned use of flood plains that leads
to disasters. Flood plain zoning helps in regulating the use of land in the flood
plains so that the damages due to floods are restricted.
(c) Flood proofing: Flood proofing measures would help in the mitigation of
distress and provide immediate relief to people in flood prone areas. It involves
a combination of structural change and certain emergency actions. This measure,
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  237
however, does not involve evacuation of people. Some techniques for flood
proofing include providing raised platforms for flood shelter, raising public
utility installation like drinking water hand pumps and bore wells above flood
level, construction of double-storied buildings so that the first floor can be used
as shelter during floods. Other measures include relocation to safer areas certain
vital installations, like electric power houses/sub-stations, telephone exchanges,
drinking water pumping stations, etc.
(d) Redevelopment of flood-prone areas: A major flood disaster, at times, may
provide an opportunity to the planners to correct planning errors. For instance the
planners can remove flood-prone development that is detrimental to the community
so as to avoid future development. They can also prohibit improvements or place
caveats on disaster prone areas.
Floods, in addition to certain direct effects like drowning, injuries, diarrhoea, vector-and
rodent-borne diseases like malaria, leptospirosis, and skin and eye infections; are also likely
to cause a host of indirect consequences like damage to crops and disruption of food supplies,
damage to water and sanitation infrastructure, health care infrastructure, loss of essential drugs,
destruction of property, etc. The affected population is also likely to be affected by severe
psychological stress. As such, there is also the need for certain level of medical preparedness.
A few steps in this direction include:
1. Creating awareness: Awareness should be created among all medical teams and
the community regarding the type of illnesses and other health related problems that
can occur as a result of the aftermath of floods. They should also be made aware
of the need for hand washing using detergents, use of the toilet for defecation, safe
food cooking by disease-free persons, etc.
2. Evacuation plan: There should be an appropriate evacuation plan in force. Emergency
medical equipment, drugs and trained paramedical staff, etc. should be made available
by the State Governments. Ambulance including Heli-ambulances (depending on the
topography of the state) should be deployed for evacuating flood casualties.
3. Essential medical supplies: All essential medical supplies including drugs,
intravenous (IV) fluid, oxygen, dressing materials, antibiotics, vaccines, anti-snake
venom and anti-diarrhea drugs must be readily available. The government should also
identify medical stores from where large scale purchases of materials can be effected.

Supportive Technologies
There are a host of supportive technologies that can help decision makers to reduce flood
damage. It can also be used to communicate to the public about real time forecasts and warnings.
Most of such tools are flexible, interactive and provide visual and quantitative information
regarding the state of affairs of the event. A few such tools are provided below:

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

GIS provides computer-based information that support for forecasting and emergency responses.
238  Disaster Management

The system is capable of combining information from a variety of sources and scales as a series
of layers. Information about land use, flood plain delineation, and related aspects will help in
developing and updating the required emergency response plans. Representation of the basin
topography will also assist in flood forecasting, emergency action and mitigation. For instance,
it is possible to create a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) or Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for
river basins as part of GIS.

Visualisation techniques
It is possible to generate a wide range of presentational materials using GIS and other computer-
based information. It is possible to create tailor made materials for any target audience. An
array of techniques like three dimensional displays, zoom and rotational techniques can be
combined with other informational material such as pictures and overheads presentations. Such
materials can be used to convey to the residents in the flood plains and convey to them the
probable impact of an imminent flood.

Guidelines for Management of Floods in India

The Disaster Management Guidelines: Management of Floods (2008) identified the

following activities (Table 19.3); to be implemented in three phases, for the minimisation of
flood risk and losses. The schedule for completion was also stated in the Guidelines:
Table 19.3 Different Phases of Management of Floods as per
the Disaster Management Guidelines 2008

Phase Activities
Phase-I activities include:
(a) identification and marking of flood prone areas on maps,
(b) preparation of close contour and flood vulnerability maps,
(c) formulation of plans for expansion and modernisation of flood forecasting and warning
systems,
I (d) identification of the priority flood protection and drainage improvement works,
(e) review and modification of operation manuals and rule curves and
(f) undertaking special studies on problems of river erosion.
These activities were to be initiated immediately and efforts are to be taken to complete
them in a phased manner. The last date for completion of these activities was scheduled
to be January 2010.
This phase include:
(a) implementation of the schemes for expansion and modernisation of the flood
forecasting and warning network,
II (b) execution of flood protection and drainage improvement schemes,
(c) modification and adoption of revised reservoir operation manuals,
(d) enactment and enforcement of flood plain zoning regulations and
(e) planning and preparation of Detailed Project Reports for storage reservoirs and
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  239
(f) implementation of schemes for real-time collection of hydro-meteorological data about
rivers in Nepal, Bhutan and China.
These activities were to be commenced immediately, on completion of the link activities
of Phase-I. It is schedule to be completed by March 2012.
This phase involves implementation of the activities like construction of dams and
catchment area treatment (CAT) works in India and neighbouring countries. It is likely
to take considerable time, as it involves major environmental, social, inter-state and
III international implications. This phase require careful scientific study and close interaction
with various stakeholders.
It is expected to complete these schemes by 2025.

In addition, the following recurring activities were also proposed:

(a) inspection of dams, embankments and other structural measures,
(b) execution of restoration and strengthening works and expansion and
(c) modernisation of flood forecasting and warning systems.
These activities are expected to be taken on a regular basis so that the effectiveness and
sustainability of various measures for minimising flood risk are ensured. Further, the relevance
and status of various activities would be continuously monitored and reviewed. Modifications,
as required, would be done based on necessity. Other recurring activities include:
(a) Reviewing the preparedness of various Central and State Government Ministries and
Departments every April/May,
(b) Taking appropriate corrective measures before commencement of monsoon,
(c) Post-monsoon review every November/December, so that the action plan for
preparatory measures to be implemented are finalised before the onset of the next
monsoon.

DROUGHT
The peculiarities of drought include prolonged periods, involvement of large areas, and its
effects. The main impact of drought can be evident on agriculture, livestock, and human
habitation. Drought could also lead to prolonged food shortages or famine. The long-term
effects of drought can include severe economic loss, impossibility of future habitation, and
abandonment of large tracts of land.

Measures for Combating Drought

There is not easy or quick solution to the problem of drought. A few responses that are ideal
for drought-caused emergencies include:
• providing food and water supply,
• medical and health assistance, including monitoring of epidemics, and
• emergency accommodation.
240  Disaster Management

Most measures for dealing with drought are long term in nature, and hence involve policy
decisions of the national governments. There should be special land management plans and
information programs. In coping with drought, international assistance also has a major role
to play. Many sensitive issues are also involved in measures that deal with drought. There is
certain problem areas associated with drought relief work. For instance, response requirements
like feeding programs may have to be extensive and prolonged. This would thus require
major commitment and expenditure of various types of resources. There is also the problem
of prolonged droughts undermining the self-reliance of affected communities. This would
make it difficult for the Government and various aid agencies to withdraw from the disaster
management assistance.

EARTHQUAKE

A number of steps can be considered to deal with earthquake damages. Some of them derived
from Carter (2008) include:

1. Land use planning: Earthquake risks can be mitigated to a very great extent
through proper land use planning.
2. Technical assistance: Technical assistance information programmes need to be
developed for homeowners and they have to be taught how to strengthen their houses
seismically. This could act as an effective mitigation activity.
3. Building code: All local government authorities need to be encouraged to adopt
and enforce updated building code provisions. This would go a long way in reducing
earthquake damage risk. Further, information sessions and other forms of outreach
on seismic code provisions can be done, in addition to encouraging enhanced code
use and enforcement by various stakeholders.
4. Infrastructure hardening: Critical infrastructure can be identified and hardened to
meet specific standards, so that it is possible to manage earthquakes in such a manner
that no social and economic catastrophes are created.
5. Hazard mitigation awareness: Local governments can build awareness about
earthquake hazard, the risks that are posed to the buildings and infrastructure, as well
as the mitigation activities that need to be undertaken in the event of an earthquake
strike.
6. Non-structural hazards: Certain activities that can reduce the risk of injury and
damage can be carried out like anchoring racks and file cabinets, installing latches
on drawers and other cabinet doors, fixing electronic and other appliances, using of
flexible connections for gas and water lines as far as possible, as well as anchoring
and bracing other items/equipment sufficiently.
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  241
Some Important Facts
Do’s for Search and Rescue Operations
• Keep calm,
• Make a thorough assessment prior to rescue,
• Take maximum safety while removing debris from the vicinity of the casualty,
• Provide First Aid and facilitate proper breathing if required,
• Cover the patient with a blanket or tarpaulin to protect from further injury,
• Use sharpened tools carefully when moving the casualties,
• Loosen the clothing and keep the patient lying down and warm,
• Give artificial respiration, if required, and take steps to control bleeding
Don’ts
• panic,
• start rescue work until equipped with adequate information,
• pull timber out of the wreckage as it may cause further collapse,
• carelessly move an injured casualty,
• expose to adverse conditions,
• crawl over the debris or walk on the damaged structure,
• touch live electric wiring,
• violate any safety measures.

For effective management of earthquake disaster, certain steps are to be taken before,
during and after the earthquake. They are:

Before an earthquake
The steps to be taken before earthquake are:
1. Check for hazards in the home: Identify the items that might fall and could shatter,
dangerous substances that are likely to spill and cause injuries, faulty electrical and
gas connections and related apparatuses, etc. All such equipment and apparatuses are
to be secured and repaired of deficiencies.
2. Identify safe places: Safe places which could provide protection—both indoors and
outdoors, have to be identified. This could be heavy desk or table, places away from
buildings, structures, electric posts, and other items that might collapse.
3. Update self and family members: It has to be made sure that everyone is in the
know of what to do and not to do, in the event of an earthquake.
4. Have adequate disaster supplies on hand: Adequate disaster supplies like
flashlights and batteries, first aid kits, emergency food and water, medicines, cash,
etc. should be maintained.
5. Develop an emergency communication plan: Most communication systems like
telephone and cellphones may not work in the event of a natural disaster. As such,
there should be in place an emergency communication plan. Satellite phones and
Ham Radio have been found to the ideal in such emergency situations.
242  Disaster Management

During an Earthquake
During an earthquake one should minimise his movements to a few steps to a nearby safe place.
If one is indoors, he/she should stay in a safe place until the shaking has stopped. One should
exit the place only when it is sure that it is safe. If indoors, one should drop and cover, get
under a sturdy table, and hold on till the shaking stops. If there is no protection available in the
room, then it is better to crouch in an inside corner of the room. One should stay away from
glass and items that might shatter or break and fall. Care should be taken not to use elevators.
If outdoors one should stay where he/she is. One should move away from structures
like buildings, electric posts and wires, or anything that has the probability of falling. If in a
moving vehicle one should stop as quickly as possible and stay inside the vehicle. Care should
be taken to stay away from buildings, trees, overpasses, and electric posts or wires. Once the
shaking has stopped, caution should be taking while proceeding. Roads, bridges, or flyovers
that might have been damaged should be avoided.
If trapped under debris, care should be taken not to light matches, move about, or kick
up dust. The mouth should be covered with a handkerchief or clothing. One should keep
on tapping on a pipe or wall or whistle (if one is available), so that rescuers can locate the
place. Each one should shout only as a last resort, as it would cause inhalation of dangerously
higher amounts of dust. One should also have the awareness that the early earthquakes could
be foreshocks of a larger earthquake that might follow.

After an Earthquake
After an earthquake the steps to be taken include:
1. Listen to a battery-operated communication device for the latest emergency
information.
2. Telephone should be used only for emergency calls.
3. Cabinets and drawers should be opened only cautiously.
4. One should keep away from damaged portions.
5. Previous buildings should be occupied only when the appropriate authorities declare
it to be safe.
7. Efforts should be put in to help injured or trapped persons.
8. It would be advisable not to move seriously injured persons, unless there is the
immediate danger of further injury.
9. Spilled chemicals and other flammable liquids should be cleaned immediately.
10. Evacuate the area if there is the smell of gas or fumes.
11. Checks should be exercised for leaks in gas and water connections, damages to
electrical and electronic systems, etc.

STORMS
Storms and their formation have been elaborately dealt with in an earlier chapter. They have
certain peculiar characterises, which include:
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  243
1. Fairly long warning period that is derived from systematic international meteorological
observation.
2. The onset of storms may be gradual and may confirm to a seasonal and predictable
pattern.
3. Storms may be followed by heavy rains, flooding, landslides, etc.
4. There could be massive loss of life of humans and livestock.
5. There could be massive destruction and severe damages to buildings, other
infrastructures, crops, vegetation, environment, etc.
6. The volume of destruction could result in destruction of essential service, difficulties
in carrying out urgent relief and rescue operations, emergency feeding, shelter and
medical assistance programmes.

Measures for Combating Damages from Storms

Since storms could have fairly long warning period, various warning and precautionary measures
can be adopted. Some such measures include:
1. Evacuating the people to safe places/shelters,
2. Reducing the risks from flying objects, and
3. Having an elaborate public education and awareness programme.
Certain other steps include:
1. Adhering strictly to building stipulations,
2. Cultivating storm resistant crops,
3. Rehabilitating agriculture, especially tree crops that are prone to storms, etc.

LANDSLIDE
Details about landslide and its causes have been presented in the earlier chapter. The disasters
caused by landslide are unique. The warning period for landslide may vary drastically. There
may be possibility for little or even no warning. However, in certain instances a general warning
may be assumed from continuous or heavy downpour. Certain minor initial landslips may be
considered as a warning of heavy landslides. Landslides can also be assumed by monitoring
the natural movement of surface. The other properties of landslide include:
1. Rapid onset.
2. Severe damage to structures and systems. There has been an instance wherein large
buildings have been buried and an entire village being washed away.
3. Blocking of rivers resulting in massive flooding.
4. Damage to crops and lands. For instance slippage of surface soil from a mountain
side could result in total loss of fertile top soil.
5. A combination of landslides, heavy rain and flooding could cause high levels of
damage and destruction from the debris of the damaged buildings and structures.
244  Disaster Management

Certain special problems associated with DM of landslides include:

1. Risk of follow-up landslides,
2. Accessing of the affected areas,
3. Though search and rescue operations,
4. Complex and costly rehabilitation and recovery operations, and
5. The area becoming inhabitable due to severe damages.

Measures for Combating Landslides

Combating landslides are easy said than done. Some measures in dealing with landslide include:
1. Arriving at appropriate scientific land-use and building regulations, and proper
adherence to them.
2. Putting proper monitoring systems wherever applicable.
3. Evacuating and relocating communities from areas that are likely to be affected by
landslides.
4. Conducting public awareness programs as to how to deal with landslides.

TSUNAMI
Details as to how tsunamis are formed have been presented in Chapter 8. A few characteristics
of tsunami that makes it unique are:
1. Varying speed of onset. The velocity of the waves would depend on the depth of
water where the seismic disturbance occurred. The velocity at such places may be
as high as 900 kmph. This could be slowed down to around 50 kmph when it
strikes land.
2. The waves could reach as high as 30 m.
3. The warning time is dependent on the distance from the point of wave origin.
4. Before the waves impacting the shoreline there can be a marked recession of normal
water level. This could result in a massive outgoing tide from the shores, followed
immediately by the tsunami waves. This phenomenon led to large number of death
when tsunami struck India in 2004, since people who went in large numbers to the
beach to watch the outgoing tide were struck by the massive incoming wave.
5. Tsunami impact could lead to various problems like flooding, saltwater intrusion into
farmlands destroying crops, fertile topsoil, and water supplies. It would also cause
large scale destruction and damage to buildings, structures, other infrastructure and
vegetation.
6. Due to the sever destruction and damage that is likely to be caused by tsunami,
search and rescue as well as recovery may have to be extensive and could involve
large sums of money.
 Chapter 19 Response to Natural Disasters  245
Measures for Combating Tsunamis
Measures to combat landslides are difficult to implement as tsunamis are rare in nature, and
their impacts beyond prediction. Some steps to combat tsunamis include:
1. Elaborate arrangements with various national and international agencies to collate and
dissemination early warnings,
2. Evacuating communities that are likely to be impacted by rise in sea level to higher
places,
3. Appropriate coastal land-use regulations. In the tsunami that struck India in 2004,
there was a rare phenomenon whereby coastlines having mangroves were spared from
the fury of waves. Steps can be taken on a long term basis to plant mangroves along
the coast in areas that are likely to be threatened by tsunamis, and
4. Creating public awareness among the public and educating them as to the mitigation
strategies to be adopted.

References

Carter, W.N. (2008). Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook. Mandaluyong City,
Phil.: Asian Development Bank.
Disaster Management Guidelines: Management of Floods (2008). New Delhi: National Disaster
Management Authority, Government of India.
Sulphey, M.M. and Safeer, M.M. (2015). Introduction to Environment Management, 3rd ed., Delhi:
PHI Learning.

Questions

1. Elaborate on Sustainable Forest Management.

2. Critically evaluate Sustainable Forest Management in India.
3. What is Joint Forest Management?
4. Write in detail about climate change and its after effects.
5. Describe the various international efforts to combat climate change.
6. White a short essay about Kyoto Protocol. Critically evaluate its success.
7. How can floods be mitigated?
8. What are the different phases of flood management?
9. How can drought be combated?
10. What are the steps to deal with the after effects of an earthquake?
11. What are the measures for combating the damages from storms?
12. How can we effectively deal with landslides?
13. What are the characteristics of tsunami and how can it be combated?
 20
Mitigation of
Manmade Disasters

CONTROL OF GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS

The gaseous contaminants can be controlled by adsorption. Absorption involves the passing
of a stream of gaseous contaminant through a porous solid material, known as adsorbent, in
an adsorption bed. In order to achieve maximum efficiency in adsorption, there is preferential
affinity between the adsorbent and adsorbate. The surfaces volume is important in attracting
and holding the gas. Large surface-volume ratios are capable of providing increased adsorption.
There are two types of adsorbents:
1. having affinity towards polar and
2. having affinity towards non-polar vapours/gases
Water vapour is polar in nature and is attracted by alumina, bauxite and silica gel. Due
to this property polar adsorbents are used as drying agents. Organic vapours are normally
attracted by activated charcoal.
Adsorption can be physical or chemical.

Physical Adsorption

Gases and vapours have a property of condensing on solids at temperatures above dew point.
This condensation is dependent on the van der Waals force.1 The amount of gas that is adsorbed
is based on the condensation of the gas. The higher the boiling point, the greater would be
the amount that is adsorbed. The adsorption is proportional to the availability of solid surface.

1. Van der Waals force is an attractive force that exists between atoms or molecules of substances. This
force arises due to the electrons in the neighbouring atoms or molecules moving in affinity with each
another.
246
 Chapter 20 Mitigation of Manmade Disasters  247
For instance, activated carbon is capable of providing increased surface area due to the large
numbers of internal pore structure. When physical adsorption takes place it liberates small
quantities of heat. If pressure is lowered, or temperature raised, the adsorbed gases can be
desorbed without chemical change.

Chemical Adsorption

Also known as chemisorptions, it is the process wherein the contaminant gas is made to
react chemically with the adsorbent to form a chemical bond. This absorption results in the
formation of a single layer of molecules on the solid surface. Chemical absorption is normally
irreversible as a result of the occurrence of a chemical change. The quantity of gas that is
adsorbed depends mostly on the pressure and temperature. This process is slower than the
physical adsorption.

Adsorption Equipment

There are three types of adsorbing equipment. These are provided in Table 20.1.

Table 20.1 Types of Adsorbing Equipment

S. No. Type Details

This is a simple absorber. Its structure can be either vertical or
1 Fixed bed absorber horizontal. The adsorbent is normally arranged on beds or trays
in layers.
In moving bed absorber, the adsorption bed is maintained in a
rotating drum. A fan forces the filtered air containing gaseous
2 Moving bed absorber
pollutant into the rotating drum. The pollutants are absorbed when
the air passes through the adsorption bed.
The fluidised absorber contains a shallow, floating bed of adsorbent.
When the air flows through it, the bed expands and is fluidised
3 Fluidised absorber
thereby providing an intimate contact between the pollutant and
the adsorbent.

Adsorption equipment remain efficient till the adsorbent becomes saturated. Saturation is
denoted by increased concentration of the pollutant gas. When saturation occurs, the adsorber
must be regenerated or renewed.

Approaches to Control of Noise

Approaches and methods through which noise pollution can be controlled are presented in
Table 20.2.
248  Disaster Management

Table 20.2 Approaches and Methods of Controlling Noise Pollution

Approaches Methods Details

The weight or size and height of fall of the impacting
material can be reduced.
The impact can be cushioned by inserting a layer of
Reducing impact
suitable shock-absorbing material between the impacting
forces: In industries
surfaces.
there are various types
of machines and equip- In possible situations, the impact heads or surfaces which
ment whose parts strike make noise can be made with non-metallic materials.
against other parts,
The application of a small impact force over a
thereby producing noise.
considerable period of time can be considered than
Through modification
a large force over a short period. This could provide
of such machines and
the same result.
pacts the noises can be
reduced. Acceleration of moving parts can be smoothened out
by the gradual application of accelerating forces. Noise
can also be reduced by avoiding jerky acceleration or
jerky motions.
Reduction of speed and Fans, rotors, turbines, blowers, etc. should be operated at
pressures: Reduction in the optimum speeds that can meet the job requirements.
the speed of rotating or Large-diameter low-speed fans should be preferred over
moving parts can result in small-diameter, high speed units.
smoother operations and
Choice of centrifugal squirrel-cage type fans over van
Control at lower noises. Regulating
axial or propeller type fans would help in reducing noise
source the pressure and flow
considerably.
velocities of air, gas and
liquid circulation systems When air ventilation systems are used, if there is a
could help in reducing 50 per cent reduction in the speed of the air flow, the
turbulence, thereby de- noise will be levered by about 10 to 20 dB. The speed of
creasing noises. the airflow should be maintained at the optimum levels.
Proper alignment of all rotating, moving, or contacting
parts like pulleys, gears, bearings, etc. can help in
reducing noise output.
Reduction of frictional If sliding, meshing, or contacting parts like bearings,
resistance: Reducing the gears, rails, etc. are polished or the surface is maintained
friction between rotating, in a smooth manner, it is possible to have quiet
sliding, or moving parts operations.
could result in smoother By static and dynamic balancing of rotating parts, the
operation and lower frictional resistance and vibration would be reduced
noises. resulting in lower noises.
Using pulleys, gears, rotors, and shaft/bearing alignment
could cause high levels of vibration and noise. Proper
lubrication can reduce the noise considerably.
 Chapter 20 Mitigation of Manmade Disasters  249
Approaches Methods Details
Larger vibrating parts will create greater noise. Parts
can be designed such that radiating surface is minimised
Reducing radiating area without impairing their operation or structural strength.
Towards this smaller parts can be made, removing
excess material, or by putting perforations in the parts.
Holes or cracks in any joints should be periodically
caulked.
Electrical or plumbing penetrations of housings or
cabinets should be properly sealed using rubber gaskets
or a other non-setting caulk.
Reducing noise leakage
All functional openings or ports that radiate noise should
be covered with lids or shields having soft rubber edged
gaskets in an airtight manner.
Openings for exhaust, cooling or ventilation purposes
should have mufflers or suitable accoustically lined ducts.
Isolation of vibration elements involves the resilient
mounting of the vibrating component on the most
Isolating and damping massive and structurally rigid part of the machine. This
the vibration elements will help in reducing vibrations.
Damping materials or structures are done for those that
are having viscous properties.
Silencers are used for reducing fluid flow noises. There
are two types of silencers.
1. Absorptive muffler: It helps in reducing noise through
Providing silencers fibrous or porous materials which absorbs the sound.
2. Reactive muffler: In this noise reduction is done mainly
by geometry. It is shaped so as to reflect or expand the
sound waves and consequent self-destruction.
Noise has the property of reverberation.2 A soft or
spongy material placed on the path will help in diffusing
Absorption of sound and soaking up the reflected sound. Sound-absorbing
along the path materials such as acoustical tile, carpets, and drapes
placed on ceiling, walls, or floor will help in reducing
the noise.
Control
along the Deflection of sound to Placing barriers, panels, screens or deflectors of
path some other direction by appropriate height and length along the path of
placing reflecting barrier transmission will help in reducing the noise.
Containing the sound by Noisy machine can be placed in separate enclosures
placing the source inside that are airtight. The enclosures can be lined with
a sound-insulated box or absorbent interior surfaces. This will reduce the buildup
enclosure of reverberation and noise within the enclosure.

2. Reverberation is the property of noise to bounce from one surface to another.

250  Disaster Management

Approaches Methods Details

The working hours of employees working near sources
can be scheduled such that the person works less hours
Control at Using ear plugs, cup-type
in a day. Those working near sound sources may also
the receiver protectors and helmets
be provided with protectors like ear plugs, cup-type
protectors and helmets.

Noises that are generated from passage of fluids can be effectively controlled through
the following:
1. Speeds: The speed of the fluid can be reduced to avoid turbulence.
2. Smooth surfaces: Duct or pipe systems lined with smooth interior walls and joints
could generate less turbulence and consequent noise.
3. Simple layout: A duct or pipe system that is well-designed, with minimum branches,
bends, fittings, etc. would produce less noise.
4. Long-radius turns: If turns are made with a curve radius equal to about five times
the diameter of the pipe, it will ensure smooth and gradual flow of fluids, and hence
less noise.
5. Streamlined flow path: Gradual and smooth changes in flow path with tapered or
flared transition sections can avoid turbulence.
6. Removing unnecessary obstacles: Obstacles in the path will result in turbulent flow
and noise. The flow path should be designed in such a manner that it is streamlined
and kept smooth.

Mitigation of Environmental Noises

Environmental noise mitigation or ‘noise abatement’ requires appropriate strategies to be
successful. There are various areas that need be covered to mitigate noises. This mitigation is
dealt with under the following topics:

Roadway noise control

Noise in roadways can be controlled through various methods like:
1. Shielding of diesel stacks: The diesel stacks, if shielded appropriately will help in
reducing the noise to a considerable level.
2. Improved tyre treads design: Proper designing of tyre treads will help in roadway
noise control.
3. Speed control: The lowest sound emissions occur from vehicles moving between
30 to 60 kmph. Increase in speed above this range would double sound emissions at
every five miles/hour. At lower speeds there would be higher braking and acceleration
noises.
4. Surface pavement: Selection of proper surface pavement is another factor that can
reduce roadway noise. Porous pavements with negative surface texture and medium
to small aggregates would reduce noise considerably.
 Chapter 20 Mitigation of Manmade Disasters  251
5. Noise barriers: Placing of noise barriers on the roads can help in reducing noise
levels. Estimates show that such barriers are capable of reducing noise by around
10 decibels. Noise barriers are to be placed and designed in a scientific manner
considering aspects like terrain and micrometeorology of the place where it is installed.
6. Road design: Using computerised models for designing new urban and arterial
roads for having appropriate alignment and roadway geometry have found to minimise
the noise levels.

Aircraft noise control

Noise abatement of aircraft is complex and controversial than the others. This can be
accomplished through a series of activities like land planning, flight operations restrictions,
residential soundproofing, etc. Operational restrictions are controversial as they could impact
aircraft safety and airline economics. It can include aspects like departure flight path and slope
and time restrictions.

Noise control by architectural design

Residential buildings can be designed in such manner to abate noise. It is now possible to
build cost effective and quite interiors. Some of them include thickening of glasses, double
pane design, appropriate roof material, exterior door design, attic ventilation ports, and so on.
All these are with respect to the sound generated outside the building. With respect to the
sounds generated inside the building include mechanical noise within the building systems,
voice, amplified sound systems, sounds from elevator systems, refrigeration, air conditioners,
generators, etc. Such sounds can be controlled through proper design. Sounds can also be
reduced through shock mounting of systems to control vibration, baffling ducts transmitting
sound, fixing sound absorptive lining materials, etc.

MITIGATION OF THERMAL POLLUTION

As stated earlier, thermal pollution can cause irreparable damage to the environment. As such
it is of paramount importance to control thermal pollution. The main method used to control
thermal pollution is by passing the heated water through a cooling pond immediately after it
leaves the condenser. In certain industries they use cooling towers in place of ponds. This pond
or tower dissipates the heat into the air and the water is then discharged into the water body,
or reused in the plant as cooling water.
The cooling pond is normally large and shallow. Hot water is pumped into one end of
this pond, and the cool water is removed from the other end. In the process the heat gets
dissipated into the atmosphere. In the case of cooling tower, the heat transfer takes place through
evaporation. The warm water that comes out from the condenser is sprayed downward as thin
films over vertical sheets. Cool air is allowed to enter the tower through the water inlet that
encircles the base of the tower. This air rises upwards and causes evaporative cooling. The
heat is dissipated into atmosphere at a height of about 100 m above the base of the tower. The
cooled water is collected at the base of the tower and recycled to power plant condensers. A
252  Disaster Management

cooling tower would require less land area than cooling ponds. The disadvantage in both these
methods is that large amounts of water are lost by evaporation.

STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING E-WASTES

E-waste is the latest addition to substances that are playing havoc with the environment. A host
of proactive and preventive steps can be taken to deal with e-wastes. Some such steps include
eco-designing of products, reduction at source, close-loop recycling, etc. At the designing
phase it can be ensured that the products are built in such a manner that they are reusable,
repairable and/or upgradeable. Steps can also be taken to see that the materials used are less
toxic, easily recoverable and recyclable; and can be taken back for refurbishment or reuse. Reuse
and recycling are the best options to considerably reduce accumulation of e-wastes. Further,
recovery can be done with respect to metals, plastics, glass and related materials. All these
steps if done meticulously could help in conserving energy and maintaining the environment
toxic free.
Another option towards management of e-waste is Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR) Principle. According to this principle all the actors along the product chain share
responsibility for environmental impacts of the whole product system. Manufacturers involve
in the reduction of the life-cycle environmental impacts through appropriate product design,
material choices, manufacturing processes, product delivery, and system support.

Recycling, Reuse and Recovery

E-waste consists of a wide range of items that include ferrous and non-ferrous metals, glass,
plastic, electronic components and many others. It also consists of a variety of hazardous
chemicals and elements. In the treatment of e-wastes, the major focus should be to reduce the
concentration and magnitude of these hazardous chemicals and elements. This can be done by
recycle and recovery.
E-waste is also a rich source of metals which can be recovered and brought back into the
production cycle. These metals are valuable raw material for many other items. The recycling
and the recovery process could include the following major operations:
Table 20.2 Recycling and Recovery Process

S. No. Operation Details

The parts containing dangerous substances, like CFCs, PCB should
be dismantled first. The easily accessible parts that contain valuable
1 Dismantling
substances like copper, steel, iron, precious metal, etc., can also be
removed.
Segregation can be done with respect to ferrous and non-ferrous metals,
2 Segregation
plastics, etc. This is done in a shredder process.
Refurbishment Parts used in electrical and electronic equipment can be easily refurbished
3
and reuse and put to its original intended use.
 Chapter 20 Mitigation of Manmade Disasters  253
S. No. Operation Details
Ferrous metals can be recycled in electrical are furnaces, and other non-
Recycling and ferrous metals can be dealt with in smelting plants. Separation process can
4
recovery be done for precious metals. Recovery option is exercised only when the
value of the elements recovered would be higher than the cost involved.
Shredder light fraction can be disposed of in landfill sites. Certain items
Treatment and like PCBs can be incinerated. Wastes having CFCs are to be treated
5
disposal thermally, PCB is incinerated or disposed of in underground storages,
Hg is often recycled or disposed of in underground landfill sites.

Treatment and Disposal of E-wastes

The potential treatment disposal options of e-wastes include landfill and incineration.

Landfill
The degradation processes that occur in landfills are highly complicated. It could take
substantially long span of time. Currently, there is not much evidence about the environmental
impacts from e-waste in landfills. This is due to the following reasons:
1. Landfills contain diverse mixture of a varying waste streams,
2. Emission of pollutants from landfills could be delayed for many years,
3. The effectiveness of landfills varies based on climatic conditions as well as technologies
applied in landfills, like leachate collection and treatment, impermeable bottom
layers, gas collection, etc. There is paucity of data pertaining to the concentration of
substances in leachate.
There are doubts regarding the efficiency of landfills for substances like CFCs, Cadmium,
Mercury, etc., which are volatile and not biologically degradable; and PCB. Further, due to
the complex material mixture in e-wastes, it is impossible to exclude long-term environmental
risks.

Incineration
Incineration of e-waste has both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include reduction in
the volume of the waste as well as the utilisation of the energy content of the materials. Ferrous
materials can be removed from the slag for recycling. Another advantage of incineration is
that certain environmentally hazardous organic substances can be converted into less hazardous
compounds. The main disadvantage of incineration is the emission of large quantities of heavy
metal residues through exhaust.

Environmentally Sound Treatment of E-waste

The procedure for Environmentally Sound Treatment (EST) of e-waste is provided in Guidelines
for Environmentally Sound Treatment of E-waste (2008). The Guideline provides for three
254  Disaster Management

levels of treatment based on material flow. Each level of treatment consists of various unit
operations, wherein the e-waste is treated and the output of one level serves as input for the
next level. After the third level treatment the residues are disposed of either through landfill
or incineration. The levels, unit operations and the output of EST of e-wastes are provided in
Table 20.3.
Table 20.3 Level, Operations and Output of EST

Level Unit operations Details Output

Decontamination is done to make the materials
Decontamination non-hazardous. This step removes all liquids and
gases, recovers and stores them. Hazardous wastes
like CFC, Switches,
Dismantling is done manually or mechanically to
batteries, capacitors,
break the items. The decontaminated e-waste or
etc. Decontaminated
those which do not require decontamination are
I Dismantling e-wastes of
dismantled to remove the components. Adequate
segregated non-
precaution and safety measures are followed in
hazardous items like
these operations.
plastic, circuit board
In this operation the components are segregated and cables
Segregation into hazardous and non-hazardous components
for being passed on to the next level treatment.
Hammering This operation reduces the size of the materials.
Shredding Shredding also reduces the size of the materials.
Special treatments include Electromagnetic and
Eddy current separation, Density separation, etc. A host of Ferrous
II While the first two treatments utilises electrical and Non-ferrous
Special conductivity, magnetic properties and density metals
treatment for the separation of ferrous, non-ferrous and
precious metal fractions; plastic fractions are
treated with flame retardants. Glass and lead
are also separated during this treatment process.
Recovery—furnaces are used for recovery Ferrous and Non
process. Ferrous metals,
CFC, Oils
Reuse CFC, Oils
Recycling—There are three different types of
Plastic, Glass,
Recovery (for recycling options—they are chemical recycling,
Copper
III items having mechanical recycling and thermal recycling.
economic value) Incineration Oil, Energy
Smelting Lead, Copper,
Aluminum
Separation and distillation Mercury
Refining Gold, Silver,
Platinum, Palladium
 Chapter 20 Mitigation of Manmade Disasters  255
BIO WEAPONS
Bio-defence is the best way to deal with Bio Weapons (BW) (Kumar, Verma, Yadav, Sabri,
and Asthana, 2011). This can be achieved by:
(a) Proper collection of specimens at site of occurrence,
(b) Recognising that attacks can occur and initiating prompt management of the disease(s),
(c) Analysis of the collected specimens,
(d) Validation of collected specimens, and
(e) Quality assurance and control

Important Measures and Handling of Biological Weapon

Preventive measures are the most ideal ones in dealing with BW. Some such measures include:
(a) Developing all round international cooperation to deal with BW.
(b) Educating the populations that are at risk.
(c) Coordinating and monitoring the potential producers and users of BW.
(d) Continuous improvement of the BW monitoring techniques and apparatus.
(e) Stockpiling of BW fighting supplies so that it can be used whenever necessary.
Detection of BW is near to impossible unless it is an announced event by the terrorists.
However the incidence may be a covert one and at times they may turn out to be hoaxes. As
such these attacks can be tackled only through awareness. Certain steps to be taken to deal
with BW and to alleviate the anxiety, fear and misunderstanding of the public are:
1. Dealing with BW has to involve a multidisciplinary type of approach. It has to
involve the health departments, private health care providers, local administration,
epidemiologists, NGOs, media, etc. There should be close communication and
cohesion between various agencies involved in tackling BW.
2. It has to be integrated into the emergency management or certain other mass disaster
management programmes.
3. Proper lab facilities are to be provide so as to diagnose and confirm from the BW.
Samples in the lab should be protected in such a manner that if visitors are kept of,
and the samples does not cause any problems—inadvertently or otherwise.
4. Hospitals and institutions dealing with BW should by governed by strict biosafety
precautions and safeguards. Strict controls are to be in force in hospitals where patients
affected by BW are admitted. Visitors to such patients should be strictly prohibited.
5. Decontamination of the patient and environment should be done, and the clothes
used by them should be put only in impervious bags.
6. There should be proper arrangements to handle the remains and bodies of the
affected.
7. All standard precautions should be taken during postmortem of all such cases so as to
prevent the spread of the disease. Care should be taken by relatives while cremating
or burying the body of the infected.
256  Disaster Management

8. The panic, horror and anger due to an attack, and the fear of infection and social
isolation should be handled carefully by providing psychological support from trained
psychiatrists, social workers and NGOs.
9. The anxiety of the health care providers should be dealt with through proper
sensitisation, education and training.
10. All types of media can be used to inform the general public about the features of
the disease, its mode of spread, precautions to be exercised, and the details as to the
available medical facilities.
11. Public confidence should be maintained through establishing an independent panel
of bioscience experts who are responsible for establishing, approving and reviewing
research about BW.

Reference

Kumar, A., Verma, A., Yadav, M., Sabri, I., and Asthana, A. (2011). Review Paper Biological
Warfare, Bioterrorism and Biodefence, Journal of Indian Acad Forensic Medicine, 33(1),
69–73.

Questions

1. How can gaseous contaminants be controlled?

2. How can we control noise?
3. How can environmental noises be mitigated?
4. How can thermal pollution be mitigated?
5. E-wastes are now becoming a real problem. What are the steps to mitigate this problem?
6. Elaborate on environmentally sound practice of dealing with e-wastes.
7. How can we deal with bio-weapons?
 21
Evacuation

INTRODUCTION
The UNHCR defined evacuation as ‘a systematic and objective analysis and assessment of
the organisation’s policies, programmes, practices, partnerships and procedures, focused on
planning, design, implementation and impacts’. In any type of disaster circumstances, there
is the constant need for evacuation. Evacuation of disaster-affected communities is one of the
most difficult aspects of DM. Evacuation decisions have to be based on a sound understanding
of the entire situation. The DM programme should be so comprehensive such that it is capable
of handling the evacuation process effectively. Though evacuation is a response measure, its
effects could spill over into the DM aspects of recovery. This applies in the event of the
evacuees finding it difficult to return to their residential areas within a reasonable period of
time. In such situations, the evacuees become restless and worried due to their enforced absence
from their own land and property. This could also lead to frictions with the local population.
Evacuation can be of two types:
1. Precautionary: This evacuation is undertaken based on the warning indicators well
in advance to the impact of the disaster. It helps in protecting disaster-threatened
persons from full effects of the disaster.
2. Post-impact: This involves moving disaster affected persons from a disaster-stricken
area to safer, better surroundings and conditions.
A decision to evacuate is based on a number of factors. The various factors are provided
in Table 21.1.
Certain other factors also affect evacuation decision (Carter, 2008). They are the following:
1. Vulnerability: The vulnerability of the people at risk is also a relevant factor in
dealing with evacuation. Assessment of the vulnerability can help in finding out the
people who would have to be evacuated relative to the population distribution.
257
258  Disaster Management

Table 21.1 Factors that Influence Evacuation

No. Factor Details

The decision about evacuation alternatives are primarily based on the nature
of the threat. For a moderate flooding, a simple move to a higher ground
Nature of
1 may suffice. However for a more severe flood other measures need to be
threat
taken. In the presence of cyclonic conditions along with flooding all out
efforts may be required from various agencies simultaneously.
The minor hazard may not require any evacuation. Based on the severity of
the threat there is the likelihood of massive scale of evacuation. When severe
cyclonic storms hit the Orissa and Andhra coasts in 2014, evacuation in a
2 Severity
massive scale was undertaken. This helped in preventing mass casualties.
The efforts of the Orissa Government in this regard were lauded by many,
including international bodies.
Where there is frequent threat of disaster, it will have a direct bearing on
3 Frequency the readiness levels and mental attitudes of the population. Frequent threats
could provide valuable inputs and experience in evacuation decision making.
If there is a high level of predictability of the threat of disaster, it will help
4 Predictability
considerably with respect to the accuracy of decision making.
The speed of onset of the disaster bears considerably on the warning lead
time. It will impact the time availability for the successful implementation
Speed of of an evacuation programme. Very sudden and severe impact will make
5
onset organised evacuation near to impossible. For instance there is wide difference
between an earthquake that occur all of a sudden and a slowly developing
tropical cyclone.
Certain types of disaster may lead to various compound effects. For instance,
heavy rains could cause serious floods and landslides. These disasters
Compound
6 could create severe evacuation requirement at multiple places. Destruction
effect
of infrastructure due to land/mudslides could severely impede evacuation
movement.
In the event of an extensive and widespread disaster, there may arise
7 Extent a situation wherein evacuation may be near to impossible. The official
machinery may breakdown and the DM programmes may go awry.
Records of past experience in evacuation can offer useful guidelines for the
8 Experience
future.

2. Methods of warning: Methods of warning is another aspect that has significant

ramifications in the process of evacuation. The decision making authority has to
ensure that:
(a) The warning reaches all persons, to whom it applies;
(b) It reaches there as quickly as possible;
(c) The warning provides the required information in a clear, understandable, and
unambiguous manner; and
(d) Adequate alternative methods are in place in the event of disruption or failure.
 Chapter 21 Evacuation  259
Methods of issuing warning vary significantly. Some of them include social media,
radio/television, loud speakers on moving vehicles, siren, flags, word of mouth, and
so on. Over and above all these the most important is the correct interpretation of the
warning. If there are doubts regarding the warning, the system has to be considered
as inaccurate or inadequate. Such doubts among the community will have adverse
consequences and the resultant lethal results.
3. Movement control and coordination: Another important aspect is the control and
coordination of evacuation movement. The movement should be carefully planned
and executed. Points to be considered include numbers of people involved, types and
modes of transportation and numbers to be used, the routes and alternative routes
to be taken, the position and of movement coordinating staff, communications and
arrangements enroute with respect to feeding and refueling, and so on.
4. Reception requirements: Reception of evacuees is the most sensitive part of the
entire evacuation process. If not handled properly, it can have a host of sociological
and psychological repercussions. As such it requires expert advice and monitoring.
Elaborate arrangements have to be made with respect to the reception of the evacuees.
They are prone to be under various types of stress. Arrangements are to be made
for issues like general care and welfare, accommodation, registration, feeding, health
care requirements, communication and interaction with evacuation authority, security
of evacuated assets and property and so on.
5. Arrangements for return: Evacuation plan is not complete unless it involves
arrangements for return to their homes. In the event of impossibility of return,
relocation to other safer areas need to be planned.

Reference

Carter, W.N. (2008). Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook. Mandaluyong City,
Phil.: Asian Development Bank.

Questions

1. What is evacuation?
2. What are the factors that influence evacuation?
3. List down and elaborate on the factors that affect evacuation decision.
 22
Recovery

INTRODUCTION
Recovery is ‘the process by which communities and the nation assisted in returning to their
proper level of functioning following a disaster’ (Carter, 2008). The recovery process, which
includes restoration and reconstruction, can be very protracted and could take years or even
decades. In the process of recovery, maximum possible benefits are strived to be achieved
from new and enhanced infrastructure, counter-disaster capability, and overall development.
According to Carter (2008) during the recovery phase, people could get affected due to:
• personal injuries and trauma,
• bereavement of family members,
• loss of property and possessions in varying proportions,
• damage to or loss of dwellings, and
• reduced means of livelihood.
These factors could create problems affecting the recovery process. It could also lead to
reduced efficiency of people involved in the recovery programmes. This could increase the load
on social security programmes and agencies involved in the implementation of such programmes.
A term associated to recovery is response. While response depends on urgency and short-
term expediency, recovery in general, and long-term in nature. There are also a number of
differences between response and recovery. They are presented in Table 22.1.
Table 22.1 Difference between Response and Recovery

Response Recovery
Response action involves dealing with urgent Restoration is protracted and could take a period
problems, which may get worse if no timely of 5 to 10 years’ time, or even more.
action is taken.
260
 Chapter 22 Recovery  261
Response Recovery
Response action takes place mostly under a state Recovery is not done in a state of emergency.
of emergency or a declared disaster. As such it As such freedom of action does/may not be
could go well beyond the normal routine limits available to recovery.
of authority.
Most response actions are taken without All related aspects are taken into consideration
consideration of its longer-term repercussions. while dealing with recovery phase. Some
Response action may also lower the capability of response actions are directly related with
key government departments and institutions, as recovery programs.
they may exhaust financial and other allocations.
Since response involves emergency action Recovery action normally works within a changed
that helps in relieving immediate problems, it community attitude. During recovery phase,
is usually accepted and supported by stricken communities tend to become more questioning,
communities. and demanding about the action being taken.

PILLARS OF RECOVERY ACTION

Cater (2008) identified the following four pillars of recovery action:
1. Creation of an appropriate information base so that the necessary aspects of the
recovery process can be defined. Such information can be obtained from response
operations, post-disaster review, developmental programmes and programme
parameters, special teams, and previous disasters.
2. Defining an overall strategy for recovery that is compatible with the overall future
national development. The strategy should include major areas wherein recovery
is need, overall assessment of available resources, the timeframe within which
for recovery action is to be completed, linkages between recovery and national
development, and the monitoring of recovery actions.
3. Determining the individual recovery programs within the overall strategy,
4. Implementation of individual programs or projects should be done within the overall
strategy, and it should be done on a well-managed and coordinated basis.

Reference

Carter, W.N. (2008). Disaster Management: A Disaster Manager’s Handbook. Mandaluyong City,
Phil.: Asian Development Bank.

Questions

1. What is recovery?
2. Differentiate between response and recovery.
3. Write a short note about the pillars of recovery action.
 23
International
Disaster Assistance

INTRODUCTION
International disaster assistance is not a new concept. It has been in vogue for centuries,
when kingdoms used to help others at times of need. Countries on both sides of the Atlantic
involved in international disaster assistance on a massive scale after the World War II. European
countries which were shattered after the war were threatened with political, economic, and
social uncertainties. They were able to spring back ad recover due to substantial help from
the Marshall Plan of the USA. The plan was aimed at rehabilitating the European economies
shattered by the War, so that democracy and social justice could survive. The plan was
highly successful in achieving its objectives that it was later extended to help underdeveloped
countries around the globe.
Soon international assistance activities and programmes were developed by other
countries. The initial focus was on the young democracies, who were gaining independence
from their European colonial powers. The demand of countries accepting the assistance
was that the assistance programmes should be ‘without-strings’. The present generation
of international disaster assistance programmes is an offshoot of these general assistance
programmes. Now the international disaster assistance programmes have matures and there
is a reasonably clear understanding about the priorities and modalities by the funding
agencies as well as the recipients. Further, the increasing interdependence of nations provides
disaster assistance a respectable image, making it an acceptable and indispensable part
of any international relation. International disaster assistance is now a valid, practicable
and a productive concept. The acceptance of international disaster assistance is however
the prerogative of the stricken country. No donor is expected to pressurise a country to
acceptance any assistance, as it would defeat the basic spirit and intention of the concept of
development.
262
 Chapter 23 International Disaster Assistance  263
TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE
There can be various types of assistances. Important among them, and their details are presented
in Table 23.1.
Table 23.1 Different Types of International Assistance

Type of assistance Details

There can be various forms of pre-disaster assistance. Some of them are:
• Assistance in building structures like dams, canals, etc. aimed at preventing
floods.
• Development of monitoring and early warning systems like tsunami,
volcanic eruption, etc.
Assistance in preparedness: This can include the following:
• Planning: Assistance with respect to formulating plans at various levels;
preparation of guidelines, standard operating practices, etc.
Pre-disaster • Organisation: Assistance for establishing and developing disaster manage-
Assistance ment organisational structures like management centers at various levels.
• Systems and facilities: Assistance with respect to: early warning systems,
communication systems, emergency operations centers, protection of key
installations like power supplies, etc.
• Equipment: Maintaining standby and emergency items like power
generators, chainsaws, shovels, shelter materials, medical equipment and
facilities, etc.
• Training: Providing training to staff involved in disaster preparedness.
This can be either international or in-country training.
Assistance in response operations can take any of the following forms:
• Monitoring and warning of potential disaster impact through meteorological
networks, tsunami warning centers, etc.
• Post-impact aerial survey and assessment through photographic or visual
reconnaissance.
• Providing emergency assistance teams like medical teams, defense or para-
Assistance
military teams, and various other specialist teams.
in Response
Operations • Providing emergency equipment and supplies like generators, communi-
cation equipment, clothing, shelter materials, food and medical supplies,
transportation equipment, etc.
• Providing specialist medical and associated teams.
• Providing specialist engineering personnel.
• Providing response capabilities like helicopter capability, shipping
capability, off-road vehicle capability, etc.
Recovery process consists of a variety of interrelated programs like medical
Assistance
and health systems, education facilities, etc. Such programmes can include
in Recovery
financial aid or credits, building materials and equipment, agricultural
Programmes
extension, feeding programmes, specialist teams, etc.
Assistance Post disaster international assistance could consist of long-term developmental
for Future programmes like development of transport facilities and systems, education
Development and skill training, agricultural programmes, etc.
264  Disaster Management

RECEPTION AND UTILISATION OF

INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE
The receipt and utilisation of international assistance is a serious issue. It is fraught with a lot
of issues. Some of them include:
1. The non-availability of storage facilities in the recipient country.
2. Not enough machinery or volunteers to distribute the assistance recourses to the needy
in a timely manner.
3. Insufficient survey and assessment of damages.
4. The scale of assistance provided being beyond the capacity of the recipient country.
5. Incompatibility of the assistance resources with that of the recipient country.

PROBLEMS ARISING OUT OF INTERNATIONAL

ASSISTANCE
At times, a host of problems could arise out of international assistance. Examples include the
following:
1. Overdependence on assistance: In some societies, a type of over dependence on
assistance has developed. It was the custom of the community in a country to store
food items in be ready for the cyclone season. Over a period when the government
started to respond quickly to the post disaster needs of the community by effective
channelising local and international resources. Due to this the people did away with
the custom of getting ready for the cyclone. The over confidence about the definite
assistance eroded their sense of self-reliance. This can happen in any community.
2. Adverse effects on the economy: Injection of more than required assistance could
upset the local economy. This problem could be severe when the production and
local markets are interdependent. Further, the dilemmas and complexities associated
with the Government being forced to intervene to arrest deterioration of food stocks
stored in local warehouses would also adversely affect the local economy. Another
contradiction is the arrival of international humanitarian assistance even when there
is adequate stock of local food stocks. The local recipient government may have
to accept such assistance in the interest of good relations with the international
community.
3. Oversupply of assistance: There could also be the problem of oversupply of
assistance. This could occur due to all sorts and forms of international assistance being
showered on the affected nation, without considering the suitability or quantum of
assistance from various other quarters. For instance there have been instances where-
in large quantities of undesirable types of apparels were supplied to refugees trying
desperately to subsist in semi-arctic climatic conditions. There were also instances
wherein high-heeled shoes were sent in large quantities of victims who were unlikely
to ever wear them.
 Chapter 23 International Disaster Assistance  265
Octopus Effect
The ‘octopus effect’ is an aspect of critical concern. This analogy is used to denote that if the
octopus gets hit on the head, its tentacles become paralysed and useless. This can happen to
nations too. If a small country gets hit by a disaster, inflicting server damages, it will paralyse
the government, and all its organisations and systems. During the planning phase it is assumed
that counter-disaster system will remain intact and operative when required. In all right earnest
it is assumed that such disaster countermeasures would be capable of being implemented.
However, when the basic system itself is directly hit, there is no likelihood that the counter-
measures will be implemented. This effect calls for a certain degree of decentralisation in the
planning phase. This could foster a sense of local self-dependence which could work wonders
in the event of a disaster. The octopus effect could occur anywhere. Recently, it was evident
in Nepal when an earthquake having intensity above 7 Richter scale, hit the Himalayan nation.
Till the issues presented in this chapter are solved in the very beginning and in an
intelligent manner, international assistances provided in the good interests could snowball into
major problems, destroying the international reputation of the country. If the recipient country
is having a mature political leadership, they will be capable of solving all these problems,
maintain good relations with the international community, and bringing the nation back to the
path of development.

Questions

1. What are the different types of International Assistance now available?

2. What are the issues pertaining to the reception and utilisation of international assistance?
3. Write a short note on octopus effect.
 24
Disaster
Preparedness

INTRODUCTION
Disaster preparedness involves measures that are aimed at enhancing life safety through
protective actions when a disaster occurs. It consists of activities that are aimed at improving
response activities and coping capabilities. Disaster preparedness can be considered to be the
midpoint between hazards research and disaster research. While disaster research focuses on
pre-disaster hazard vulnerability analysis and mitigation, hazards research focuses on post-
disaster emergency response and recovery. According to NRC (2006) Disaster Preparedness
intersects with disaster and hazards research areas. It serves as a connector between the pre
and post impact phases of a disaster event.
Peterson and Perry (1999) defines preparedness as the ‘actions that are undertaken
to reduce the negative consequences of events where there is insufficient human control to
institute mitigation measures’. National Fire Protection Association (2004) defines Disaster
Preparedness as:
activities, programs, and systems developed and implemented prior to a disaster/
emergency that are used to support and enhance mitigation of, response to, and recovery
from disaster/emergencies.
Preparedness will increase the ability of the community to respond effectively to the
impacts of the hazard, as well as to recover quickly from the long-term effects. It involves
comprehensive planning, resource management, training and education, and exercising.
Preparedness help in building better coordination and cooperation between various agencies.
Preparedness consists of measures that enable analysis of various stakeholder units like
individuals, households, organisations, communities, and societies to respond effectively to
disasters and recover as quickly as possible. The efforts put towards preparedness ensure that
the resources required for responding towards a disaster are in place, and the individuals,
266
 Chapter 24 Disaster Preparedness  267
communities and societies are aware about effective use of these resources. The activities
associated with Disaster Preparedness are the following:
1. Developing planning processes that ensures readiness,
2. Formulating appropriate disaster plans,
3. Stockpiling the necessary resources for effective response, and
4. Developing skills and competencies among individuals and community members to
ensure effective performance of disaster-related tasks.
It also includes actions to enhance the ability of undertaking emergency actions to protect
property, contain disaster damage and disruption, and the ability to involve in post-disaster
restoration and recovery activities. According to the NRCNC (2006), preparedness practices
involve:
1. Development of plans and procedures,
2. Recruitment and training of staff, and
3. Acquisition of facilities, equipment and materials required to provide active protection
at the time of emergency response.

COMPONENTS OF PREPAREDNESS
By being prepared, it means that an individual, organisation or community has raised their
ability to cope and has freed the required limited resources. Preparedness to be effective must
address the entire community.
Preparedness involves the following components:

Planning
Effective planning will help in identifying and developing an organisational structure that
is capable of directing and managing an emergency response. It will fix the authority and
responsibility related to various aspects of the required responses. It will also ensure the
development of the procedures and guidelines for an effective and coordinated action. Good
planning is dependent on good risk management. Planning can involve three components:
1. Emergency response: Emergency preparedness consists of all the activities
undertaken before an incident that increases the readiness of a community or
organisation to respond. The degree of readiness of a community is based on the
ability to respond, the plans, resources and infrastructure that would be in place so
that appropriate response is ensured.
2. Business continuity: Business continuity planning prepares an organisation to
adapt quickly to sudden changes in its environment. It ensures that the services of
the organisations are maintained with its own systems and resources, in the event
of a disaster. Continuity is to be maintained by taking into consideration issues
like succession, alternative work locations, practices or technologies, redirection of
resources to address specific needs, infrastructure and systems maintenance.
268  Disaster Management

3. Recovery: Recovery deals with all the aspects required to return an organisation to
normal after a disaster.

Training and education

Training and education is an absolute necessity to minimising the impact of disasters. It also
ensures an efficient and resilient response system and population. This also involves training
the various groups that will work together at the time of disasters.

Resource management
To tide over any adverse effects of a disaster, there is a definite need to manage the resources
efficiently and effectively. There should be in place an appropriate resource management plan
so that the resources are properly managed, and are made operational when required. The threat
and resource analysis would make available the required information to identify the requirement
of resource, its availability and shortfalls. Further, the plans should be updated periodically such
that it maintains the components at required levels, and periodically purchase and systematically
upgrade equipment as needed. The plan should also address points pertaining to the acquisition
of additional resources in the event of a catastrophic event.

Exercising
Exercising would help in sharpening the skills; toning up the knowledge; bonding the functions
and systems together; and applying them in the event of any particular scenario. It would also
help in evaluating the state of response preparedness.
An effective emergency response preparedness program should be ongoing and consist
of all the above four components. The components should be conducted in a systematic and
integrated manner. To be effective the program should have a fair balance between cost and
efficiency. The skills and knowledge should be constantly updated. With each change in the
threat perception, staff or resources the plan has to be recast, with appropriate changes in the
training, resources management and exercise.
There should be different types of disaster preparedness for households and business
organisations. The disaster preparedness for households should have activities and measures that
include developing household disaster response plans, having a proper idea about evacuation
routes and its procedures, knowledge about first aid, etc. Disaster preparedness for business
organisations should focuses on a host of activities that enables prevention of physical and
structural damages and inventory loss, protection of business records, information security, and
business continuity.

FORMULATION OF PREPAREDNESS PLANS

Various authorities, the world over, have identified elements that should be addressed while
formulating preparedness plans and efforts. The most comprehensive among them is the
Capability Assessment for Readiness (CAR), developed by Federal Emergency Management
Agency (FEMA) and the National Emergency Management Association (NEMA) of the USA.
 Chapter 24 Disaster Preparedness  269
The CAR has identified the following elements that need to be addressed in the preparedness
efforts (Table 24.1).
Table 24.1 Elements of Preparedness

Elements Details
Laws and There should be appropriate laws in place, with the required authorities who
Authorities are empowered by the law.
The hazards that are likely to occur in a given area should be identified
Hazard and the intensity of the impact assessed using appropriate tools. This could
Identification and involve the conduct of assessments pertaining to hazards its impact, and
Risk Assessment vulnerability. The potential impacts on facilities, structures, infrastructure
and populations should be understood properly.
All possible steps are to be taken at the individual, community, society, local
Hazard Mitigation
and national levels to mitigate the hazards.
In many occasions, when hazards strike, it is not the paucity of resources that
creates problems. It is the improper management that aggravates the problem.
As such adequate focus should be provided towards proper management of
Resource
the resources. Adequate equipment and supplies to support response activities
Management
should be acquired taking into consideration the unique needs of the area.
Resource should also include efforts aimed at the mobilisation of resources
to continue with operations, when key resources are destroyed.
Proper procedures should be in place for the effective direction, control
Management, and coordination of all the activities associated with disaster management.
Direction, and The responsibilities should be assigned with proper division of labour.
Coordination Preparedness committees and networks should be formed along with adoption
of the required management procedures.
There should be facilities for early warning system and for the communication
Communication of the required steps to the members of the society in the event of a disaster.
and Warning All the stakeholders should also be provided with the required hazard
information.
Proper operations and procedures have to be framed so that the community
Operations and
can be better prepared during a disaster. The public should be educated and
Procedures
trained, in addition to conducting periodical drills.
Proper logistics and related facilities should be in place so that it will help
Logistics and the victims in the event of a potential hazard. Steps should also be taken to
Facilities train the staff, identification of resources that were previously unrecognised
and in the development of logistics capabilities.
The officials, volunteers and the members of the community should be
Training provided the required training so that they are well prepared for any
eventualities.
Exercises, There should be periodical drills, with evaluations being done to assess the
Evaluations, and level of preparations. In the event of any shortcomings or gaps, appropriate
Corrective Actions corrective actions should be initiated.
270  Disaster Management

Elements Details
Crisis Communications resources are critical for all response activities at different
Communication, levels. Proper infrastructure will facilitate periodical communication and
Public Education information, and education of the public. The channels of communication
and Information should be assessed periodically for its effectiveness.
All the activities require financial allocations, if it is to be successful. As
Finance and
such there should be adequate and appropriate allocation of finance, and its
Administration
proper administration.

Yet another way of putting up the elements of disaster preparedness in presented in

Table 24.2.
Table 24.2 Elements of Disaster Preparedness

Elements Details
Planning involves collection and analysis of the required intelligence and
information. Based on this, the policies, plans, procedures, agreements,
Planning strategies, etc. are prepared. It should be seen that all these comply with the
relevant laws, regulations, and guidance. The plans must have the qualities
of being realistic, scalable, and have applicability to all types of incidents.
This element deals with the individual functional teams, the overall
Organisation and
organisational structure and leadership at each level. This should be put in
Leadership
place to perform the assigned missions and tasks.
There should be paid employees and volunteers who have the relevant
Personnel qualifications, experience and competence required to perform the assigned
missions and tasks.
Equipment and There should also be an inventory of equipment, supplies and facilities that
Systems is appropriate to perform the assigned missions and tasks.
All the employees and volunteers should be provided appropriate training
Training
such that they are capable of complying with the requirements.
Exercises, There should be periodical exercises and drills. It should be monitored and
Evaluations, and evaluated and required corrective actions should be taken to improve the
Corrective Actions combined capability of the other elements.

Most of the above elements are in practice intertwined with disaster mitigation and
preparedness.

TYPES OF DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

There can be two types of disaster preparedness that involve distinct set of practices. They are:

Emergency preparedness
Emergency preparedness provides short-term solutions during an emergency response. It will
provide support to the longer term efforts of disaster recovery. There would be different
 Chapter 24 Disaster Preparedness  271
set of emergency preparedness activities for each social unit. For instance, there can be
separate emergency preparedness for households, communities, businesses, Government, etc.
For instance, the disaster preparedness for local emergency management agencies needs to
focus primarily on the establishing of authorities and responsibilities for emergency actions.
Such agencies should also take care of the required resources to support the emergency actions,
involve in leadership and training, and in the exercise of support of technical and financial
assistance. They should also involve in designing and equipping emergency operations centers;
developing partnerships with various community organisations as well as educating the public
about disaster loss reduction.

Disaster recovery preparedness

Disaster recovery preparedness involves participating in activities and gathering the materials
that are required to provide rapid and equitable disaster recovery after an incident. This is done
after the incident ceases to pose an imminent threat to health and safety of all those involved.
This preparedness can also include hazard insurances that could provide financial protection
from economic losses.

UNITS OF ANALYSIS IN DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

The various units of analysis in disaster preparedness and relevant measures are presented in
Table 24.3.
Table 24.3 Units of Analysis in Disaster Preparedness and Measures

Units Details Measures

Household is the smallest unit of preparedness analysis. Knowledge about
Preparedness should begin at home with simple activities that hazard, formal and
are undertaken to improve life safety, property protection, informal response plans,
Households and survival from hazardous events. The vulnerability of life safety protection,
households is normally associated with income, education, property protection,
age, and the composition of the family (like the presence of emergency coping and
women, children, old persons, handicapped person, etc.). restoration, and recovery.
Communities could range from small local government
institution with limited resources to large municipalities
with the required preparedness initiatives. A number of Hazard knowledge;
organisations like local emergency management agencies, management, direction
Community and coordination; formal
fire and police departments, utility service providers,
public hospitals, public health systems, and departments and informal response
of public works and transportation are involved in disaster plans; supportive re-
management in the community. sources; property and
life safety protection,
Business preparedness is crucial since they are engines emergency coping and
of economies, and they are directly involved in crisis- restoration; and initiation
Business relevant activities at the time of disasters. For instance of recovery
businesses like hospitals and transportation companies
provide invaluable services at the time of a disaster.
272  Disaster Management

PRINCIPLES OF PREPAREDNESS
All types of hazards have the same principles of preparedness. A few principles of preparedness
are as under:
1. Formal plans are only one element in comprehensive preparedness strategies.
2. Plans mean little if there is the absence of certain other elements of preparedness.
3. Preparedness is an ongoing process and not an end product.
4. The preparedness efforts must be based on realistic assumptions concerning social
behaviour that may occur during times of crises.
5. Preparedness requires collaboration between various stakeholders. Although certain
amount of clear guidance would be ideal, a top-down direction may not be of
any use.
6. The guidance of planning activities should be done by who are expected to actually
carry out the plans.
7. Efforts towards preparedness should be comprehensive and inclusive, and should be
such that it promotes multi-organisational and multi-stakeholder participation.
8. The advocates of preparedness must put in their efforts to overcome constraints,
limitations, as well as outright opposition.
9. Preparedness should be based on risk and vulnerability. It should also consider certain
low probability and high consequence events.
10. Preparedness efforts must be such that it helps responders and victims to anticipate
surprise elements. This can be achieved through ongoing activities that foster the
ability to adapt, improvise, and innovate.
11. Though the focus of preparedness should be on a comprehensive ‘all hazards’
outlook, it should also have the required consideration towards individual hazards.
In other sense, preparedness activities should in no case be limited to only a few
specific perils.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PREPAREDNESS

Since large number of diverse organisations is involved in preparedness, it can create certain
problems in preparedness. Some such problems are listed in Table 24.4.
Table 24.4 Problems Associated with Preparedness

S. No. Areas Details

• If there is a lack of adequate policy directions for the overall DM there
will be adverse effects on the event and standard of preparedness.
Organisation • Absence of appropriate counter-disaster plans could lead to inadequate
1
and Planning preparedness.
• Plans should be updated periodically. Outdated plans could result in
lower levels of preparedness standards.
 Chapter 24 Disaster Preparedness  273
S. No. Areas Details
• There should be an appropriate DM organisational structure. An
inadequate or inappropriate DM organisational structure will lead to
faulty preparedness measures.
• Inappropriate concentration on response and recovery measures could
result in low preparedness standards leading to failure of DM.
• There is a need for a comprehensive inventory of resource organisations.
2 Resources These organisations should be assigned clear roles and responsibilities
so that gaps or overlaps do not exist.
• In the absence of adequate coordination, there may be substandard or
varied levels of preparedness, as various organisations may be working
on different preparedness criteria and priorities.
3 Coordination • In the event of friction or inter-organisational rivalry, poorly defined
areas of responsibilities, there can be adverse effects on preparedness.
There could also be personality clashes between senior officials, which
could spell the doom of DM.
• There should be an ever ready national/central DM authority that should
serve as a focal point, to monitor standards of preparedness. In the
4 Readiness
absence of such an authority, there may be problems associated with
readiness of equipment and resources.
• Any lack of suitable training for DM personnel could result in low
standards of preparedness.
Training and
5 • Adequate public awareness is a pre-requisite for preparedness. Lack
Awareness
of public awareness and information could lead to significantly lower
levels of preparedness.

References

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). (2004). NFPA 1600: Standard on Disaster/Emergency
Management and Business Continuity Programs, (http:www.nfpa.org/PDF/nfpa1600.
pdf?sic=nfpa)
National Research Council of the National Academies (2006). Facing Hazards and Disasters:
Understanding Human Dimensions, The National Academies Press: Washington, DC.
Peterson, Danny M. and Ronald W. Perry (1999). The Impacts of Disaster Exercises on Participants,
Disaster Prevention and Management, 8(4), 241–254.

Questions

1. What are the activities associated with disaster preparedness?

2. What are the components of preparedness?
3. Write a brief note about formulation of preparedness plan.
4. Elaborate on the elements of disaster preparedness
5. What are the types of disaster preparedness?
6. What are the principles of preparedness?
7. What are the problems associated with preparedness?
 25
Disaster Resilience

INTRODUCTION
The construct of ‘resilience’ has a long multi-disciplinary history. It has its origins in the 19th
century study of materials. From the 1940s the construct found its usage in psychology. It has
been used in ecology from early 1970s and in social sciences from the 1990s. The term started
to be used in development aid from 1999 when DFID considered it in sustainable livelihoods
perspective. Since early 2000, the term started to be used in economics and in management
(McAslan, 2010). Disaster resilience is part of the broader concept of resilience. Resilience is
‘the continued ability of a person, group, or system to adapt to stress’, so that it may continue
to function, or quickly recover its ability to function, during and after stress. Now, disaster
resilience is a term that is extensively used in disaster risk management (DRM).1 It has also
found wide usage in the field of disaster risk reduction (DRR) (Revet, 2012). There are now
no two opinions regarding the fact that DRM is cardinal to strategies and interventions to build
disaster resilience.
Disaster resilience and vulnerability are two terms that are closely associated. While
vulnerability is a risk factor, disaster resilience is the capacity of communities to respond to
such risks. Disaster resilience is the ability of those who are affected by disasters to organise
themselves; adapt and recover from hazards, shocks or stresses; learn from past disasters;
and reduce their risks in future. This recovery should be such that the long-term prospects
for development of the community are not compromised. Resilience can be at any level—
local, regional, national, or international. Further, it is a common knowledge that addressing
vulnerability by building resilience is more cost-effective than emergency relief.
Resilience has been defined in a number of ways. According to Norris, Stevens,
Pfefferbaum, Wyche, and Pfefferbaum (2008) resilience is ‘the ability of groups, such as

1. The connection between DRM and disaster resilience has been emphasised by the ‘Hyogo Framework for
Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities’, which was adopted by the UN,
World Conference on Disaster Reduction (UNISDR, 2005).
274
 Chapter 25 Disaster Resilience  275
communities and cities, to withstand hazards or to recover from such disruptions as natural
disasters’. DFID (2011) defined it as:
the ability of countries, communities and households to manage change, by maintaining
or transforming living standards in the face of shocks or stresses—such as earthquakes,
drought or violent conflict—without compromising their long-term prospects.
A more recent definition is that of OECD. The OECD (2013) defined it as:
the ability of individuals, communities and states and their institutions to absorb and
recover from shocks, whilst positively adapting and transforming their structures and
means for living in the face of long-term changes and uncertainty.
Disaster resilience, according to Hyogo Framework of Action (UNISDR, 2005) is the
degree to which individuals, communities and organisations organise themselves to learn from
past disasters and reduce their risks to future ones, at various levels—international, regional,
national and local. The framework has emphasised on prevention, mitigation, preparedness
and vulnerability reduction. It has also integrated risk reduction into emergency preparedness,
response and recovery. According to the tenets of the framework, disaster resilience is the
common ground between the various concepts in development and humanitarianism. Some such
concepts include DRR, Disaster response, Climate change adaption, Poverty reduction, Good
governance, Conflict sensitivity and peace building, and Sustainable development (UNISDR,
2005). Other key principles include gender equality and attention towards highly vulnerable
social groups and countries.

Some Important Facts

Priorities of the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015 (UNISDR, 2005)
1. Prioritising DRR through high-profile leadership, establishing relevant policies and programmes,
and allocation of the required resources.
2. Identifying, assessing and monitoring disaster risks and improving appropriate early warning
systems.
3. Creating awareness at all levels of society about risk and training them to reduce it.
4. Reducing vulnerabilities related to social, economic and environmental aspects and those related
to land use through improved development planning and post-disaster reconstruction.
5. Strengthening disaster preparedness of communities, for effective response at various levels.

DFID (2011) has provided a framework for disaster resilience, which is presented in
Table 25.1.
Table 25.1 Disaster Resilience Framework

S. No. Elements Details

The resilience could be built on institutions, social groups, socio-economic
1 Context
or political systems, as well as environmental context.
This involves the shocks or stresses towards which the resilience is aimed
at. The shocks could range from events like natural disaster, social conflict
2 Disturbance
or disasters, problems associated with urbanisation, degradation of natural
resources, to climate change.
276  Disaster Management

S. No. Elements Details

The capacity to respond is based on either of the following:
• Sensitivity: This is the degree to which an affected system is likely to
Capacity to respond to a shock or stress.
3
respond • Adaptive capacity: The capacity to adjust to a shock or stress, take
advantage of available opportunities and cope with the consequences of
the transformation.
Reaction or response could be any of the following:
• Bounce back better: In this instance after the incident capacities are
enhanced, the exposures are reduced and the system becomes able to deal
with future shocks and stresses better than the initial stage.
4 Reaction • Bounce back: In this case the community would be back to the condition
which existed before the disaster.
• Recover, but worse than before: There may also be instances wherein
the capacities of the communities are reduced due to the disaster. A total
collapse of the system may also occur, leading to substantial reduction in
the capacity of the community to cope, even in future.

According to Manyena (2006) disaster resilience is both an outcome and a process. It is

an outcome since its practices tend to adopt a top-down reactive approach. Further, it tends
to favour a status quo and draw attention away from inequalities that result from insecurity
and disaster. Disaster resilience is a process since it involves series of aspects that support the
capacity of individuals, communities and states to adapt through assets and resources relevant
to their particular contexts. It also implies host of other activities that involve enhancing
peoples’ rights, and addressing socio-economic, gender and environmental inequalities that
could exacerbate vulnerabilities (Andharia, et al., 2010). In the recent years the concept of
disaster resilience has gained prominence globally, due to a host of reasons:
1. Increase in the frequency and severity of weather-related hazards: Of late due to
the impact of climate change more frequent, severe and unpredictable weather related
hazards are occurring. Some such hazards include droughts and desertification, floods,
cyclones, heat waves, etc. Exposure to such disasters is likely to increase multifold
in the near future with the effects of climate change increasing.
2. Increasing urbanisation: Adverse effects of urbanisation are affecting both
developed and developing countries alike. It is estimated that in the next few decades
due to urban development, there would be increased exposure and vulnerability due to
urbanisation. UNISDR (2013) is of the opinion that urbanisation will have a greater
influence on disaster risk than climate change.
3. Increased vulnerability due to disasters: Disasters have been a major reason for
increasing vulnerabilities; causing setbacks to development gains, aggravating poverty
and enhancing the possibility of conflicts.
4. Inadequate interventions: There are possibilities of multiple vulnerabilities that
could have a cascading effect. For instance, vulnerabilities like fragility of state,
natural disasters due to climate change, conflicts, etc., leading to the risk of mortality
 Chapter 25 Disaster Resilience  277
are likely to have a sequence. However, interventions to deal with such vulnerabilities
are grossly inadequate.
5. Gross inadequacy of funds for disaster resilience: Experiences show that most
of the humanitarian aid is spent on emergency assistance, with only a small portion
goes toward disaster prevention and preparedness (Oxfam, 2013). An ideal situation
would be to provide greater emphasis towards building capacities that could help in
reducing vulnerabilities and aiding communities to recover from hazards.
6. Need for a holistic and integrated approach: Only an integrated approach to
disaster will provide the required results in the long run. In addition to humanitarian
aid, more amounts need to be apportioned for disaster prevention and long-term
development of infrastructure.

Benefits of Disaster Resilience

Disaster resilience programmes are holistic in nature, and aims to reduce human casualties. It
also protects infrastructure, livelihoods, social systems and the environment. A few benefits
derived from disaster resilience are:
1. Reduction in human casualties: Disaster risk prevention helps in limiting the loss
of life due to disasters. There are many examples for this in India and neighbouring
Bangladesh. It can also help in reducing the likelihood of disaster-related conflicts.
2. Protection of infrastructure and livelihoods: An effective disaster prevention
scheme has the capability to protect the existing infrastructure and the livelihoods of
communities. This is evident from the reduced cost of property damage in countries
where facilities exist for disaster reduction and recovery.
3. Protection of social systems: Disaster resilience can positively impact communities
through altering the attitudes and behaviours of members towards risk.
4. Protection of the environment: Increased awareness about disaster resilience has
been found to help in preserving the environment. This has been proven in various
countries, by way of reduced forest destruction, preservation of water resources, etc.
5. International collaboration: Disaster resilience activities are capable of bringing
together global institutions involved in aspects like disaster response, humanitarian
aid, climate change adaptation, poverty reduction, and so on. This will make
available appropriate advanced technologies and aids to less privileged nations at
affordable rates.

COMMUNITY DISASTER RESILIENCE

Community is a group of people who have a common domain of interest. It is dynamic and
responds to changes in a host of factors like population, political leadership, economy, and
environment. In the case of disaster resilience, a community cannot be defined based on
mere jurisdictional boundaries as disasters are not confined within geographical boundaries. A
community that has a strong economy, commitment to social justice, and strong environmental
278  Disaster Management

standards will be capable of resilience after any disaster. It is also capable of anticipating threats,
withstanding hazards, mitigating potential harm when possible, operate under stress, and adapt
to adversities and recover after a crisis without fail. Resilient communities are quick to recover
and restore functionality after a crisis, withstand hazards, can adapt to adversity and continue
to operate under stress. According to Plodinec (2010) a resilient community is:
one that anticipates threats, mitigates potential harm when possible, and prepares to
adapt in adversity. Such communities more rapidly recover and restore functionality
after a crisis.
In any community, building and maintaining disaster resilience is dependent on its ability
to appropriately monitor the changes and modify plans so as to accommodate the observed
changes. For a community to become resilient, rather than the quantum of assistance, the effort
to engage and collaborate with the entire community in resilience-focused activities is what
matters. To be resilient, the entire community should be engaged in all the decisions related
to the disaster cycles, viz. disaster mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. No section
of the community should be left out in this process. Community has responsibility towards
people of all walks of life like women, minorities, those with disabilities, children, the elderly,
and other populations that are potentially vulnerable are included in the process of disaster
resilience. Special care is required for those who are vulnerable to crises like poverty, crime,
violence, serious illness, and unemployment, which are considered as important. This would
empower members to leverage available resources and capacities to benefit the community.

CHALLENGES OF FORMING A DISASTER

RESILIENT COMMUNITY
The challenges that confront formation of a disaster-resilient community are numerous. They
vary from community to community. For instance, in disadvantaged communities, or during
times of economic turbulence it is quite normal for daily survival taking precedence over
planning for disasters. Further, most of such communities consider disasters to be of low
probability. Other challenges include:
1. Lack of national strategy for resilience: In most developing countries there is a
lack of common strategy for a disaster resilient community.
2. Lack of a ‘bottom-up approach’: Achieving resilience at the national or state level
depends on achieving it at the local/community level. Since the local governments and
civic organisations would have unique knowledge, access and communication with the
individual community members, it would be ideal to bring them to the forefront. Well
prepared individual members would be capable of contributing towards household and
workplace resilience. Well-prepared households in turn would contribute towards the
various facets of resilience like neighbourhood, social, economic, and community.
Such communities would place lesser demands on the state resources at the time or
disasters or disruptions. A state or a nation becomes resilient when its component
communities are resilient. All disaster resilience strategies should be based on the
notion that if disaster resilience is fostered at the community level, it will become
the cornerstone of the state or national preparedness efforts.
 Chapter 25 Disaster Resilience  279
3. Lack of support from the commercial organisations: In most societies disaster
mitigation and efforts towards resilience is considered to be the responsibility of the
governments. Though an individual businessman may be aware and understand that
requirement for preparing for disasters he may be reluctant to act until the efforts
originate from the local chamber of commerce or his trade association. The business
community should inculcate a notion in their minds that they are also responsible for
disaster mitigation and creation of resilient communities. Resilience will augur well
for the commercial organisations, as the communities would rebound economically,
socially and environmentally.
4. Problems associated with mobilising individuals: Mobilising individuals is no
mean issue. Efforts to mobilising individuals are efficient and successful only when
the existing networks and institutions are made use of. It would require multiple
mechanisms.
5. Creation of an all-inclusive network: For the creation of a resilient community,
there is the badly felt need for creating a link between the existing professional,
religious, social, economic, commercial and other networks. Such a link between
local agencies can succeed in having increase interaction with all the stakeholders of
the emergency management community. Engaging all sectors, community members,
the existing networks and links can increase the ability of the community to identify
their unique needs and leverage the available community resources. This link or
collaboration is easy said than done.

Some Important Facts

Recommendations of Oxfam for Aiding Resilience
Disaster resilience, in many instances, is found to be disconnected from aspects like political
economy, power and inequalities, gender inequalities, and so on. This reality has made Oxfam
(2013) to recommend a political and equity focused dimension for aiding resilience. Some areas
of focus are:
• Sharing of risk across the society: This can be done through social insurance and such other
related activities that target the disadvantaged groups, who require greater support and services
for their uplift.
• Building pro-poor institutions: Such an activity must be done at all possible levels. Such
institutions must represent and respond to the needs and capacities of the most vulnerable.
• Ensuring rights and accountability: This should take care of the ability of stakeholders to
assert their rights and hold those in power accountable. This can be accomplished through
participation in decision making at all levels.
• Providing free essential basic services: Those susceptible to vulnerability should be provided
with free essential basic services like health, education, and social protection.
• Establishing progressive tax regimes: The tax regimes should be such that it is simple, and
does not provide any scope for evasion.
• Tackling corruption: The world over, corruption is one aspect that drains invaluable resources.
If the stakeholders at the lower strata are to benefit from the welfare activities, corruptions
should be tackled with the required will-power.
280  Disaster Management

MEASURING DISASTER RESILIENCE

Various disaster resilience measurements have been developed by several agencies. Some
of them include DFID’s ‘Multi-Hazard Disaster Risk Assessment’ (2012), The Emergency
Capacity Building Project’s (2013), Oxfam GB’s ‘Participatory Capacity and Vulnerability
Assessment (PCVA) (2012), Tearfund’s ‘Roots 9: Reducing Risk of Disaster in our
Communities’ (2011), ‘Characteristics of Resilience’ Framework, of Tigg (2009), etc. One
of the widely-cited measurements is the ‘Characteristics of Resilience’ Framework, of Tigg
(2009). It uses the five dimensions of resilience that were identified in the Hyogo Framework
for Action as key indicators. It also suggests a range of indicators for measuring each of the
dimensions. The main dimensions and indicators of ‘Characteristics of Resilience’ Framework
are provided in Table 25.2.
Table 25.2 ‘Characteristics of Resilience’ Framework

S. No. Dimensions Indicators

• Policy, planning, priorities and political commitment
• Legal and regulatory systems
• Integration with development policies and planning
• Integration with emergency response and recovery
1 Governance
• Institutional mechanisms, capacities and structures
• Allocation of responsibilities
• Partnerships
• Accountability and community participation
• Hazards/risk data and assessment
2 Risk assessment • Vulnerability and impact data and assessment
• Scientific and technical capacities and innovation
• Public awareness, knowledge and skills
• Information management and sharing
3 Knowledge and education • Education and training
• Cultures, attitudes, motivation
• Learning and research
• Public awareness, knowledge and skills
• Information management and sharing
Risk management and
4 • Education and training
vulnerability reduction
• Cultures, attitudes, motivation
• Learning and research
• Public awareness, knowledge and skills
• Information management and sharing
Disaster preparedness and
5 • Education and training
response
• Cultures, attitudes, motivation
• Learning and research
Source: Twigg, 2009.
 Chapter 25 Disaster Resilience  281
CRITICISMS OF DISASTER RESILIENCE
Disaster resilience is a topic which has been subjected to criticism from various quarters. For
instance, Levine, et al. (2012) is of the opinion that disaster resilience does not have anything
new to offer to the substance of humanitarian or development assistance. In the same lines
Maxwell, et al. (2009) says that it is just the re-labelling of various long-standing approaches
as resilience-building. It provides nothing new as to how humanitarian or poverty reduction
programmes can be implemented (Manyena, 2006).
The next criticism is about the political dimension. It is mainly the state actors who
have the required political power to address the underlying causes of vulnerability to disasters.
However, many experts (for instance, Andharia, et al., 2010; Béné, et al., 2012 and Walker,
et al., 2011) are of the opinion that the concept of disaster resilience has been depoliticised by
placing greater than required responsibility on the individual and the society, rather than state
players. Ganapati (2013) is of the opinion that radical shift to the bottom-up disaster resilience
risks has the potential to further burden women and girls.

References

Andharia, J., et al. (2010). Towards disaster resilience index for vulnerable communities: A Mumbai
study, Mumbai: Tata Institute of Social Sciences.
Béné, C., et al. (2012). Resilience: New Utopia or New Tyranny? Reflection about the Potentials
and Limits of the Concept of Resilience in Relation to Vulnerability Reduction Programmes.
IDS Working Paper 405. IDS. http://www.ids.ac.uk/publication/resilience-new-utopia-or-new-
tyranny-reflection-about-the-potentials-and-limits-of-the-concept-of-resilience-in-relation-to-
vulnerability-reduction-programmes
DFID. (2011). Defining Disaster Resilience: A DFID Approach Paper, DFID. https://www.gov.uk/
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/186874/defining-disasterresilience-
approach-paper.pdf
Ganapati, N.E. (2013). Downsides of Social Capital for Women During Disaster Recovery:
Toward a More Critical Approach, Politics and Society, 41(1), 72–96. http://aas.sagepub.
com/content/45/1/72
Levine, S., Pain, A., Bailey, S., and Fan, L. (2012). The relevance of ‘resilience’? ODI, http://
www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7818.pdf
Manyena, S.B. (2006). The Concept of Resilience Revisited, Disasters, 30(4), 434–450. http://
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0361-3666. 2006.00331.x/abstract
Manyena, S.B., et al. (2008). Disaster Resilience and Children: Managing Food Security in
Zimbabwe’s Binga District, Children, Youth and Environments. Children and Disasters,
18(1), 303–331. http://www.jstor.org/stable/info/10.7721/chilyoutenvi.18.1.0303
Maxwell, D., et al. (2009). Baseline Report: Africa Community Resilience Project. Tsaeda Amba
Woreda, Eastern Tigray, Ethiopia. Research Program on Livelihoods Change over Time.
Feinstein International Center, Tufts University. http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/
resources/669879DA678141DBC12576AA0051E6B0-Tufts-ACRP_Report_1.pdf
282  Disaster Management

McAslan, A. (2010). The Concept of Resilience. Understanding Its Origins, Meaning and Utility,
Torrens Resilience Institute. http://www.torrensresilience.org/images/pdfs/resilience%20
origins%20and%20utility.pdf
Norris, F.H., Stevens, S.P., Pfefferbaum, B., Wyche, K.F., and Pfefferbaum, R.L. (2008).
Community resilience as a metaphor: Theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster
readiness, American Journal of Community Psychology 41(1–2): 127–150.
OECD (2013). What Does ‘Resilience’ Mean for Donors? An OECD Factsheet, OECD. http://www.
oecd.org/dac/governancedevelopment/ May%2010%202013%20FINAL%20resilience%20
PDF.pdf
Oxfam (2013). No accident, Resilience and the inequality of risk, Oxfam International. ttp://www.
oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/bp172-no-accident-resilience-inequality-of-risk-210513-
en_1.pdf
Plodinec, J. (2010). Community and Regional Resilience Institute, Personal communication,
June 28.
Revet, S. (2012). Conceptualizing and Confronting Disasters: A Panorama of Social Science
Research and International Policies. In Attina, F. (2012). The Politics and Policies of Relief,
Aid and Reconstruction: Contrasting Approaches to Disasters and Emergencies. Palgrave
Macmillan. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cFyqk3Nke3YC
Twigg, J. (2009). Characteristics of a Disaster-Resilient Community, A Guidance Note. NGO inter-
agency group, http://community.eldis.org/.59e907ee/Characteristics2EDITION.pdf
UNISDR (2005). Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disasters. World Conference on Disaster Reduction. 18–22 January 2005,
Kobe, Hyogo, Japan. A/CONF.206/6. UNISDR.
UNISDR (2013). From Shared Risk to Shared Value—The Business Case for Disaster Risk
Reduction, Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, UNISDR. http://www.
preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2013/en/gar-pdf/GAR2013_EN.pdf
Walker, J., et al. (2011). Genealogies of Resilience from Systems Ecology to the Political
Economy of Crisis Adaptation, Security Dialogue, 42(2), 143–160. http://sdi.sagepub.com/
content/42/2/143.short

Questions

1. What is disaster resilience?

2. List down the disaster resilience framework.
3. List the reasons for disaster resilience gaining global importance now a day.
4. What are the benefits of disaster resilience?
5. Write in detail about community disaster resilience.
6. What are the challenges that confront formation of a disaster-resilient community?
7. How can we measure disaster resilience?
 26
Disaster Management
in India

INTRODUCTION
India is a country that is vulnerable to both natural (Table 26.1) and manmade disasters.
Natural disasters occur in India due to its unique diverse geo-climatic conditions. According
to the World Bank (2004) 68 per cent of India is susceptible to drought, 60 per cent prone to
earthquakes, over 12 per cent (40 million hectares) prone to floods, and 8 per cent prone to
cyclone. Manmade disasters occur mostly due to terrorism. Figure 26.1 provides the vulnerability
profile of India (Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India, 2013).
Table 26.1 Major Disasters in the Past Decade

Disaster Year Area affected Casualties

Bhuj, Anjar, Surat and Around 25,000 dead and over 6.3
Bhuj earthquake 2001
Ahmadabad of Gujarat million people affected
Coastal areas of Andaman,
Over 10,000 dead, 5600 missing and
Tsunami 2004 Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
over 2.75 million people affected
and Kerala
Kashmir earthquake 2005 Kashmir and surrounding areas Over 86,000 dead
Maharashtra flood 2005 Metropolis of Maharashtra Over 1000 deaths, around 200 injured
The north Bihar districts
Around 250 killed, 3,00,000 houses
of Supaul, Araria, Saharsa,
Kosi flood 2008 destroyed, and about three million
Madhepura, Bhagalpur, West
people forced out of their homes.
Champaran and Purnea
Gobindghat, Kedar dome,
Rudraprayag, districts of Over 5700 killed, and properties in
Uttarakhand floods 2013
Uttarakhand and parts of over 4200 villages affected.
Himachal Pradesh

283
284  Disaster Management

Figure 26.1 India’s vulnerability profile.

Despite these vulnerabilities India has been late in addressing disaster management issues.
Almost all the five-year plans failed to address disaster management. India has traditionally
taken an approach that was reactive and calamity relief-based. It was a single faculty domain
and focused solely on post-disaster responses. This has now transformed to a structure that
is activity-based, multi-dimensional, proactive, and institutionalised. The current focus is on
disaster prevention and mitigation.

HISTORY OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT (DM) IN INDIA

The origins of DM in India can be traced back to the British period. This followed a series of
disasters like famines that occurred in 1900, 1905, 1907 and 1943, etc., a series of floods, and
the earthquake that occurred in the Bihar–Nepal area in 1937. Under the British regime, India
had relief departments that were set up for emergencies. Most of the DM during that time was
reactive, functional and activity-based. The DM machinery at that time was active only during
the post-disaster scenarios. The policy was mostly relief-oriented with activities focusing on
designing of relief codes and putting across a few programmes that included food for work.
Since independence DM has undergone substantive facultative changes in almost all areas
including its composition, nature and policy. The tasks of managing disasters in independent
India were vested with the State Relief Commissioners of each state. The State Commissioners
functioned under the Central Relief Commissioner, whose role included distribution of money
and relief material to the affected areas. During this time the DM structure was activity-based
and functioned under Relief Departments.
Subsequent to the super cyclone that hit Orissa coast on October 19, 1999 and the Bhuj
earthquake in Gujarat on January 26, the Government adopted a multi-dimensional and multi-
disciplinary process involving scientific, engineering, financial, and social processes in the
area of DM. The Government of India constituted a High Power Committee (HPC) for the
formulation of DM plans for all the States. The Committee formulated common plans for 31
identified disasters. Towards this, the Committee followed a multi-hazard approach. Various
trigger mechanisms were set to ensure that here is efficiency of response activities during a
disaster. The HPC developed a concept of ‘L concept’ that required the activation of resources
 Chapter 26 Disaster Management in India  285
during various disasters. This concept has been developed to define the different levels of
disasters. The severity of disasters and the demand for assistance from district, states and
centre is denoted from L0 to L3. The Ministry of Disaster Management, Government of India
is responsible for DM in India. It works as per the provisions of the Disaster Management Act,
2005. Further, the National Disaster Response Plan (NDRP) describes the responsibilities, and
provides checklists, handbooks, planning assumptions, activities, response, and deactivation for
each disaster support function.

DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME (DRMP)

The Disaster Risk Management Programme (DRMP) was taken up by India with the assistance
from a number of agencies like the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United
States Agency for International Aid (USAID), Department of International Development
(DFID), Disaster Preparedness European Commission’s Humanitarian Aid Department
(DIPECHO), Government of Japan, and United Nations International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction (UNISDR). The programmed was implemented in 169 highly hazard prone districts
in 17 States during 2002–2009. Special emphasis was provided to the North Eastern States.
DRMP is aimed at:
(a) Minimising losses of development gains from disasters and reduce vulnerability,
(b) Disaster preparedness,
(c) Awareness generation and public education,
(d) Preparedness, planning and capacity building, and
(e) Developing appropriate institutional, administrative, legal and techno-legal policies at
various levels.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT IN INDIA

A permanent and institutionalised setup for DM was initialised in India in the early 1990s.
A few instances that prompted institutionalisation included the declaration of 1990 as the
‘International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction’ (IDNDR) by the UN General Assembly,
the Latur (1993) and Bhuj (2001) earthquakes, the Orissa super cyclone (2001), and so on. The
IDNDR emanated in May 1994 from the Yokohama message that underlined the need for an
emphatic shift in the strategy for disaster mitigation.
Institutionalised activities in India for DM started with the setting up of Disaster
Management Cell under the Ministry of Agriculture. This followed the report of the J.C. Pant
Committee, constituted to draw up a systematic, comprehensive and holistic approach towards
disasters. Ever since, there was a paradigm shift in the policy towards DM. From a relief
through financial aid, the policy evolved into a holistic DM approach. In 2002 the DM Division
was shifted from Ministry of Agriculture to Home Affairs (MHA), and an institutionalised and
hierarchical structure was established for DM. Under this structure, the DM Division is headed
by Joint Secretary (DM) in MHA. The Joint Secretary (DM) is assisted by three Directors,
with a host of officials including Under Secretaries, Section Officers, Technical Officers,
286  Disaster Management

Senior Economic Investigators, Consultants and other supporting staff. The Division is overseen
by the Secretary (Border Management), Home Secretary, Minister of State and the Home
Minister.
The focus of DM now shifted to early warning systems, forecasting and monitoring
of various hazards. A multi-stakeholder High powered group involving representatives from
different ministries and departments were also setup. Different ministries were designated as
nodal authorities for certain specific disasters.

Present DM Structure
The present DM Structure in India has National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
at the helm. The Prime Minister heads NDMA. The State Disaster Management Authorities
(SDMA) functions under the NDMA. This is followed by district and local level authorities.
The activities of NDMA are also supplemented by the National Crisis Management Committee.
A number of nodal ministries are identified for different types of disasters, who function under
the overall guidance of the MHA. Thus, there are now various levels of institutional setup
within the DM framework.

THE DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT, 2005

The Disaster Management Act was passed on 23 December 2005, by the Government of
India. The Act was a remarkable step towards holistic disaster management. It lays down
the institutional, legal, financial and coordination mechanism at various levels—National,
State, District and Local Levels. Rather than a response and relief-centric approach, the Act
provides for a proactive and comprehensive mindset towards disaster management. It covers a
whole gamut of activities ranging from prevention, mitigation, preparedness to rehabilitation,
reconstruction and recovery. The highlights of the Act include:
• Creation of a policy, legal and institutional framework that is backed by statutory and
financial support.
• Integrating the disaster management concerns of various sectors into the developmental
process and mitigation measures.
• Involving in a continuous and integrated process of planning, organising, coordinating
and implementing disaster management policies and plans in a holistic, community
based participatory, inclusive and sustainable manner.
The Act has 19 chapters divided into three parts. A brief description of the Parts and
Chapters are provided in Table 26.2.

Authorities Under the Act

The Act provides for setting up of NDMA, SDMAs, DDMAs Executive Committees at
national and state levels, National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) which engages in
capacity building, and the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF). The various Ministries and
 Chapter 26 Disaster Management in India  287
Table 26.2 Disaster Management Act

Part Chapter Head

I Introduction
II Vulnerability Assessment and Risk Analysis
III Preventive Measures
Mainstreaming DM Concerns into Developmental Plans/
I IV
Programmes/Projects
General
V Preparedness Measures
VI Response
VII Partnership with other stakeholders
VIII Financial arrangements
IX Floods
X Cyclones
XI Earthquakes

II XII Landslides
Disaster Specific XIII Chemical Disasters
Action Plan XIV Nuclear Disasters
XV Biological Disasters
XVI Oil Spills and Mine Disasters
XVII Tsunami
III XVIII Review and Updation of Plans
Cross Cutting Issues XIX Coordination and Implementation

Departments are also expected to draw up their own plans within the general guidelines of the
National Plan. Other provisions of the Act include:
1. Provisions for financial mechanisms like creation of funds for response,
2. Setting up of National Disaster Mitigation Fund and similar funds at various levels,
and
3. Providing specific roles to local bodies in disaster management.

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

The Act provides for setting up of NDMA under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister.
The NDMA has the responsibility for laying down policies, plans and guidelines for disaster
management as well as their coordination, enforcement and implementation, so that timely and
effective response to disasters is ensured. Necessary cooperation and assistance will be provided
by the Central Ministries, Departments and the concerned State Governments for carrying
out the mandate of NDMA. The executive committee of NDMA is the National Executive
288  Disaster Management

Committee (NEC). The committee assists NDMA to discharge its functions, and ensure
compliance of the relevant directions of the Central Government. In addition to the Chairman,
NDMA has nine other members, out of which one would be designated as Vice-Chairperson.
Other officials include a Secretary and five Joint Secretaries including one Financial Advisor.
There would be 10 Joint Advisors and Directors, 14 Assistant Advisors, Under Secretaries and
Assistant Financial Advisor and Duty Officer. There are other supporting staffs too.
The NDMA is mandated to lay down policies and guidelines about DM that are intended
at disaster risk reduction. The Authority is also expected to draw up State Plans and take all
required measures for the management of disasters. The different Ministries, Departments of the
Government of India, the State Government, and SDMA are expected to follow these policies
and guidelines. Other responsibilities of NDMA include:
(a) Approval of the National Plan;
(b) Approve plans that are prepared by the various Ministries or Departments of the
Government of India, ensuring that they are in accordance with the National Plan;
(c) Providing guidelines to the SDMA for drawing up of State Plans;
(d) Laying down guidelines for the integration of the various measures taken by the
different Ministries or Departments for the prevention or mitigation of disaster;
(e) Coordinating all the efforts related to the enforcement and implementation of the
policy and plan for DM;
(f) Recommending the required funds for disaster mitigation;
(g) Supporting other countries affected by major disasters, as decided by the Central
Government;
(h) Taking appropriate measures for the prevention or mitigation of disasters, as well as
preparedness and capacity building for dealing with disaster threats;
(i) Lay down policies and guidelines for the optimum functioning of NIDM.

National Executive Committee (NEC)

NEC is constituted as per Section 8 of the Act. It assists NDMA in the performance of
its functions. It is the responsibility of the NEC to prepare the National Plan for Disaster
Management. This should be based on the broad guidelines of the National Policy on Disaster
Management. The NEC also monitors the implementation of the various guidelines issued
by the NDMA. It is also expected to perform such other functions assigned to it by the
Central Government, in consultation with NDMA. As per Section 10 of the Act, NEC has the
responsibility to:
• Act as the coordinating and monitoring body for DM,
• Prepare a National Plan,
• Monitor the implementation of National Policy, etc.
The Home Secretary is the ex-officio Chairperson of NEC. Other members include
Secretaries to the Government of India in the Ministries or Departments of Agriculture,
Atomic Energy, Defence, Drinking Water Supply, Water Resources, Environment and Forest,
Finance (Expenditure), Health, Power, Rural Development, Urban Development, Science
 Chapter 26 Disaster Management in India  289
and Technology, Space, Telecommunication. The Chief of Integrated Defence Staff is also a
member. Based on need, and for the efficient discharge of its function, NEC may constitute
one or more sub-committees. The NEC conducts its activities in accordance with the Disaster
Management National Executive Committee (Procedure and Allowances) Rules, 2006.

State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMA)

Section 23 of the Act provides for constitution of SDMAs and DDMAs in all states and Union
Territories. The SDMAs are headed by the Chief Minister of the respective states. The SDMA
lays down policies and plans for DM pertaining to the State, in accordance with the guidelines
laid down by the NDMA. It is the responsibility of SDMA to coordinate activities like:
• Implementation of the State Plan,
• Recommendations regarding provisioning of required funds for mitigation and
preparedness measures, and
• Reviewing the developmental plans of various departments of the State so that there is a
harmonious integration of activities leading to prevention, preparedness and mitigation
of disasters.

State Executive Committee (SEC)

Section 20 of the Act prescribes establishing of SECs. The SEC is constituted by the State
Government to assist in the functions of the SDMA. The SEC coordinates and monitors the
implementation of the National Policy, the National and State Plans. The SEC is headed by
the Chief Secretary to the State Government. The Chief Secretary is assisted by four other
Secretaries of such departments as decided by the State Government. As per provisions of
Section 22 of the Act, the responsibility of SEC includes coordinating and monitoring the
implementation of the National Policy and Plan, and the State Plan.

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

Section 25 of the Act provides for constitution of DDMAs at the district level. All districts
are expected to have DDMAs. The DDMA is headed by the District Collector, Deputy
Commissioner or District Magistrate. The Co-chairperson would be an elected representative
of the local authority. Other members of DDMA include the CEO of the District Authority,
Superintendent of Police, Chief Medical Officer and two district level officers as designated
by the State Government. The responsibility of DDMA includes:
• Acting as the planning, coordinating and implementing body for DM at the District
level,
• Taking all the required measures for DM in accordance with the guidelines laid down
by the NDMA and SDMA, and
• Ensuring that all the guidelines and directives provided by the Departments at the State
and District Level are followed as intended.
290  Disaster Management

The Authority also has the power to examine the construction in any area with an intension
to enforce safety standards, arrange for rescue and relief measures, and respond to disasters
at the district level.

Local Government Bodies

Local Government Bodies like the three-tier Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), Municipalities,
District and Cantonment Boards and Town Planning Authorities are expected to:
• Ensure capacity building of the human resources in managing disasters,
• Carrying out relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction activities in the affected areas,
and
• Prepare action plans in accordance with the guidelines set by various bodies like
NDMA, SDMAs and DDMAs.

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

The National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM) was established in Indraprastha Estate
on the M.G. Road, New Delhi, within the Indian Institute for Public Administration (IIPA)
campus in 1995. It was established in the backdrop of the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). The NCDM was on October 16, 2003 upgraded and designated as
the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM). The Institute achieved statutory status
with the enactment of the Disaster Management Act, 2005. The responsibilities of the Institute
are contained in Section 42 (Chapter VII) of the Act. A few of the responsibilities include:
(a) developing training modules,
(b) undertaking research and documentation in the area of DM,
(c) organising training programmes,
(d) undertaking and organising various study courses, conferences, lectures and seminars
for promoting and institutionalising disaster management,
(e) publication of journals, research papers, books, etc.
The NIDM is also responsible for capacity development in partnership with other research
institutions. It is also expected to develop a National Level information base. The Union Home
Minister is the President of the Institute, with 42 general body members. The general body
members include secretaries of various ministries, departments of the Union Government and
heads of certain national level scientific, research and technical organisations. The Institute
is headed by a Director, who is assisted by faculty and staff. Presently the Institute has four
academic divisions:
1. Geo-Hazard Division
2. Hydro-met Hazard Division
3. Policy Planning and Cross Cutting Issues Division
4. Response Division
 Chapter 26 Disaster Management in India  291
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
Section 44 of the Act contains the provisions pertaining to the National Disaster Response Force
(NDRF). The force has been constituted by upgradation/conversion of eight standard battalions
(consisting of over 1000 members each) of Central Para Military Forces. This included two
battalions each from the Border Security Force (BSF), the Indo–Tibetan Border Police (ITBP),
the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) and Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF). They
were converted as a specialist force to respond to disaster or disaster like situations. The eight
battalions consist of 144 specialised teams that are trained in dealing with various types of
natural disasters. While all these eight battalions are being trained in natural disasters, four
of them are additionally trained for handling Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear
(CBRN) disasters. Out of the 144 teams 72 are trained to cater to disasters-related CBRN.
Each NDRF battalion consists of over 1000 personnel organised in 18 teams comprising of
45 personnel. All the personnel are equipped and trained for rendering effective response to
any threatening disaster situation or disaster, either natural or manmade. These battalions are
stationed in eight different regions of the country, based on vulnerability.
As per the Act, the general superintendence, direction and control of NDRF are vested
with the NDMA. The command and supervision of the Force shall be with an officer who will
be appointed by the Central Government as the Director General of Civil Defence.

State Disaster Response Force (SDRF)

The various states and UTs have to set up Specialist Response Force. This force is expected to
respond to disasters as in the case of NDRF. The Central Government would provide assistance
for training this force. The state governments are expected to utilise 10 per cent of their State
Disaster Response Fund and Capacity Building Grant for the procurement of equipment and
training the SDRF.

Certain Other Associated Institutions

Cabinet Committee on Management of Natural Calamities (CCMNC)

The Cabinet Committee on Management of Natural Calamities (CCMNC) is another body that
has been constituted to facilitate the management of disasters. CCMNC oversees all aspects
pertaining to the assessment of the situation and identification of measures and programmes that
are necessary to reduce the impact of disasters. It also examines and implements programmes
that reduce the adverse impact of natural calamities. Other functions include monitoring and
suggesting long-term measures required for the prevention of calamities, and formulating
and recommending programmes that could create public awareness. Such programmes are
indented to build societal resilience towards calamities. The Committee is serviced by Ministry
of Home Affairs.
1. Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS): The Cabinet Committee on Security
(CCS) dwells on issues that are related to the defence of the country, law and order
292  Disaster Management

and the internal security. The committee also deals with policy matters concerning
foreign affairs which could have security implications, and economic and political
issues.
2. Inter-Ministerial Group (IMG): Inter-Ministerial Groups (IMG) are constituted in
the event of calamities of severe nature. The IMG central teams would be deputed
to the affected areas for inspecting any damage caused and assessment of relief
assistance that may be required. It is the IMG that is headed by the Union Home
Secretary that scrutinises the assessment made by the Central Teams and finally
recommends the exact quantum of assistance that needs to be released.
3. The High Level Committee (HLC): A High Level Committee (HLC) that
approves the central assistance to be provided to the affected States, based on
the recommendations of the IMG. The HLC comprises of the Finance Minister
(Chairman), and the Home Minister, Minister of Agriculture and Deputy Chairman
of Planning Commission as members.
4. National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC): The National Crisis
Management Committee (NCMC) comprises of high level officials of the Central
Government, headed by the Cabinet Secretary. This Committee, constituted in the
Cabinet Secretariat has Secretary to the Prime Minister, Secretaries of the Ministries
of Home Affairs, Defence, Information and Broadcasting, RAW, NDMA, Deputy
NSA, and Director of Intelligence Bureau as members. The Committee will deal with
major crisis that could have serious national ramifications. NCMC will be supported
by Crisis Management Group (CMG) of all the Central Nodal Ministries and would
be assisted by NEC. The Committee is expected to give the necessary directions to
the Crisis Management Group.
5. Crisis Management Group (CMG): This Crisis Management Group (CMG) is
formed under the Chairmanship of the Home Secretary. The Joint Secretary (DM) is
the Convener of CMG. The group comprises of senior officers derived from various
Central ministries and other concerned departments. The functions of the CMG
include:
• Reviewing the contingency plans formulated by the Central Ministries/Departments;
• Reviewing the measures required for dealing with a natural disaster;
• Coordinating the activities of the various Central Ministries and the State Governments
with respect to disaster preparedness and relief; and
• To obtain information from nodal officers regarding the various measures initiated
with respect to the above functions.
6. National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC): The National Emergency
Operation Centre (NEOC) is constituted in the Ministry of Home Affairs. The
Centre functions round the clock to monitor the disaster or potential disasters. The
Centre issues advisories to the concerned State Governments based on information
received from various National Forecasting Agencies like the Indian Meteorological
Department, Central Water Commission, Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment,
etc. The Centre also advices the States and Union Territories about measures that
need be taken for necessary evacuation of the vulnerable persons, operation of relief
 Chapter 26 Disaster Management in India  293
camps in areas affected by disasters, pre-positioning of essential commodities and
medicines, etc. In the event of calamities of severe nature, the NEOC prepares and
issues special situation reports and alerts to all concerned.
7. State Control Room: State Control Rooms are set up at the state level when a
disaster situation develops. The State Control Room is responsible for:
• Transmitting relevant information about the development of a crisis as a result of
natural disaster, on a continued basis to the Central Relief Commissioner.
• Obtaining instructions and communicating them to the appropriate agencies/bodies
for immediate action.
• Collection and submission of information relating to implementation of various
relief measures to the Central Relief Commissioner; and
• Keeping all the concerned State authorities informed about the developments on
a continued basis.
8. District Control Room: Control Rooms are also set up at the district level for the
monitoring of day-to-day rescue and relief operations, operationalising the contingency
plan, and keeping close liaison with the State Headquarters and other related agencies
that deal with DM.

NATIONAL DISASTER MITIGATION FUND

Section 47 of the Act stipulates constitution of a National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF). As
per provisions of the section, the Central Government has to set up the NDMF exclusively for
the purpose of disaster mitigation. The Government has to credit to the fund such amounts as
deem fit after due appropriation made by the parliament. It is the responsibility of the NDMA
to manage the NDMF.

State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF)

As per provisions of Section 48(1) of the Disaster Management Act, the State Governments
are to constitute the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF). The SDRF is to be operated by
the State Governments. Allocations to SDRF are to be made based on the recommendations
of the Finance Commission. The expenditure incurred by the various state governments during
the last 10 years for relief operations are considered while allocating funds.

Some Important Facts

Key Findings and Recommendations about Disaster Preparedness in India by
the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG)
The report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) presented in April 2013
provided an insight about the disaster preparedness in India. According to the report, two
institutional frameworks—the earlier and the new, co-exist, since the new one is still in the early
stages of implementation.
294  Disaster Management

A few of the observations made in the report are as under:

• The national plan for DM is not formulated till date.
• There was non-availability of adequate provisions to make the guidelines issued by the NDMA
binding on the state governments. The major projects undertaken by NDMA were yet to be
completed.
• The NEC and MHA have not developed the National Plan for DM even after six years of the
enactment of the DM Act.
• The National Disaster Mitigation Fund is yet to be established.
• The communication systems for DM are not developed. Critical equipment have not been
procured and the satellite-based communication network has not been developed.
• Due to the shortage of trained manpower, the absence of training facilities, equipment and
infrastructure, the effectiveness of the NDRF is hampered because of shortage of trained
manpower and absence of appropriate training facilities, infrastructure and equipment.
A number of suggestions were also made by the CAG based on the findings. A few suggestions
are provided below:
• A comprehensive national plan for DM should be formulated by the NEC and MHA.
• The NDMA should ensure that all the guidelines are implemented.
• Roles and responsibilities of the MHA, NEC and NDMA should be clearly outlined.
• There is a need to strengthen the monitoring mechanism by the MHA.
• Disaster Mitigation funds should be established at various levels—national, state and district
levels.
• The National Database for Emergency Management must be operationalised by the Department
of Space at the earliest.
• Emergency action plans for all the states, covering major dams, must be prepared by the
Ministry of Water Resources.

NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT

National Executive Committee (NEC) has the responsibility to prepare the National Plan, and
coordinate and monitor the implementation of the National Policy. The Central Government
has approved the National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) on October 22, 2009. The
NPDM envisages a safe and disaster resilient country through ‘the development of a holistic,
proactive, multi-disaster oriented and technology-driven strategy’. This is expected to be
achieved through ‘a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response’.
The Policy covers the whole gamut of DM, like institutional, legal and financial
arrangements; disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness; techno-legal regime; response,
relief and rehabilitation; reconstruction and recovery; as well as capacity development,
knowledge management, research and development. The focus of the policy is on the areas that
need action; and the institutional mechanisms by which the required action can be channelised.
The Policy seeks to address the concerns of the different sections of the society, particularly
the vulnerable sections like differently-abled persons, women, children and other disadvantaged
groups. The Policy also addresses aspects, like granting of relief and the formulation of measures
required for the rehabilitation of all those affected by disasters. Through the involvement of
 Chapter 26 Disaster Management in India  295
the community, community organisations, local government organisation and civil society, the
Policy aims at bringing in transparency, accountability, inclusiveness, and equity in all aspects
of DM. The Policy also provides the required responsibility to the State authorities for laying
down policies and plans for DM for their respective states.
The Policy has guidelines with respect to management of landslides and avalanches,
cyclones, earthquakes, floods, droughts, chemical disasters (industrial and terrorism), psycho-
social support and mental health services, medical preparedness and mass casualty management,
management of nuclear and radiological emergencies, management of biological disasters,
tsunamis, management of deaths in the aftermaths of disasters, countering of threats to municipal
water supply and water resources, etc.

CATEGORISATION OF DISASTERS
The Act categorises disasters based on the ability of various authorities to deal with them. The
present categorisation is given in Table 26.3.
Table 26.3 Categorisation of Disasters

This denotes the normal times that can be utilised for preparatory activities like monitoring,
documentation, prevention, mitigation, etc. This can be considered to be the planning stage
L0 where plans at various levels ranging from community to the State are put in place. Required
trainings for activities like search and rescue as well as rehearsals, evaluation of plans,
updation of inventory for response activities, etc. are carried out in this phase.
This specifies disasters that can be managed at the lower level—mostly district level. The
L1 next levels, namely state and centre will be in a state of readiness so as to provide any
needed assistance.
This category specifies disaster situations requiring assistance as well as active participation
L2
of the state. It may also require resource mobilisation at the state level.
Disaster situations of a large scale wherein neither districts nor states have the capacity to
respond adequately is included in this category. The assistance from the Central Government
L3
may be required for reinstating the losses. The participation of Central Government will
normally be limited to this level.

Various colour codes relating to the level of alerts have also been assimilated.

NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE

Another associated Plan is the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). The Plan
was released by the then Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh on June 30, 2008. The Plan
outlines the existing and future policies and programs that address climate mitigation and
adaptation. NAPCC calls for measures to promote development objectives while yielding
co-benefits for addressing climate change effectively. The Plan seeks assistance from developed
countries, while pledging that India’s per capita Green House Gas (GHG) emissions will not
exceed that of developed countries. The Plan identifies eight core national missions as given:
296  Disaster Management

1. National Solar Mission

2. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
3. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
4. National Mission for Sustaining The Himalayan Ecosystem
5. National Water Mission
6. National Mission for Green India
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
8. National Mission for Strategic Knowledge on Climate Change

Reference

Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India on Performance Audit of Disaster
Preparedness in India (2013). Report Number 5, New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of India.

Questions

1. Elaborate on Disaster Risk Management Programme.

2. What is the present Disaster Management structure in India?
3. Write a short note about The Disaster Management Act, 2005.
4. List down the responsibilities of National Disaster Management Authority.
5. What are the responsibilities of State Disaster Management Authority?
6. What do you know about National Centre for Disaster Management?
7. What is the duty of National Disaster Response Force?
8. Elaborate on National Crisis Management Committee and Crisis Management Group.
9. Elaborate on National Policy on Disaster Management.
10. How does Disaster Management Act categorise disasters?
 27
Response to
Disasters

LAND DEGRADATION
India has initiated a large number of response programmes to deal with the adverse effects
of land degradations. To have precise knowledge about the areas that have been degraded
or eroded, the National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, the Central Soil and
Water Conservation Research and Training Institute and the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), have jointly prepared the maps of areas that have been affected by soil
erosion. Further, the All-India Soil and Land Use Survey, Ministry of Agriculture, is involved
in generating both spatial and non-spatial information on the soils of India. This is done to
prepare thematic maps that would present aspects like land capability classification, hydrological
soil grouping, etc. The attempts of various Central Government bodies are supplemented by
efforts of state governments. India has implemented a number of programmes to deal with
soil degradation.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME

A large number of watershed management programmes have been taken up extensively all over
the country. These programmes are implemented by the Soil and Water Conservation Division
of the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. A pioneer programme in this regard is
the Integrated Watershed Development Programme (IWDP). This programme was launched in
the year 1989–1990. The main intentions of this programme are:
1. to develop the wastelands on watershed basis,
2. to strengthen the natural resource base, and
3. to promote the overall economic development of the resource-poor and disadvantaged
sections of people inhabiting the programme areas.
297
298  Disaster Management

JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME (JFM)

Joint Forest Management Programme (JFM) is an important intervention that manages the
forest resources, while recognising the livelihood and sustenance needs of the people through
the principle of ‘care and share’. The basic element of JFM is to establish certain grassroots
community-based institutions for the protection of forests and management of its resources.
JFM empowers the local community and make them actively participate and partner in the
management of forest resources. It also shares the benefits that are derived from the protection
and management of the forests. JFM is capable of optimising the returns, minimising various
conflicts and linking all forestry development works with the overall land development. The
programme also intends to build capability at the grassroot levels, including technical and
managerial skills.

DESERT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (DDP)

The Desert Development Programme (DDP) was launched to tackle the special problems faced
by both the hot and cold desert areas. It is implemented in the hot desert areas of Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Haryana; as well as the cold deserts areas of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Pradesh. Recently, DDP has been extended to cover a few districts of Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka. The main objective of the programme is to minimise the adverse effect of drought.
It also intends to control desertification through appropriate steps that would rejuvenate the
natural resource base of desert areas. Other aims of the programme include promoting the
overall economic development of desert areas and improving the socio-economic conditions
of the people that inhabit the programme areas. DDP is being implemented in over 235 blocks
pertaining to 40 districts in the seven states stated above.

THE PROGRAMME FOR RECLAMATION OF

ALKALI SOIL (RAS)
It is estimated that in India over 7 Mha of land have been degraded due to salt problem, out
of which nearly half the area is affected by alkalinity. The RAS programme was launched
for reclaiming such soils from alkalinity. Alkaline soils have been identified to be located in
11 states. Some of the states include Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, and
Madhya Pradesh. The main objectives of RAS are:
• Reclamation of the lands affected by alkalinity and improving land productivity. This
is to be done by cultivating salt tolerant crops and horticulture plantations;
• Increased production of fuel-wood and fodder;
• Training of extension personnel and beneficiaries in the various aspects of alkali land
reclamation technology; and
• Generate employment opportunities in these areas so that the rural-urban migration can
be reduced.
 Chapter 27 Response to Disasters  299
This programme has been successful in reclaiming large tracts of alkaline soil in the
country.

WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT IN

SHIFTING CULTIVATION AREAS
The main objective of Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas (WDPSCA),
initiated since 1994–1995, is the overall development of shifting cultivating ( jhum) areas on
watershed basis. The WDPSCA aims at reclaiming the lands affected by shifting cultivation,
and uplifting the socio-economic condition of affected jhumia families.

Some Important Facts

The Department of Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Punjab, took up an
ambitious plan to deal with the proper management of agricultural waste. This initiative was
undertaken to promote alternative uses of straw, instead of burning it in the open fields. Farmers
of Punjab traditionally burned the agricultural waste in the open fields after harvesting. This had
severe adverse effects on the soil, the ambient air as well as the health of living organisms.
The department constituted a task force in September, 2006 to formulate a policy to mitigate this
problem. The task force, in their report, suggested promotion of scientific agronomic practices and
advanced technological measures for better utilisation of the agricultural wastes. The suggestions
included use of straw for power generation. Another unique suggestion provided by the task force
was the use of Happy Seeder.
The Happy Seeder was developed by Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), in collaboration with
Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research (ACIAR). The seeder is a compact and
lightweight machine that is tractor-mounted. It consists of two separate units—one is a straw
management unit and the other a sowing unit. The operation of the seeder is that it cuts, lifts
and throws the standing stubble and loose straw and sows, while retaining the residue as surface
mulch for the field. The seeder manages the total loose straw and the cutting rice residue in strips,
which are thrown in front of each furrow opener. This helped to a very large extent in dealing
with the malice of burning agricultural waste. Later, the burning of paddy and wheat straw in
open fields were also banned in the state.

DEGRADATION OF AIR
The Government of India has initiated various steps to deal with the adverse effects of air
pollution. Some of them include enacting the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
1981, National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP), Vehicular Pollution Control
Measures, Industrial Pollution Control Measures, etc. They are presented in the following
sections:

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

The purpose of this Act is to provide for prevention, control and abatement for air pollution. The
300  Disaster Management

Act extends to the whole of India including the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The enactment
of this piece of legislation was necessitated as India participated in the UN Conference on
Human Environment held in Stockholm in June 1972. In this conference it was decided to
take appropriate steps for the preservation of natural resources of the earth, preservation of
the quality of air and control of air pollution. Section 2(a) of the Act defines air pollutant as:
any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the atmosphere in such concentration
as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or
property or environment.
Air pollution is defined in Section 2(b) as ‘the presence in the atmosphere of any air
pollutant’.
The constitution, powers, functions, etc. of the Central and State Pollution Control Boards
are contained in Sections 4 to 6 of the Act. The terms and conditions of service, disqualification,
meetings of the Board, constitution of committees, provisions regarding Member Secretary
and offices of the Board, etc. are contained in Sections 3 to 15 of the Act. The powers and
functions of the Central and State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB/SPCB) are contained in
Sections 16 to 18. The main functions of the CPCB are:
• To advise the Central Government on matters regarding improvement of the quality
of air and prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
• To plan and execute nationwide conduct mass contact programmes, training pro-
grammes, etc.
• To lay down standards for air quality, collect and disseminate information regarding
air pollution, etc.
• To carry out and sponsor investigations and research related to prevention, control and
abatement of air pollution.
The SPCBs are bound by the directions of the Central Board and State Government.
Some of their main functions include:
• Planning a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control and abatement of air
pollution,
• Advising the State Government in matters concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution,
• Collecting and disseminating information regarding air pollution, and collaborating with
the Central Board in organising training of persons engaged in prevention, control and
abatement of air pollution, conduct mass education programmes.
The SPCB is also authorised to inspect industrial plants and provide directions for the
prevention and control of air pollution. It also advises the State Government with respect to the
suitability of any premises or location for carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air
pollution. The CPCB has evolved action plans that identify the sources of air pollution, assesses
the pollution load and adopt abatement measures. These plans are implemented through the
SPCBs. It also oversees the setting up of inter-departmental task forces for the implementation
of city specific action plans.
Section 19 of the Act provides the State Government with the power to declare air
pollution control areas. Power to give instructions for ensuring standards for emissions for
 Chapter 27 Response to Disasters  301
automobiles is contained in Section 20. Section 21 restricts the use of certain industrial plants.
As per provisions of this section previous consent is required to operate any industrial plant
of any industry within air pollution control areas. The State Board may also impose certain
conditions while providing consent to set up industrial plants. Persons operating industrial
plant in any air pollution control area are not permitted to discharge pollutants in excess of the
standards laid down by the State Board (Section 22). As per Section 24 of the Act any person
empowered by the State Board has the right to enter any place to assess whether the equipment
or plants are functioning as per the directions, or in a manner detrimental to the environment.
Section 26 empowers the State Board or any officer authorised by it to take samples of air or
emission and conduct analysis of the same. Provisions regarding funds, accounts and audit are
contained in Sections 32 to 36. The penal provisions of the Act are contained in Sections 37
to 40. Penalties for contravention of the provisions range from imprisonments ranging from
six months to a maximum of seven years, and fines up to ` 5000 according to the gravity of
the incident. Sections 53 and 54 empower the Central and State Governments respectively to
make rules.
The Act was amended in 1987 to empower the Central and State Pollution Control
Boards to meet grave emergencies. The Boards are authorised to take immediate measures to
tackle grave emergencies and recover the expenses incurred from the offenders. The Board
is also empowered to cancel consent given to any party for non-fulfillment of any prescribed
conditions or terms.

National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAQMP)

The National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAQMP) is executed by the CPBC across
the country. The monitoring is done through a network of 342 operating stations that covers
127 cities/towns in 26 States and four Union Territories of the country. The objectives of the
NAQMP include:
• Determining the status and trends of ambient air quality;
• Ascertaining whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are violated;
• Assessing the health hazards and damage to materials;
• Periodic evaluation of air pollution situation across the country;
• Developing appropriate preventive and corrective measures; and
• Initiating steps to understand the natural cleansing processes of the environment
through pollution, dilution, dispersion, wind-based movement and other complex
process like dry deposition, precipitation and chemical transformation of various
pollutants.
The NAMP identified SO2, NO2, SPM and RSPM (PM10), for regular monitoring. Based
on the available data on air quality, The Hon’ble Supreme Court of India identified 16 cities
having poor air quality. The cities are Hyderabad, Patna, Ahmedabad, Faridabad, Jharia,
Bangalore, Pune, Mumbai, Sholapur, Jodhpur, Chennai, Agra, Kanpur, Lucknow, Varanasi
and Kolkata. NAQMP has drawn up comprehensive action plans for the improvement of air
quality in these cities.
302  Disaster Management

Stack height
Stack (also known as chimney) is the provision in industries through which the air pollutants
are released into the atmosphere. As the name denotes, stack height is the height of the stack.
Appropriate height of the stack is required to scientifically deal with the pollutants. The
downwind concentration of the pollutant is dependent on the stack height. There are two stack
heights of the same stack:
1. Physical stack height: The actual height of the stack from the surface of the ground
till the top edge of the stack is known as physical stack height
2. Effective stack height: The plume rise1 added to the physical stack height is known
as effective stack height.
Earlier, it was considered that higher stacks transported and diluted pollutants farther
before reaching the ground. But the reality is different. Though tall stacks transported pollutants
to farther distances, during the course of transportation, the chemical transformation led to the
formation of acid rain in downwind localities. There are several equations for calculating the
plume rise. In India, certain rules and regulations are in force to deal with the height of the stack.

DEGRADATION OF WATER
Managing water resources in India is the responsibility of a number of government agencies—
both Central and State. The primary responsibility for the protection and development of water
resources however rests with the individual states. The Central Government oversees the various
state policies on water resources development, and manages the inter-state and international
rivers. Its various agencies provide technical advice to the states for the development of water
resources, flood control, coastal erosion, dam safety measures, navigation, and hydropower
requirements. India has also enacted a number of rules to protect the water resources in the
country. Pre-dominant among them is the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1974.
The Act has been amended a number of times to make it effective and up to date.

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 provides for the prevention and
control of water pollution and the maintaining or resorting of wholesomeness of water, and to
prevent and control water pollution. It provides a comprehensive definition of water pollution
when it defines it as:
‘Such alteration of physical, chemical or biological properties of water or such discharge
of any sewage or trade effluent or any other liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water
whether directly or indirectly as may or is likely to create a nuisance or render such public
health or safety or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses, or
to the life and health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms’.
1. The pollutants emitted from the stack go up to a certain height due to its temperature and as a result of
forced ejection. The height from the edge of the stack up to which the plume rises is called plume rise.
After the rise the plume is affected by the prevailing wind conditions and is transported horizontally.
 Chapter 27 Response to Disasters  303
The Act has 8 chapters, the brief details of which are as in Table 27.1.
Table 27.1 Water Prevention Act Chapters

S. No. Chapter Brief particulars

1 I Preliminary—contains short title, application, and definitions.
Authorities—the Central and State Boards for prevention and control of water
2 II pollution and their constitution, meetings, constitution of committees, powers,
etc.
Joint Boards—contains provisions regarding constitution of joint boards by two
3 III
or more state governments or the Central Government, their composition, etc.
Power and Functions of the Board—contains the functions of Central and State
4 IV
Boards, powers, etc.
Prevention and Control of Water Pollution—provisions regarding power
to obtain information, to take samples of effluents, entry and inspection;
5 V prohibition on use of stream or well for disposal of polluting matter; restrictions
on new outlets and new discharges; discharge of sewage; appeals; revisions;
etc. are contained in this chapter.
Funds, Accounts and Audit—contains about contributions by Central and
6 VI State Governments, fund of Central and State Boards, budget, annual report,
accounts and audit.
7 VII Penalties and procedure.
Miscellaneous provisions like Central and State Water Laboratory, analysts
8 VIII and their reports, jurisdictions, power of the Central and State Governments
to supersede Boards, power to make rules, etc. are detailed here.

Section 3 provides for constitution of a Central Board to be called as the Central Board
for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution, that may exercise powers conferred on
it under the Act. This Board shall be a body corporate, having perpetual succession and a
common seal with power, to acquire property, can sue and be sued. The members who form
the Board are also contained in this section. Section 4 empowers the State Government to
constitute a State Board. The Board is a body corporate and has all the other qualities of the
Central Board. The membership of the State Board is also contained in this section. A Joint
Board can be constituted by two or more State Governments, or Central Government and one
or more State Governments or Union Territories (Section 13). The constitution of the Joint
Board is contained in Section 14. Sections 16 and 17 contain the functions of the Central and
State Boards respectively.
Sections 19 to 33 contain provisions with respect to the prevention and control of water
pollution. The State Board is authorised to take samples of effluents (Section 21) and get
them analysed from a laboratory established or recognised by the Central Board (Section 22).
Section 23 empowers the State Board to enter any place to determine that the provisions of
the Act is followed as well as to ensure compliance of rules, notices, orders, directions, etc.
Section 24 prohibits the use of stream or well for the disposal of polluting matter. Provisions
with respect to appeals are contained in Section 28 and revisions in Section 29 of the Act.
304  Disaster Management

Section 32 contains the provisions with respect to emergency measures to be taken in case of
pollution of stream or well due to any accidents or unforeseen events. The State Board can,
as per provisions of Section 33 make an application to Courts for restraining apprehended
pollution of water in streams or wells.
The provisions regarding contributions, funds, budgets, annual reports, accounts and
audit are contained in Sections 34 to 40 of the Act. Penal provisions are contained in
Sections 41 to 50 of the Act. As per Section 43 any person who contravenes the provisions of
Section 24 is punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than six months,
but may be extended to six years and with a fine. Other penalties (Sections 44 and 45) include
imprisonment for a period not less than six months that may be extended to a period of six
or seven years as the case may be. The imprisonment may also be supplemented with fines.
Provisions regarding offence by companies are contained in Section 47, and Government
Departments are contained in Section 48. Sections 63 and 64 empower the Central and State
Governments respectively to make rules.
The Act was amended in 1978 and 1988. The amendment of 1988 was very comprehensive
and was intended to remove certain practical difficulties faced in its implementation. As per this
amendment of 1988, the Central Board was renamed as ‘Central Pollution Control Board’ and
the State Board as ‘State Pollution Control Board’. Section 24 of the earlier act was amended
to include ‘sewer or on land’ in addition to ‘stream or well’. A number of changes to certain
other provisions were also made in this amendment.
There are few other Acts that deals with the management of water resources. Some of
them include the Environmental Protection Act (1986), the River Boards Act (1956) and the
Inter-State Water Disputes Act (1956).

River Boards Act, 1956

The River Boards Act, 1956 deals with the regulation and development of inter-state rivers and
river valleys. The Boards advises the Central Government on the development opportunities and
involves in resolution of disputes. The Boards advices the Government in the following aspects:
• Conservation and optimal use of water resources;
• Promotion and operation of schemes related to irrigation, water supply, drainage,
navigation, hydro-power, flood control, etc.;
• Promoting afforestation programmes with a view to control soil erosion;
• Prevention of pollution.
Though enacted with noble purpose in mind, the efficacy of the Act is still at doubt,
even after a century.

Inter-State Water Disputes (ISWD) Act, 1956

Since majority of Indian rivers are shared by more than one state, there is a need to adjudicate
any dispute regarding the control and distribution of waters. The Inter-state Water Disputes Act,
1956 was enacted for this purpose. The Act empowers the Central Government to constitute
 Chapter 27 Response to Disasters  305
Tribunals in the event of disputes between states. The Inter-State Water Tribunals established
so far are:
1. Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal (April 1969)
2. Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal (April 1969)
3. Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (October 1969)
4. Ravi and Beas Water Disputes Tribunal (April 1986)
5. Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (June 1990)
While the first three Tribunals have been concluded, the final decisions for the last two
tribunals are still pending.
Certain other programmes and policies worth mentioning are the National Water Quality
Monitoring Programme (NWQMP), the National Water Policy (NWP), the River Boards Act,
etc.

National Water Quality Monitoring Programme (NWMP)

CPCB in collaboration with various SPCBs has established a nationwide water quality
monitoring network. It comprises over 1000 stations in 27 States and 6 Union Territories. The
monitoring which covers a large number of rivers, lakes, tanks, canals, drains, wells, etc. is
done on a monthly or quarterly basis for surface water and half yearly for groundwater. This
water quality monitoring has revealed alarming results. The results indicate that organic and
bacterial contaminations in water bodies continue to be critically high. The main reasons for
such critically high contamination and degraded water quality include:
1. Discharge of untreated domestic wastewater from urban areas.
2. The inability of the municipal corporations to treat the increasing sewage load flowing
into water bodies.
3. The inadequacy of the receiving water bodies to dilute the contaminated water due
to high oxygen demand and bacterial pollution.
These issues are leading to an increased trend towards high incidence of water borne
diseases.

National Water Policy

Realising that a comprehensive water policy is an absolute necessity for dealing with growing
number of social, economic and environmental issues connected with water resources; National
Water Policy (NWP) was adopted by The National Water Resources Council in 1987. NWP is
the primary document of the Government of India on water resource issues. It has provisions
for drought, flood management and drinking water.
The National Water Resources Council periodically reviews the progress made in the
implementation of the policy. The Secretaries from various Central Ministries associated with
water resources and the Chief Secretaries of States/Union Territories are the members of
the Council. In addition to providing suggestions for further action, the Council also makes
306  Disaster Management

recommendations regarding financing and development of new projects for the development of
water resources. The NWP serves as a guideline to planners and managers in the promotion
of sustainable management of the country’s water resources. It addresses a host of issues
pertaining to planning, development and allocation of all types of water resources. The points
that are addressed by the policy are:
• Development of a standardised national information system containing data on water
availability so that it can be used for appropriate planning;
• The conduct of resource planning using a catchment or watershed as the basic unit;
• Making water development projects multi-purpose so as to address various priorities
including drinking water provision as well as mitigation of flood;
• Assessment of environmental impact new projects so that its impact on the environment
is minimised to the maximum possible extent;
• Inclusion of farmers and other socially disadvantaged groups like Scheduled Castes
and Tribes and other minority groups in the planning process pertaining to irrigation
management policies;
• Groundwater development should be such that it is based on the potential and recharge
capabilities of the particular aquifer;
• The priority for water allocation should be based in the order of drinking water,
irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses;
• Irrigation planning should maximise benefits to farmers, and it should have an
integration of soil and water conservation practices;
• Water rates should be based on the actual cost of water use and should be such that
it encourages economic use;
• Encouraging the promotion of water conservation activities through education,
regulation and incentives;
• Development of a comprehensive master plan for flood control and management,
that should include aspects of soil conservation, forestry management, zoning and
forecasting considerations;
• Priority to be accorded to drought-prone areas in all water development projects so
that soil moisture conservation and water harvesting practices are encouraged;
• Pursuing interdisciplinary research in the areas of hydrometeorology, groundwater
hydrology and recharge, rain water harvesting, crops and cropping systems, sedimentation
of reservoirs, recycling and re-use of water, and sea water resources should be pursued.

International Treaties

Due to international disputes that arose between India and its neighbours pertaining to trans-
boundary Rivers, a few treaties have been signed. The disputes have been settled and the treaties
have been arrived at through diplomatic channels. The treaties are:
• The Indus Water Treaty between India and Pakistan (1960)
• The Indo–Nepal Treaty on Integrated Development of Mahakali River (1996)
 Chapter 27 Response to Disasters  307
• The Ganga Water Sharing Treaty with Bangladesh (1996), pertaining to the sharing of
Lean Season Flow of Ganga, at Farakka Barrage constructed in India.
The Farakka Barrage dispute with Bangladesh originated when the water level entering
that country, as a result of the construction of the barrage, ceased during the lean season—from
January to May. The agreement was to share the flow during the lean season in the ratio of
60 per cent by Bangladesh and 40 per cent by India. Though still certain minor irritants exist
in this agreement, it still holds good.

VEHICULAR POLLUTION CONTROL MEASURES

A number of steps have been taken to control the vehicular pollution in India. A few of the steps
envisaged include vehicular emission norms, fuel quality specifications, traffic management,
encouraging the use of public transport system, reduction of emission from lubricants, using
advanced technology, alternate fuels, mass awareness programmes, etc. The programmes are
now discussed in detail.

Vehicular Emission Norms

India has adopted a road map for the control of vehicular pollution through use of cleaner fuels,
automobile technologies and enforcement measures. An improved “Pollution Under Control”
(PUC) certification system has been introduced. All these have been introduced through Auto
Fuel Policy 2002. The Policy introduced Bharat Stage-II norms for all new vehicles from April
1, 2005. Further, EURO-III equivalent emission norms were introduced from April 1, 2005 for
all new vehicles, except 2–3 wheelers in 11 major cities.

Fuel Quality Specifications

The Environment Protection Act specified fuel quality parameters with respect to diesel and
gasoline in April 1996. The measures specified in the Act were introduced in phases. The
various phases wherein the measures were implemented are presented in Tables 27.2 and 27.3.
Table 27.2 Gasoline Lead Phase-out Programme

Phase Date of introduction Lead content Areas

I June 1994 Low lead (0.15 g/l) Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
Unleaded (0.013 g/l) + Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai
II April 1, 1995
low leaded
III January 1, 1997 Low leaded Entire country
IV September 1, 1998 Only unleaded National capital territory
V December 31, 1998 Unleaded + low leaded Capitals of state and UTs
VI February 1, 2000 Unleaded Entire country
Source: CPCB, 2008.
308  Disaster Management

Table 27.3 Diesel Sulphur Reduction Programme

Phase Date of introduction Sulphur content Areas

I April 1996 0.50 Four metro cities and Taj
II August 1997 0.25 Delhi and Taj
III April 1998 0.25 Metro cities
IV January 2000 0.25 Entire country
April 2000 0.05 NCR private vehicles
January 2000 0.05 Mumbai all vehicles
V
March 2001 0.05 NCT all vehicles
July 2001 0.05 Chennai and Kolkata
VI October 2001 0.05 All retail outlets of four metros
VII 2003 0.05 Ahmedabad, Surat, Agra, Pune and Kanpur
VIII 2005 0.05 Entire country
IX 2005 0.035 10 metro cities and Agra
X 2010 0.035 Entire country
XI 2010 0.005 10 metro cities
Source: CPCB, 2008.

Traffic Management

A few traffic restrictions were also introduced in various parts of the country so that pollution
could be checked. A few such steps include:
1. Restrictions regarding goods vehicles during day time in various cities.
2. Exclusive lanes of the roads for buses and other Heavy Motor Vehicles.
3. Installation of time clocks at important traffic signals so that drivers can switch off
their vehicles based on the time left in the clocks, and
4. Construction of more flyovers and subways for better traffic flow.

Public Transport Systems

A few steps intended to ease traffic congestions are:

1. Increasing the number of buses in public the public transportation system in major
cities so as to reduce private vehicle use.
2. Introduction of Metro Rail System in various cities.
3. Implementing Mass Rapid Transit Systems (MRTS).
4. To provide better public transport system to ease congestion, through introduction of
Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) under JNNURM.
 Chapter 27 Response to Disasters  309
Reduction of Emissions by Using Lubricants

Strict specifications for reduction of emission in the usage of lubricants have been initiated.
Some such specifications include:
1. Notification of specifications of 2T oil for two stroke engines under the Environment
Protection Act to be implemented throughout the country.
2. Pre-mix 2T oil dispenser to be installed at all petrol filling stations in Delhi so that
there is no use of excessive oil.
3. Banning the sale of loose 2T oil in Delhi and Kolkata.

Technology

Advanced technology is also to be used to reduce emissions to the maximum possible extent.
Some of the measures initiated include:
1. Compulsory fitting of catalytic converter to new petrol passenger cars,
2. Introduction of two wheelers with four-stroke engine in the market from October
1998, and
3. Only rear engine auto rickshaws will be registered from May 1996 onwards.

Alternate Fuels

Introduction of CNG vehicles were done in a number of metros so that emission can be reduced.
In Delhi all city buses were ordered to be converted to CNG.
1. Notification of emission norms for CNG and LPG-driven vehicles were done.
2. Ethanol blended petrol vehicles introduced in certain states and union territories.
3. National Mission on Bio-diesel announced by the Government of India and
specifications for this drafted by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).

Control of Pollution from In-use Vehicles

Notifications for idling emission norms have been issued for all vehicles. “Pollution Under
Control” (PUC) certificates be issued for idling emission norms every 3 to 6 months.
Computerised PUC centres are now function across the country.

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

India has enacted the Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989 that deals
with controlling the generation, collection, treatment, disposal, import, storage, transport, and
handling of hazardous wastes. The Rules were framed by the Government of India in exercise
310  Disaster Management

of the powers conferred on it by the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. This rule was
amended in January 2003. The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rule, 2003,
defines hazardous waste as:
any waste which by reason of any of its physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable,
explosive or corrosive characteristics causes danger or likely to cause danger to health or
environment, whether alone or when on contact with other wastes or substances.
The Rule lists down the processes which generate hazardous wastes, the classes of risks,
and hazardous waste in case of export and import in three Schedules. As per the rule the
occupier generating hazardous wastes, listed in the schedule, has the obligation to take all
required steps to ensure that such wastes are properly handled and disposed off without any
adverse effect. It is the responsibility of the occupier to properly collect, transport, treat, store
and dispose of these wastes. The disposal can be done either by the occupier himself or through
an operator that has facilities to do so.
The Rules also stipulates that the occupier has to apply to the respective State Pollution
Control Board (SPCB) for the grant of authorisation to handle listed hazardous wastes. Before
granting authorisation, the SPCB will satisfy itself that the occupier or the operator of a facility
possess the required and appropriate facilities, technical capabilities and equipment to handle
hazardous wastes safely. Further, environmental impact study is also to be undertaken before the
final identification of a site as waste disposal site. The State Government or persons authorised
by it has to periodically compile and publish an inventory of disposal sites for the disposal of
hazardous wastes within the respective States.
The Rules also prevents the import of hazardous wastes for dumping or disposal from
any country to India. However, import of such wastes as a raw material may be permitted
for processing or re-use. Each such case will be examined based on merit by the SPCB.
Assessing the exact figures regarding the amounts of hazardous wastes generated internationally
is a difficult task. According to the UNEP the total hazardous wastes generated annually all
over the globe is somewhere between 300 and 500 million tones. 80 to 90 per cent of such
waste is generated from OECD countries. However, a few south east asian and south asian
countries are fast catching up in the hazardous waste generation. Cross border transit of
hazardous wastes is another area that is of grave concern. Hazardous wastes are transported
across international boundaries both legally and illegally. The Basel Convention signed by over
145 countries regulates the trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal.
The objectives of the Convention are to minimise the generation of hazardous wastes and the
control and reduction of their trans-boundary movements, so as to protect human health and
the environment. Though not completely foolproof this piece of legislation has helped to a
great extent in dealing with the international movement and disposal of hazardous materials.

Questions

1. What do you know about Drought Prone Areas Programme?

2. Write a note about Desert Development Programme.
3. Briefly discuss Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas.
 Chapter 27 Response to Disasters  311
4. List down the major provision of The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1981.
5. What is National Air Quality Monitoring Programme?
6. Elaborate on Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
7. What do you know about Inter-State Water Disputes (ISWD) Act, 1956.
8. Elaborate on National Water Policy.
9. Write in detail about vehicular pollution control measures.
10. What are the legal provisions of hazardous waste management?
 28 International
Frameworks in
Disaster
Management

INTERNATIONAL DECADE FOR NATURAL DISASTER

REDUCTION (IDNDR)
The International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) was launched in 1990. The
years 1990 to 2000 were observed as IDNDR. The aim of IDNDR was ‘sustained international
and multi-disciplinary commitment for disaster prevention through primary focus on hazard,
vulnerability and risk assessment, disaster prevention and sustainable development, effective
early warning, sharing of knowledge and transfer of technology’.
The main objectives of IDNDR were that all countries should have:
(a) A comprehensive national assessment of risks that could occur as a result of natural
hazards, considering its impact on the developmental plans.
(b) Mitigation plans at national and/or local levels, taking into consideration the long-term
prevention and preparedness, in addition to community awareness; and
(c) Unhindered access to warning systems (global, regional, national and local), and
widespread dissemination of such warnings.
A conference pertaining to the IDNDR was conducted in Yokohama, Japan in May 1994.
The conference, which has been a crucial landmark in Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness
Planning, evolved plans of action for disaster reduction. The conference is referred to as
Yokohama Strategy. The strategy formed a basis for a global shift in DM from the traditional
response approach towards holistic preparedness. The focus of the strategy is based on the
fact that natural hazards are beyond the control of human beings. The strategy recognised
Risk Assessment is a critical need and propagated a comprehensive prevention, mitigation and
preparedness strategy. It also called for sustained efforts towards development of a culture of
prevention.

312
 Chapter 28 International Frameworks in Disaster Management  313
INTERNATIONAL STRATEGY FOR DISASTER RISK
REDUCTION (ISDR)
The UN formulated the International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (ISDR) in 2000. The
decade 2000 to 2010 was the time when this strategy was formulated. The strategy aimed at
providing a global framework that is capable of fostering resilience of communities towards the
effects of various natural hazards. This was sought to be achieved through the implementation
of risk management, hazard mitigation and SD. The framework that was propagated for DRR
by the ISDR focused primarily on aspects like risk awareness and assessment, hazard analysis
and vulnerability, capacity analysis, development of knowledge, development of institutional
frameworks, environmental management, land-use management, scientific urban planning,
protection of all critical facilities, application of S & T, partnerships and networking, appropriate
early warning systems, R & D, etc.

THE HYOGO FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION (HFA)

FOR A SAFER WORLD
The World Conference on Disaster Reduction was held in January 2005 in the city of Kobe,
Hyogo region of Japan. The conference brought the global disaster management professionals
together for reviewing the progress made on the Yokohama Strategy (IDNDR), and to plan
a framework of action for the subsequent decade. The Conference, known as the Hyogo
Framework for Action (HFA), highlighted an action agenda for the decade 2005–2015. The
HFA aims to:
1. Ensure that disaster risk reduction becomes a national and local priority, based on a
strong institutional framework.
2. Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and put appropriate early warning systems
in place.
3. Utilisation of knowledge, innovation and appropriate education to bring in a culture
of safety and resilience at different societal levels.
4. Reduction of risk factors and strengthening of disaster preparedness for effective
response at various levels.
The goals identified under HFA are:
1. Effective integration of DRR into SD policies, planning and programming at all levels.
There should be special emphasis on aspects like disaster prevention, mitigation,
preparedness, and vulnerability reduction.
2. Development and strengthening of various institutions, mechanisms and capacities at
all levels. Particular emphasis should be provided for strengthening the community
so that it can systematically contribute towards building resilience.
3. Systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches and implementation of all
possible emergency preparedness, response and recovery programmes; so that
reconstruction activities can be undertaken among the affected communities.
314  Disaster Management

The Kobe Conference that concluded with the Hyogo Declaration contended that:
States have the primary responsibility to protect the people and property on their territory
from hazards and … to give high priority to disaster risk reduction in national policy,
consistent with their capacities and resources available to them.

THE EARTH SUMMIT

The Earth Summit is the popular name of Conference on Environment and Development. The
summit was held at Rio De Janeiro in 1992. The main objective of the conference was:
… the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human-induced) interference with the climate
system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems
to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and
to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.
The Earth Summit was the largest ever gathering of Heads of State. In the Summit,
dialogue was initiated to have a rethink about economic development, and arrest environmental
pollution. At the Summit, 153 nations committed themselves to reduce the emission of CO2
and other GHGs. This reduction in GHGs is expected to be done by actions like finding out
alternative sources of renewable energy, better energy management, reversing deforestation,
etc. Most member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) and the states of Central and Eastern Europe (known collectively as Annex I countries)
committed to reduce their GHGs to 1990 levels by the year 2000.
The Summit was an eye opener that made the governments to realise that there is the
definite need to include economic policies in the impact of development. A major step in
the Summit was the adoption of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). This is considered as a major step towards tackling the problem of global warming.
The UNFCCC binds its member states to:
1. Encourage sustainable development (SD),
2. Cooperate among themselves towards adapting to climate change,
3. Promote scientific and technological research and the management of climate change.
4. Promote and cooperate in the development, application, diffusion and transfer of
technologies, practices and processes that control, reduce or prevent emissions
of GHGs,
5. Disseminate information, impart education, awareness, and training about the various
aspects related to climate change.
The Earth Summit also adopted the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, the Convention on
Biological Diversity, and Forest Principles. The Convention which came into force on 21st
March, 1994, made the Conference of the Parties (COP) as the Convention’s ultimate authority.

Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol that was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997 came into force
 Chapter 28 International Frameworks in Disaster Management  315
on 16th of February 2005. It focuses on good governance, sustainable development, poverty
eradication, and reduced emissions of GHGs. The protocol attended by over 10,000 delegates,
observers, and journalists; also calls for involving all major sectors of the economy. The aim
of the protocol is to tackle global warming by setting voluntary targets for nations to reduce
GHG emissions worldwide, and to look for alternate sources of energy that is capable of
reducing CO2 emissions.
In addition to this the developed countries committed to transfer technology and funds to
the developing countries, which would help them in stopping climate change as well as adapting
to the current and future changes. These commitments by the nations were for a specific period
of time, and was termed ‘commitment period’. The first commitment period of the Protocol
was from 2008 to 2012. Towards the end of the first commitment period, the nations met at
Montreal and the Montreal Action Plan 2005 was adapted. This plan agreed to extend Kyoto
Protocol beyond 2012. It was also agreed by the members to negotiate further cuts in GHG
emissions. Thereafter, the next meeting took place in Cancun, Mexico between November 29
and December 10, 2010. The meeting called for differentiated actions and measurable support
in the form of finance and technology from developed countries. The meeting called for
measures to establish frameworks for protecting the world’s forests, and to establish a Green
Climate Fund. The aim of the fund was to provide the poorer countries with resources required
to adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change. Thereafter, meetings were held in
Durban, Doha, and Lima. The last meeting was in 2015 in Paris. In all the meetings there
were discussions regarding the topic ‘development vs. environment’, but anything concrete is
yet to emerge.

World Bank

The World Bank or the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is
an institution that, among other developmental needs, offers project loans for reconstruction
and development to developing countries. The bank set up a Specialist Disaster Management
Facility (DMF) at its headquarters in Washington, in July 1998. The aim of DMF is to promote
DRM. It also took the decision to post DM Specialists in some of its offices. The bank now
incorporates the DM component in many of its projects, implemented worldwide. In India, the
World Bank has financed a number of rehabilitation projects like Latur Earthquake (1993),
Orissa Super Cyclone (1999), Gujarat Earthquake (2001), etc.

Asian Development Bank

Asian Development Bank (ADB) based in Manila, Philippines is a regional development bank
for Asia and Pacific. The bank provides for long-term project financing. It has also financed
a number of rehabilitation projects in India. The financing is mostly done in conjunction with
the World Bank. ADB undertakes research projects in the area of disaster management and
publishes them. It also involves in activities pertaining to preparedness, response, recovery
and rehabilitation.
316  Disaster Management

UNITED NATIONS INTERNATIONAL STRATEGY FOR

DISASTER REDUCTION
In July 1999, towards the end of the IDNDR, the International Programme Forum adopted the
Geneva Mandate on Disaster Reduction, wherein it was decided to maintain and strengthen
the international cooperative framework for disaster reduction. This was followed by
the creation of United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) by the
UN General Assembly (Resolution numbered 54/219) in December 1999. It was intended to
be a successor of the secretariat of the IDNDR, post 2000. Another UN General Assembly
resolution (numbered 56/195) mandated the secretariat to be the focal point in the UN that
should coordinate the disaster reduction activities. It was also intended to ensure synergies
among the different disaster reduction activities, including socio-economic and humanitarian
efforts, of the UN and other regional organisations.
In 2005, the UN General Assembly endorsed the Hyogo Declaration (Hyogo Framework
for Action 2005–2015) on Disaster Reduction. The intention for this was to build Resilience
of nations and communities to disaster. The ISDR Secretariat was entrusted with the task of
supporting the implementation of the various strategic objectives. Towards accomplishment of
its mission, the UNISDR, through implementation of HFA, would strive to catalyse, facilitate
and mobilise the commitment of various national, regional and international stakeholders so as
to build resilience to disasters. The UNISDR which is supposed to be owned by local, national,
regional and international organisations; also intended to be an effective coordinator, and guide
all its partners, globally and regionally, to:
• Mobilise political and financial commitments to disaster risk reduction and HFA
2005–2015 (Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters);
• Develop and sustain a robust, multi-stakeholder system; and
• Provide relevant knowledge and guidance.
The mandate of UNISDR is to act as the focal point within the UN system for the
coordination of disaster reduction. It also ensures that disaster risk reduction is accorded prime
importance so that there is sound and equitable development, environmental protection and
humanitarian action.
At the helm of UNISDR is the Under Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, who
serves as the Chairperson for the wider ISDR system of partnerships. Next in the hierarchy is
the Assistant Secretary-General for Disaster Risk Reduction.

Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction

The Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction (GFDRR) was set up in September 2006 jointly
by the World Bank, a number of donor partners and key stakeholders of the UNISDR. It is a
long-term global partnership that was established to develop and implement the HFA through a
coordinated programme. The facility aimed at reversing the trend in disaster losses by the year
2015. The mission of GFDRR is to bring in disaster reduction and climate change adaptation
of a country’s development strategies to the mainstream and reduce the vulnerability to natural
 Chapter 28 International Frameworks in Disaster Management  317
hazards. It also involves in sectoral development strategies, at the local and national levels, that
the countries which are most vulnerable to natural disasters may undertake so as to alleviate
poverty and address sustainable growth. GFDRR achieves its developmental objectives through:
1. Global and regional partnership,
2. Mainstreaming disaster reduction, and
3. Standby recovery financing facility for accelerated disaster recovery in low income
nations.

United Nation Disaster Management Team

The United Nation Disaster Management Team (UNDMT) ensures at all levels a prompt,
effective and coordinated country-level support to governmental response in the event of a
disaster. It also coordinates the UN assistance towards long-term recovery, disaster mitigation
and preparedness. Another purpose of the team is to coordinate all disaster-related activities,
technical advice and material assistance provided by various UN agencies, and taking steps
for the optimal utilisation of resources. The UNDMT is a multi-faculty team that comprises
UN agencies like Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Labour Organization
(ILO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), United
Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF),
World Food Programme (WFP), World Health Organization (WHO), etc. UNDMT coordinates
with nodal ministries of member countries and provides required support as per established
procedures.

United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination

The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team is a stand-by team
of DM professionals. The team consists of multi-national personnel trained in DM for rapid
assessment of needs as well as the on-site coordination of the international assistance. In the
event of a major disaster warranting international assistance, the Office of the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs deputes a team of trained experts from its panel to assess the requirements
for assistance as well as coordinating the assistance with the host country. The teams are
nominated and funded by the various member governments, UNDP and other UN agencies like
World Food Programme (WFP), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health
Organization (WHO). UNDAC assists the UN and the governments of disaster affected member
states in collating the required information in the event of a sudden-onset of an emergency.

United Nations Office for the Coordination of

Humanitarian Affairs
The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) is a UN
body formed in December 1991. The body strengthens the response to complex emergencies and
318  Disaster Management

natural disasters through creation of the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA). It replaced
an earlier body formed in 1972—the Office of the UN Disaster Relief Coordinator. UNOCHA
is also an interagency body that includes certain UN agencies and NGOs involved in the
humanitarian domain. It involves in advocacy and planning to deliver humanitarian assistance
in the event of an emergency. Headed by the Under Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs
and Emergency Relief Coordinator, OCHA has over thousand staff located across the world,
operating in a number of strife-torn countries across the world.

International Search and Rescue Advisory Group

International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) was established in 1991 as a
global network group under UN, with over 80 countries and disaster response organisations.
The group deals mostly with urban search and rescue-related issues. It also aims at establishing
standards for international urban search and rescue teams and appropriate methodologies for
international coordination for earthquake response. The group provides guidelines regarding
coordination and cooperation procedures for international and national responders in the event
of major disasters. INSARAG functions through the Secretariat in Geneva, a Steering group,
Regional groups and a number of working groups. Any country or organisation that has
international urban search and rescue response capacity, or those countries prone to earthquakes
can become the member of the network.

Asian Disaster Reduction Centre

Simultaneous with the Kobe Declaration in 1995, an agreement for the creation of a system
which functions as a disaster reduction centre for the Asian region was considered. This led
to the establishing of the Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC), in association with the
Japanese Government. India is also one of the founder members of ADRC. The mission of
the 29 member ADRC is to:
1. Enhance disaster resilience of the member countries,
2. Build safe communities and
3. Create a society where sustainable development is possible.
The ADRC strives to build disaster resilient communities and establish networks among
member countries through a variety of programmes. Each member country of ARDC has to
bear the annual contribution which is calculated on the basis of their respective GDP. Key
activities identified for ADRC are:
1. Collaboration with UN organisations,
2. Organisation of the annual Asian Conference on Disaster Reduction. The aim of
the conference is to share information between the officials responsible for disaster
reduction efforts, and reinforcing mutual cooperation between member countries and
agencies. In addition to this the Centre also arranges visiting research programmes,
disaster reduction seminars and related training courses.
 Chapter 28 International Frameworks in Disaster Management  319
3. Systematic gathering of information, including satellite data, on natural disaster
and disaster reduction, as well as setting up a database of Asian disaster-reduction
information.
4. Development and application of a globally common, unique identification scheme
for disaster events known as Global Unique Disaster Identifier Number (GLIDE)
system. GLIDE is designed to be used as a tool for the facilitation of sharing disaster
information archived around the world.
5. Promotion of cooperation between member countries, other international organisations
and NGOs.

SAARC DISASTER MANAGEMENT CENTRE

SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC) was set up in October 2006 at the NIDM
premises in New Delhi. The Executive Director of the NIDM is also the Director of SDMC.
The Centre is mandated to serve all the members of SAARC through providing policy advice
for effective disaster risk reduction and management in South Asia. It also facilitates capacity
building including strategic learning, research, training, documentation, system development
and exchange of information. It also aims to promote better cooperation and understanding for
a holistic DM. Other functions include:
1. Documentation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge and good practices
relating to DM,
2. Analysing of information, undertaking research activities and dissemination of research
findings among the members,
3. Developing educational materials and conduct of various courses on DM,
4. To organise training and awareness programmes for various stakeholders on disaster
management for the member countries,
5. To develop training modules, and organise training and train the trainer programmes
about DM,
6. To provide assistance with respect to formulation of policies, strategies, and DM
frameworks required by the member countries or organisations/institutions therein.
7. To organise and facilitate workshops, conferences, seminars, study classes, lectures,
etc. on various aspects of DM,
8. To publish journals, research papers and books; as well as to establish and maintain
an online resource centre, and
9. To collaborate with other SAARC Centres so that synergies are achieved with respect
to their various programmes and activities.

PROGRAM FOR ENHANCEMENT OF

EMERGENCY RESPONSE
The Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER) is a regional training programme
initiated in 1998 by the US Agency for International Development’s (USAID), Office of US
320  Disaster Management

Foreign Disaster Assistance. It was set up to strengthen disaster response capacities in Asia.
The countries participating in PEER include India, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and Philippines. The objectives of PEER include:
• Community Action for Disaster Response (CADRE),
• Hospital Preparedness for Emergencies (HOPE), and
• Medical First Responder (MFR) and Collapsed Structure Search and Rescue (CSSR)
Courses.
There are also a number of other regional arrangements like the Indo–Swiss Agreement
(entered into in 2003), Indo–Russian Agreement for Emergency Management (December 2010),
the GOI–UNDP DRR Programme, etc.; which deals with various aspects of DM.

Questions

1. What are the salient features of International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction?
2. What are the aims of the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) for a Safer World?
3. Write in detail about Earth Summit.
4. Elaborate on Kyoto Protocol.
5. What do you know about United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction?
6. What do you know about United Nations Disaster Management Team?
7. What are the activities of Asian Disaster Reduction Centre?
8. What are the functions of SAARC Disaster Management Centre?
 Index

Abiotic, 3, 4, 33 Air pollution, 111, 116, 118, 119, 144, 147, 299,
Abrasion, 118 300, 301, 302
Abscission, 117 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981,
Absorption, 246 111, 299, 311
Accelerated erosion, 109 Alpha rays, 98
Accountability, 279 Ambient air quality, 301
Accra declaration, 230 Amu Darya, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 143
Accumulation, 199 Andisols, 13
Accusation, 199 Anthropogenic, 41, 99, 204
Acid rain, 42, 119, 120, 144, 302 desertification, 134
Acute hazards, 41, 42, 87, 168
aquatic toxicity, 91 Anthropological, 100
dermal toxicity, 91 Anticyclone, 22
inhalation toxicity, 91 Aquatic ecosystem, 34, 35
oral toxicity, 91 Aquifers, 167
radiation damage, 101 Aral Sea, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,
Adaptation, 184, 228 142, 143, 156, 165
strategy, 228 Arsenic poisoning, 118
Adaptive capacity, 276 Artificial terrestrial ecosystem, 34
Adsorbing equipment, 247 Asian Development Bank (ADB), 315
Adsorption, 247 Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC), 318, 320
Advantages of ex situ conservation, 162 Atmosphere, 4, 5, 7, 15, 17–19, 30, 33, 61
Advantages of in situ conservation, 162 Atmospheric
Advocacy, 179 dispersion, 115, 144
AERB, 102 pollution, 100
Aerosol, 112, 113 Atomic explosions, 100
Aesthetic value, 160 Attacks on cyber infrastructure, 104
Afforestation, 236, 304 Avalanches, 41, 70–74, 295
Aftershocks, 59, 74
Agenda 21, 229, 314
Agricultural drought, 68 Bacterial infections, 76
Agro ecosystems, 128 Bali Action Plan, 230

321
322  Index

Bank erosion, 236 Catastrophe, 39, 70, 183, 184, 203

Basel Convention, 92, 93, 104, 310 bonds, 184
Basel Convention on Control of Transboundary insurance, 184
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Catchment protection, 221
Disposal 1989, 92, 93 Cauvery water disputes tribunal, 305
Beta rays, 98 Central and State Pollution Control Boards, 300
BFCs, 17 Central Board for the Prevention and Control of
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), 102 Water Pollution, 303
Bhopal Gas tragedy, 88 Central Industrial Security Force (CISF), 291
Bhuj earthquake, 54, 89 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 89, 114,
Biochemical weathering, 11 304
Biodiversity, 66, 128, 130, 154, 156, 158–161, 170, Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), 291
190, 222, 223 Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR),
conservation, 221, 224 224
hotspots, 157 Characteristics of resilience framework, 280
Biogeochemical cycles, 39 Chemical
Biological absorption, 247
disasters, 287 disasters, 87, 104, 287, 295
diversity, 162, 223 pollution, 132
pollution, 132 weathering, 11
prospecting, 159 Chemisorptions, 247
Biological Weapons (BW), 78, 79 Chemosphere, 6
Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Chernobyl disaster, 88
Rules 1998, 95 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 15, 17, 119, 121, 229,
Biomes, 3 252, 253, 254
Biosphere, 4, 12, 33, 36 Chlorosis, 117
Biota, 35 Chronic radiation damage, 101
Biotechnology, 157 Classification of risks, 172
Bioterrorism, 75, 78, 80, 86 Climate, 19
Biotic, 3, 4, 33 change, 125–128, 144, 152, 159, 165, 178,
Bio Weapons (BW), 255, 256 227–229, 245, 275–277, 314–316
Blizzards, 61 change adaptation, 230
Body waves, 56 change adaption, 275
Border Security Force (BSF), 291 mitigation, 295
Brackish water ecosystems, 35 system, 126
Budgeting, 174 warming, 166
Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS), 58 Cloud burst, 63
Burning of crop residues, 114 CNG, 309
Coastal flood, 232
Coastal subsidence, 166
Cabinet Committee on Management of Natural Cobalt-60, 102
Calamities (CCMNC), 291 Cold waves, 69, 74
Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS), 291 Collapse earthquakes, 56
Calamity, 39 Colonialism, 149
Canadian high, 23 Community-based Forest Management (CFM), 226
Canary current, 29 Compression, 55
Capacity, 46 Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG),
analysis, 313 293
Carbonation, 12 Condensation, 25
Carbon Conduction, 20, 21, 26
cycle, 30, 31, 223 Conference of Parties (COPs), 94
sequestration, 107, 221 Conference on environment and development, 314
sinks, 151 Coning, 116
 Index  323
Consequences, 171 Disaster, 39, 40, 42, 43, 46, 52, 85, 86, 168, 175,
Conservation, 161, 170 177, 181, 183, 184, 186–188, 191, 193,
Conservation of biodiversity, 161 194, 196–198, 203, 204, 207–211, 214,
Constructivism, 205 216–218, 257, 258, 260, 261, 264, 266,
Control of thermal pollution, 164 275, 278, 284, 285, 287, 291, 294, 295,
Convection, 20, 21, 26 316, 319, 320,
Convention on biological diversity, 229 control, 210, 211
Convergence, 9 losses, 177
COP, 18, 229, 231 pressure and release model, 194
Copenhagen protocol, 17 prevention, 284, 294, 312, 313
Coral reef ecosystem, 35 recovery, 270, 271, 317
Coriolis, 23 reduction, 179, 277, 316, 317, 318, 319
force, 22 resilience, 274–277, 280–282
Corrosion, 118 resilience framework, 275, 282
Cosmic rays, 98, 99 resilience strategies, 278
Counter-disaster capability, 260 resilient community, 278
CPBC, 301 response, 275, 320
CPCB, 300, 305, 307, 308 Disaster Management Act, 2005, 39, 286, 287, 293,
Crisis Management Group (CMG), 292 296
Cyber-attacks, 104 Disaster Management (DM), 39, 183, 187, 203, 205,
Cyber infrastructure, 103, 104 206, 208–211, 213, 219, 243, 257, 269,
Cyber infrastructure failure and cyber attacks, 103 272, 273, 283–288, 293–296, 315, 317,
Cyclone, 22, 53, 61–63, 74, 122, 204, 215, 216, 218, 319
227, 264, 276, 283, 284, 287, 295, 315 process, 213
Cyclone ayila, 197 strategy, 206
Cyclonic storms, 258 Disaster management guidelines, 238
Disaster mitigation, 174, 207, 208, 215, 216, 270,
DDMAs, 289, 290 278, 279, 312
Deforestation, 106–109, 145, 146, 148, 151–154, Disaster preparedness, 183, 206, 266, 267, 270, 273,
165, 170, 191, 220, 221 280, 293
Degradation of Disaster Preparedness European Commission’s
air, 111 Humanitarian Aid Department (DIPECHO),
forest, 150 285
land, 197 Disaster risk, 46, 176, 177–181, 183, 185, 205
soil, 197 assessments, 182
water, 128, 144 financing, 183
Delayed fallout, 101 formula, 46
Dengue, 76 governance, 185
Department of International Development (DID), Disaster Risk Governance (DRG), 181, 181, 182
285 Disaster Risk Management (DRM), 44, 46, 177, 183,
Desert Development Programme (DDP), 68, 298, 185, 205, 274, 315
310 Disaster Risk Management Programme (DRMP),
Desertification, 41, 105, 109, 110, 145, 153–155, 285, 296
170, 191, 276 Disaster risk reduction (DRR), 44, 178, 179, 181,
Desiccation of the Aral Sea, 134 182, 184, 185, 188, 274, 275, 313, 314, 319,
Desilting, 235 320
Devastation, 198 Disease outbreaks, 85
DFID, 274, 275, 280 District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA),
Diffuse radiation, 18 289
Diffusion, 115 Drought-prone areas, 306
Dioxins, 92 Dry deposition, 42, 120, 301
Direct radiation, 18 Durban Conference, 231
324  Index

Earthquake, 40, 45, 53–56, 58, 59, 69, 70, 73, 74, Estuarine ecosystem, 35
184, 196, 204, 215, 217, 231, 240, 241, Eutrophication, 106, 107, 133
245, 283, 287, 295, 315, 318 Evacuation, 188, 257, 258, 259
belts, 60 Evaporation, 25, 32
disaster, 241 Evapotranspiration, 32, 67, 165
epicenter, 60 E-waste, 94, 104, 252, 253, 254, 256
hazard, 240 Exfoliation, 11
response, 318 Exosphere, 5, 6
Earth Summit, 229, 314 Explosion, 102
Ecological in chemical plant, 88
disasters, 218 Exposure, 45
security, 224 Ex situ, 224
sustainability, 221 conservation, 162, 163
Ecology, 274 Extended producer responsibility, 252
Ecosystem, 3, 4, 34, 36, 156, 157, 159, 161, 166, Extensive infestations, 80, 86
168, 228, 314 Extra-tropical cyclones, 61, 62
diversity, 157
Ecotourism, 148, 221, 225
Effects of thermal pollution, 163 Factors of vulnerability, 195
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE), 96 Fanning, 116
Electromagnetic, 254 Fission, 100
Electronic waste (e-waste), 96 Fixed bed absorber, 247
Elements of preparedness, 272 Flash floods, 63, 232
El Niño, 30, 49, 126 Flixborough disaster, 88
Emergency Centre for Locust Operations (ECLO), Flood, 53, 59, 62, 64–66, 73, 74, 160, 167, 204,
84 215–218, 227, 231, 232, 234, 235, 238,
Emergency 258, 263, 276, 283, 287, 295
management, 271 control, 304, 306
preparedness, 270, 271, 313 forecasting, 239
response, 270 management, 245
Emissions, 113, 220, 230, 231, 253, 300, 315 Flooding, 128, 153, 166, 168, 191, 243, 244
Endemic outbreak, 86 Floodplains, 64–66, 74, 232, 233, 235, 236
Endosulfan, 41 Floodwater, 235
Enteric fermentation in livestock, 114 Floodway, 64, 232
Environment, 3, 111, 175, 178, 210, 251, 306, 310 Fluidised absorber, 247
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, 304, 307, 310 Fluoride poisoning, 118
Environmental Fly ash, 112
degradation, 40, 52, 87, 105, 111, 145, 168, Fog, 113
188, 190 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 83, 84,
management, 179, 313 107, 145, 149, 317
problems, 75 Foreshocks, 59, 74
radiation, 99 Forestry management, 306
services, 221 Forewarning, 50
vulnerabilities, 190 Fresh water crises, 129
Environmentally Sound Management (ESM), 93 Fresh water ecosystem, 35
Environmentally Sound Treatment (EST), 253, 254 Frost wedging, 11
Epicenter, 57 Fukushima nuclear accident, 218
Epidemic, 75–77, 86, 187 Fumes, 112, 113, 126
diseases, 75, 86 Fumigation, 116
preparedness, 77
Epinasty, 117
Equatorial current, 28 Gamma rays, 98, 99
Erosion, 64, 65, 70, 166, 235 Ganga water sharing treaty, 307
Estuaries, 167 Gender equality, 180
 Index  325
Gene pool, 157 Hazards/risk, 280
Genetic Healthcare wastes, 94
diversity, 156 Heat
engineering, 159 cramps, 68
radiation damage, 101 exhaustion, 68
Geochemical weathering, 11 stroke, 69
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 237 waves, 68, 74, 276
Geo-Hazard Division, 290 Heterosphere, 5
Glacial lake outburst floods, 63 High Powered Committee (HPC) on Disaster
Glaciers, 11, 123, 127, 128, 153, 165 Management, 39
Global Facility for Disaster Risk Reduction Homosphere, 5, 6
(GFDRR), 316, 317 Horizontal gyres, 29
Global Positioning System (GPS), 103, 104 Human induced disaster, 168
Global warming, 42, 121–123, 125, 127, 144, 152, Human vulnerability, 45
159, 164, 165, 314 Humidity, 25, 26, 68
Godavari water disputes tribunal, 305 Hurricanes, 53, 61, 122
Grasslands, 157, 160 Hydration, 12
Green Climate Fund, 230, 231, 315 Hydrocarbons, 112
Green house effect, 17, 18, 19, 26, 121, 159 Hydro cycle, 159
Green House Gas (GHG), 19, 49, 114, 115, 119, Hydrogen atoms, 27
121, 122, 126, 152, 165, 228, 230, 231, Hydrological, 124
295, 314, 315 cycle, 26, 32
emission, 228 drought, 68
Greenpeace, 93 Hydrology, 4, 306
Green revolution, 106, 107 Hydrolysis, 12
Guideline for Environmentally Sound Manage-ment Hydro-meteorological, 41, 204
of E-waste (2008), 96, 97, 253 disasters, 61, 74
Gulf Stream, 29 hazards, 41
Hydrosphere, 4, 7, 27, 28, 33
Hyogo Declaration (Hyogo Framework for Action
H1N1, 76 2005–2015), 316
Halogen compounds, 112 Hyogo Framework, 183
Handling risk, 173 Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015), 177,
Hazard, 40, 41, 43–46, 49, 50, 51, 73, 87, 168, 173– 185, 275, 280, 313
175, 177–179, 186, 188, 189, 192, 193, Hyogo Framework of Action: Building the Resilience
204, 205, 207, 208, 217–219, 241, 266, of Nations and Communities (2005–2015), 182
269, 271, 274, 276, 277, 301, 312, 314 Hyogo Framework of Action (UNISDR, 2005), 275
analysis, 178, 179, 313
identification and vulnerability analysis, 217
mitigation, 214, 313 Ice fall avalanche, 73
mitigation awareness, 240 Ice jams, 63, 232
Hazardous, 104, 194 Igneous, 10
chemicals, 252 Ignitability, 91
events, 172 Immediate fallout, 101
waste, 95, 310 Incineration, 253, 254
waste generation, 310 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
waste management, 311 297
Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rule, Indo–Nepal Treaty on Integrated Development of
2003, 310 Mahakali River, 306
Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Industrialisation, 156
Rules, 1989, 309 Industrial
Hazardous wastes, 89–94, 96, 254, 309, 310 pollution, 87, 168
Hazard-prone, 175 revolution, 165
Hazard resistance, 216 wastes, 89
326  Index

Indus Water Treaty, 306 Landfills, 253

Infectious diseases, 75, 86 Landslides, 41, 53, 59, 60, 63, 66, 69, 70, 71, 73,
Infestation, 86 74, 107, 243, 244, 245, 258, 287, 295
Infra-red waves, 98 La Nina, 49
In situ conservation, 162, 224 Lapse rate, 15
Insolation, 18, 20 Lead poisoning, 118
Insurance-linked securities, 184 Le Clemenceau, 93
Integrated disaster management, 213 Liquefaction, 59
model, 206, 207 Lithosphere, 4, 7, 8, 9, 14, 33, 57, 99
Integrated Watershed Development Programme Livelihood security, 178
(IWDP), 297 Locust, 80, 81, 83, 84
Intensity, 179 infestation, 82
of a hazard, 48 plague, 81, 86
of risk, 171 upsurges, 86
Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a watch, 84
Framework Convention on Climate Change Loss of biodiversity, 107
(INC/FCCC), 229 Low-emission development strategy, 231
Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change LPG, 309
(IPCC), 122, 126, 229, 230
Inter-Ministerial Group (IMG), 292
International assistance, 264, 265 Magnetosphere, 16
International Bank for Reconstruction and Mangroves, 127, 130, 160, 167, 236, 245
Development (IBRD), 315 Manmade disasters, 246, 283
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction Manure management, 114
(IDNDR), 285, 290, 312, 316 Marine ecosystem, 35
International disaster Marshall plan, 262
assistance, 262 Maximum Accident Hazard Units (MAH Units), 88
programmes, 49 Measles, 76
International humanitarian assistance, 264 Mechanical weathering, 10, 11
International Labour Organization (ILO), 317 Mesosphere, 5, 6, 16
International Search and Rescue Advisory Group Metamorphic rocks, 10
(INSARAG), 318 Meteorological drought, 68
International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction Meteorology, 18, 204
(ISDR), 313 Microclimate, 105
International Union for Conservation of Nature Micro-insurance, 183, 184
(IUCN), 85, 156 Microorganisms, 7, 10, 13, 125
Inter-plate earthquakes, 56 Micro-waves, 98
Inter-State Water Disputes (ISWD) Act, 1956, 304, Migrations, 67, 68, 188
311 Ministry of Health (MoH), 77
Intra-plate Earthquakes, 56 Mitigation, 41, 48, 67, 174, 175, 177, 179, 193,
Ionosphere, 6 205–210, 214, 216, 219, 222, 231, 232,
Isolated volcanic peaks, 27 240, 246, 275, 284, 294, 295, 313
of environmental noises, 250
measures, 219, 232
Joint Forest Management Programme, 298 plans, 312
strategies, 174, 217–219, 228, 245
of thermal pollution, 251
Katrina, 196, 210 Models of vulnerability, 194, 195
Kobe declaration, 318 Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale, 58
Kyoto Protocol, 229, 230, 245, 314, 315, 320 Monsoon, 239
Montreal Action Plan 2005, 315
Montreal protocol, 17
Lake Victoria, 134 Morbidity, 78
Land, 105 Mortality, 78
degradation, 105, 106, 154 Mountain ridges, 72
 Index  327
Moving bed absorber, 247 Ocean currents, 28, 29, 126
Mud flows, 41 Oceanic circulations, 27, 28
Mudslides, 72, 204, 258 Octopus effect, 265
Multi-hazard disaster risk assessment, 280 Option value, 160
Multiple hazards, 73 Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Development (OECD), 90, 95, 275, 310, 314
Rules 2000, 96 Oxidation, 12
Municipal solid wastes, 96 Ozone
depletion, 121, 153
layer, 121
Narmada water disputes tribunal, 305 Ozonosphere, 6, 15
Narora atomic power station, 102
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC),
295 Pandemic, 75, 76, 77, 86
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme Participatory capacity and vulnerability assessment,
(NAQMP), 301 280
National Calamity Contingency Fund, 68 Particulates, 113, 144
National Centre for Disaster Management (NCDM), Pedology, 4
290, 296 Pedosphere, 4, 8
National Crisis Management Committee and Crisis Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), 94
Management Group, 296 Phytotoxicity, 90
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), Plague, 82
65, 102, 286, 287, 290–292, 294 Plate tectonics, 53
National Disaster Mitigation Fund (NDMF), 287, Plume, 113
293, 294 behaviour, 116, 144
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), 102, Point-source pollution, 131
286, 291, 294, 296 Polar
National Disaster Response Plan (NDRP), 285 cyclones, 61, 62
National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC), 292, easterlies, 23
293 front, 23
National Executive Committee (NEC), 288, 289, 294 highs, 23
National Forest Policy, 226 Polio, 76
National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP), 224 Pollution, 130, 132, 191, 301, 304, 308
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), Pollution control boards, 133
286, 290 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), 94, 252, 253
National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM), Population explosion, 147
294, 296 Post-disaster, 209, 210
National Radiation Regulatory Authority of Atomic activities, 209
Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), 102 international assistance, 263
National Water Policy (NWP), 305, 311 recovery, 208
National Water Quality Monitoring Programme responses, 284
(NWQMP), 305 review, 261
National Water Resources Council, 305 scenarios, 284
Necrosis, 117 Poverty alleviation, 180
Non-point-source pollution, 131 Precipitation, 25, 32, 33, 120, 123, 128, 151, 152,
Non-structural hazards, 240 301
Normal faults, 55 Predictability, 48
North equatorial current, 29 Pre-disaster, 209, 210
NRCNC, 267 assistance, 263
Nuclear Preparedness, 77, 174, 175, 177–179, 206–210, 228,
disasters, 287 266, 267, 269–273, 275, 278, 287, 294,
explosion, 101 313, 315
fallout, 101, 102, 204 planning, 312
pollution, 100 stage, 209
tests, 100 strategies, 272, 312
328  Index

Project mitigation, 217 Richter scale, 57, 60, 74

Psychological disorders, 125 Rio Declaration, 229, 314
Public Health Official (PHO), 77 Risk, 44, 46, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 179, 182, 185,
Pure risk, 172 203, 204, 205, 217, 240, 272, 274, 310
P waves, 56, 57 analysis, 176, 210, 287
assessment, 280, 312
evaluation, 176
Radiation, 18, 21, 26, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102 handling, 176
balance, 18 identification, 176
exposure, 102 management, 173, 174, 175, 176, 179, 184,
Radiative forcing, 29 185, 205, 206, 313
Radioactive management and vulnerability reduction, 280
compounds, 112 pools, 184
dusts, 100 reduction, 174, 176, 180, 185
fallout, 100, 101, 104 sharing, 183
materials, 99, 100 River Boards Act (1956), 304, 305
pollutants, 101 River flood, 232
pollution, 100, 101, 104 Rocks, 9
substances, 98, 100 Rockslides, 41, 204
wastes, 100 Roof avalanche, 73
Radioactivity, 87, 98, 99, 100, 104, 168
Radio
isotopes, 100, 102 SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC), 319,
waves, 98 320
Radionuclides, 99, 100, 102 Salination, 107, 197
Rain water harvesting, 306 Salinity, 167
Rationalisation, 199 Salt intrusion, 167, 168
Ravi and Beas Water Disputes Tribunal, 305 Sanitation, 186, 188
Reactivity, 91 Sarin gas attack, 88
Realisation, 199 Sea erosion, 167
Reconstruction, 208, 209 Secured livelihoods, 180
Recovery, 208, 209, 210, 260, 275, 277, 278, 315 Sedimentary rocks, 10
actions, 261 Sedimentation of reservoirs, 106
preparedness, 271 Segregation, 254
process, 260 Seismic, 60
programs, 261 activity, 70
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest gaps, 55
Degradation (REDD +), 220, 230 waves, 54, 56
Rehabilitation, 175, 205, 208, 209, 244, 315 Seismographs, 57
Relative humidity, 25 Sevaso explosion, 88
Relative sea level changes, 164 Shear stress, 55
Residence time, 31 Shifting
Resilience, 50, 152, 154, 160, 167, 181, 182, 190, agriculture, 146
217, 223, 228, 274, 275, 278, 279, 280, 313 cultivation, 107
Resilient community, 278 cultivation areas, 310
Resource depletion, 190 Shredding, 254
Respirable particulate matter, 112 Siberian high, 23
Response, 208, 210, 260, 275, 278 Sink holes, 191
division, 290 Sir Darya, 134
operations, 261 Slab avalanche, 73
team, 77 Slow onset disasters, 52
Responses to disasters, 205 Smog, 113, 120
Restoration, 208 Social
Reverberation, 249 justice, 262
Reverse faults, 55 sustainability, 190, 221
 Index  329
Socio-economic planning, 188
coping capacity, 43 strategies, 228
drought, 68 technologies, 221
vulnerability, 43 water management, 130
Soil, 4, 12, 14 Swarm, 81
compaction, 153 S waves, 56, 57
conservation, 109, 306
degradation, 106, 108, 109
erosion, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 153, 191, Technological hazards, 42, 87, 168
304 Tectonic
loses, 108 earthquakes, 56
pollution, 108, 110 plates, 54
salination, 109, 110 Temperature, 19, 20
Solar Tension, 55
radiation, 18, 23 Terrestrial ecosystem, 34, 35
rays, 99 Terrorism, 283
storm, 104 The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules
winds, 18 2001, 96
South equatorial current, 29 The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling)
Species diversity, 157 Rules 2003, 96, 97
Specific humidity, 25 The High Level Committee (HLC), 292
Speculative risk, 172 Thermal
State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMA), inertia, 30
288, 289, 290, 296 plume, 163
State Disaster Response Force (SDRF), 291 pollution, 163, 164, 170, 251, 256
State Executive Committee (SEC), 289 weathering, 10, 11
State Pollution Control Board (SPCB), 89, 97, 300, Thermosphere, 5, 6, 16
304, 305, 310 Threats to biodiversity, 160
Static risk, 172 Tornadoes, 53, 61, 122
Stockholm Declaration, 228 Toxic
Storms, 61, 166, 242, 245 fumes, 91
Stratopause, 16 wastes, 93, 168
Stratosphere, 5, 6, 15, 16, 17, 101 Toxicity, 90, 91
Strike-slip faults, 55 Traffic disasters, 103
Strong winds, 72 Tramp ants, 84
Structural Tropical
mitigation, 217 cyclones, 41, 61, 62, 258
vulnerability, 45 forests, 222
Sublimation, 26 storms, 62
Submarine earthquakes, 60 Troposphere, 5, 6, 15, 17, 18, 19, 26, 101
Subtropical highs, 23 Tsunami, 41, 45, 53, 59, 60, 73, 74, 197, 218, 244,
Surface 245, 263, 283, 287
currents, 30 Tsunami warning centers, 263
waves, 56 Tupraz Oil Refinery, 88
Suspended particulate matter, 112 Typhoons, 61, 63
Sustainability, 221, 239
Sustainable
agricultural, 180 Ultraviolet radiation, 98
development (SD), 179, 190, 195, 209, 231, UN Conference on Human Environment, 300
312, 313, 314, 315 UNCTAD, 230
forest development (SFM), 223, 226 UNDP DRR, 320
forest management, 154, 221, 223, 245 UNHCR, 75, 76, 77, 257
forestry, 224 UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction,
growth, 317 179
livelihood, 188, 227 Union Carbide, 41
330  Index

United Nation Disaster Management Team analysis, 192, 193, 195, 208, 210, 215, 217,
(UNDMT), 317 218, 232
United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF), 77 and disaster risk reduction, 190
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification assessment, 287
(UNCCD), 105, 109 profile, 283
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), reduction, 275, 313
140, 141, 210, 285, 317 Vulnerable communities, 228
United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination
(UNDAC), 317
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Waldsterben, 147
Organization (UNESCO), 317 Water-borne diseases, 76
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Water in oceans, 28
90, 93, 94, 96, 108, 141, 142, 155, 156, 161,
Water pollution, 130, 131, 144, 303
229, 310
Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1974,
United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF), 224
302, 311
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), 228, 229, 314 Watershed development project, 310
United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Watershed Development Project in Shifting Culti-
Reduction, 320 vation Areas (WDPSCA), 299
United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Watershed management, 235
Reduction (UNISDR), 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, 176, Wave radiation, 18
177, 178, 180, 181, 186, 187, 189, 274, 275, Weather, 10, 19
276, 285, 316 insurance, 184
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Weathering
Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA), 317, 318 process, 14
Urban flood, 232 Wet deposition, 42, 120
Urban Heat Dome, 164 Wetland, 157, 167
Urbanisation, 107, 110, 113, 145, 147, 156, 189, ecosystem, 35
191, 276 Wild fires, 41
US Agency for International Development’s Wind-driven snow, 72
(USAID), 141, 210, 319 WMO, 229
World Bank, 130, 140, 315
World Climate Conference, 228
Vaccine-preventable diseases, 86 World Commission on Forests and Sustainable
Van der Waals force, 246 Development (WCFSD), 223
Vast plains, 27 World Conference on Disaster Reduction in 2005,
Vector-borne diseases, 76 177, 313
Vehicular emission load, 113 World Conservation Union, 162
Viral infections, 76
World Health Organization (WHO), 76, 77, 133,
Volcanic
134, 111, 317
activity, 41, 70, 73
World War II, 203, 262
earthquakes, 56
eruption, 45, 53, 73, 263
Volcanoes, 60, 69, 70, 71
Vulnerability, 40–46, 67, 87, 168, 172, 174, 175, X-rays, 98, 100
177–179, 183, 186–189, 191, 195, 204,
205, 207, 209, 217, 219, 227, 238, 257,
269, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277, 280, 284, Yokohama Strategy (IDNDR), 312, 313
312, 313, 316 and Plan of Action (1990–1999), 182
DISASTER
MANAGEMENT M.M. Sulphey

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