JavaScript is one of the 3 languages all web developers must learn:

1. HTML to define the content of web pages

2. CSS to specify the layout of web pages

3. JavaScript to program the behavior of web pages

JavaScript - Overview
What is JavaScript ?
JavaScript is a dynamic computer programming language. It is lightweight
and most commonly used as a part of web pages, whose implementations
allow client-side script to interact with the user and make dynamic pages. It is
an interpreted programming language with object-oriented capabilities.
JavaScript was first known as LiveScript, but Netscape changed its name to
JavaScript, possibly because of the excitement being generated by Java.
JavaScript made its first appearance in Netscape 2.0 in 1995 with the
name LiveScript. The general-purpose core of the language has been
embedded in Netscape, Internet Explorer, and other web browsers.
The ECMA-262 Specification defined a standard version of the core
JavaScript language.

●​ JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language.

●​ Designed for creating network-centric applications.
●​ Complementary to and integrated with Java.
●​ Complementary to and integrated with HTML.
●​ Open and cross-platform

Client-Side JavaScript
Client-side JavaScript is the most common form of the language. The script
should be included in or referenced by an HTML document for the code to be
interpreted by the browser.
It means that a web page need not be a static HTML, but can include
programs that interact with the user, control the browser, and dynamically
create HTML content.
The JavaScript client-side mechanism provides many advantages over
traditional CGI server-side scripts. For example, you might use JavaScript to
check if the user has entered a valid e-mail address in a form field.
The JavaScript code is executed when the user submits the form, and only if
all the entries are valid, they would be submitted to the Web Server.
JavaScript can be used to trap user-initiated events such as button clicks, link
navigation, and other actions that the user initiates explicitly or implicitly.

Advantages of JavaScript
The merits of using JavaScript are −
●​ Less server interaction − You can validate user input before sending
the page off to the server. This saves server traffic, which means less
load on your server.
●​ Immediate feedback to the visitors − They don't have to wait for a
page reload to see if they have forgotten to enter something.
●​ Increased interactivity − You can create interfaces that react when
the user hovers over them with a mouse or activates them via the
keyboard.
●​ Richer interfaces − You can use JavaScript to include such items as
drag-and-drop components and sliders to give a Rich Interface to your
site visitors.

Limitations of JavaScript
We cannot treat JavaScript as a full-fledged programming language. It lacks
the following important features −
●​ Client-side JavaScript does not allow the reading or writing of files. This
has been kept for security reason.
 ●​ JavaScript cannot be used for networking applications because there is
no such support available.
●​ JavaScript doesn't have any multi-threading or multiprocessor
capabilities.
Once again, JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language
that allows you to build interactivity into otherwise static HTML pages.

JavaScript Development Tools

One of major strengths of JavaScript is that it does not require expensive
development tools. You can start with a simple text editor such as Notepad.
Since it is an interpreted language inside the context of a web browser, you
don't even need to buy a compiler.
To make our life simpler, various vendors have come up with very nice
JavaScript editing tools. Some of them are listed here −
●​ Microsoft FrontPage − Microsoft has developed a popular HTML
editor called FrontPage. FrontPage also provides web developers with
a number of JavaScript tools to assist in the creation of interactive
websites.
●​ Macromedia Dreamweaver MX − Macromedia Dreamweaver MX is a
very popular HTML and JavaScript editor in the professional web
development crowd. It provides several handy prebuilt JavaScript
components, integrates well with databases, and conforms to new
standards such as XHTML and XML.
●​ Macromedia HomeSite 5 − HomeSite 5 is a well-liked HTML and
JavaScript editor from Macromedia that can be used to manage
personal websites effectively.

Where is JavaScript Today ?

The ECMAScript Edition 5 standard will be the first update to be released in
over four years. JavaScript 2.0 conforms to Edition 5 of the ECMAScript
standard, and the difference between the two is extremely minor.
The specification for JavaScript 2.0 can be found on the following
site: http://www.ecmascript.org/
Today, Netscape's JavaScript and Microsoft's JScript conform to the
ECMAScript standard, although both the languages still support the features
that are not a part of the standard.

JavaScript - Syntax
JavaScript can be implemented using JavaScript statements that are placed
within the <script>... </script> HTML tags in a web page.
You can place the <script> tags, containing your JavaScript, anywhere within
your web page, but it is normally recommended that you should keep it within
the <head> tags.
The <script> tag alerts the browser program to start interpreting all the text
between these tags as a script. A simple syntax of your JavaScript will
appear as follows.
<script ...>
JavaScript code
</script>
The script tag takes two important attributes −
●​ Language − This attribute specifies what scripting language you are
using. Typically, its value will be javascript. Although recent versions of
HTML (and XHTML, its successor) have phased out the use of this
attribute.
●​ Type − This attribute is what is now recommended to indicate the
scripting language in use and its value should be set to
"text/javascript".
So your JavaScript segment will look like −
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
JavaScript code
</script>

Your First JavaScript Code

Let us take a sample example to print out "Hello World". We added an
optional HTML comment that surrounds our JavaScript code. This is to save
our code from a browser that does not support JavaScript. The comment
ends with a "//-->". Here "//" signifies a comment in JavaScript, so we add that
to prevent a browser from reading the end of the HTML comment as a piece
of JavaScript code. Next, we call a function document.write which writes a
string into our HTML document.
This function can be used to write text, HTML, or both. Take a look at the
following code.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script language = "javascript" type =
"text/javascript">
<!--
document.write("Hello World!")
//-->
</script>
</body>
</html>
This code will produce the following result −
Hello World!

Whitespace and Line Breaks

JavaScript ignores spaces, tabs, and newlines that appear in JavaScript
programs. You can use spaces, tabs, and newlines freely in your program
and you are free to format and indent your programs in a neat and consistent
way that makes the code easy to read and understand.

Semicolons are Optional

Simple statements in JavaScript are generally followed by a semicolon
character, just as they are in C, C++, and Java. JavaScript, however, allows
you to omit this semicolon if each of your statements are placed on a
separate line. For example, the following code could be written without
semicolons.
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var1 = 10
var2 = 20
//-->
</script>
But when formatted in a single line as follows, you must use semicolons −
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var1 = 10; var2 = 20;
//-->
</script>
Note − It is a good programming practice to use semicolons.

Case Sensitivity
JavaScript is a case-sensitive language. This means that the language
keywords, variables, function names, and any other identifiers must always
be typed with a consistent capitalization of letters.
So the identifiers Time and TIME will convey different meanings in
JavaScript.
NOTE − Care should be taken while writing variable and function names in
JavaScript.

Comments in JavaScript
JavaScript supports both C-style and C++-style comments, Thus −
●​ Any text between a // and the end of a line is treated as a comment and
is ignored by JavaScript.
●​ Any text between the characters /* and */ is treated as a comment. This
may span multiple lines.
●​ JavaScript also recognizes the HTML comment opening sequence <!--.
JavaScript treats this as a single-line comment, just as it does the //
comment.
●​ The HTML comment closing sequence --> is not recognized by
JavaScript so it should be written as //-->.

Example
The following example shows how to use comments in JavaScript.
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
 // This is a comment. It is similar to comments in C++

/*
* This is a multi-line comment in JavaScript
* It is very similar to comments in C Programming
*/
//-->
</script>

Enabling JavaScript in Browsers

All the modern browsers come with built-in support for JavaScript. Frequently,
you may need to enable or disable this support manually. This chapter
explains the procedure of enabling and disabling JavaScript support in your
browsers: Internet Explorer, Firefox, chrome, and Opera.

JavaScript in Internet Explorer

Here are simple steps to turn on or turn off JavaScript in your Internet
Explorer −
●​ Follow Tools → Internet Options from the menu.
●​ Select Security tab from the dialog box.
●​ Click the Custom Level button.
●​ Scroll down till you find Scripting option.
●​ Select Enable radio button under Active scripting.
●​ Finally click OK and come out
To disable JavaScript support in your Internet Explorer, you need to
select Disable radio button under Active scripting.

JavaScript in Firefox
Here are the steps to turn on or turn off JavaScript in Firefox −
●​ Open a new tab → type about: config in the address bar.
●​ Then you will find the warning dialog. Select I’ll be careful, I promise!
●​ Then you will find the list of configure options in the browser.
●​ In the search bar, type javascript.enabled.
 ●​ There you will find the option to enable or disable javascript by
right-clicking on the value of that option → select toggle.
If javascript.enabled is true; it converts to false upon clicking toogle. If
javascript is disabled; it gets enabled upon clicking toggle.

JavaScript in Chrome
Here are the steps to turn on or turn off JavaScript in Chrome −
●​ Click the Chrome menu at the top right hand corner of your browser.
●​ Select Settings.
●​ Click Show advanced settings at the end of the page.
●​ Under the Privacy section, click the Content settings button.
●​ In the "Javascript" section, select "Do not allow any site to run
JavaScript" or "Allow all sites to run JavaScript (recommended)".

JavaScript in Opera
Here are the steps to turn on or turn off JavaScript in Opera −
●​ Follow Tools → Preferences from the menu.
●​ Select Advanced option from the dialog box.
●​ Select Content from the listed items.
●​ Select Enable JavaScript checkbox.
●​ Finally click OK and come out.
To disable JavaScript support in your Opera, you should not select
the Enable JavaScript checkbox.

Warning for Non-JavaScript Browsers

If you have to do something important using JavaScript, then you can display
a warning message to the user using <noscript> tags.
You can add a noscript block immediately after the script block as follows −
<html>
<body>
 <script language = "javascript" type =
"text/javascript">
<!--
document.write("Hello World!")
//-->
</script>

<noscript>
Sorry...JavaScript is needed to go ahead.
</noscript>
</body>
</html>
Now, if the user's browser does not support JavaScript or JavaScript is not
enabled, then the message from </noscript> will be displayed on the screen.

JavaScript - Placement in HTML File

There is a flexibility given to include JavaScript code anywhere in an HTML
document. However the most preferred ways to include JavaScript in an
HTML file are as follows −
●​ Script in <head>...</head> section.
●​ Script in <body>...</body> section.
●​ Script in <body>...</body> and <head>...</head> sections.
●​ Script in an external file and then include in <head>...</head> section.
In the following section, we will see how we can place JavaScript in an HTML
file in different ways.

JavaScript in <head>...</head> section

If you want to have a script run on some event, such as when a user clicks
somewhere, then you will place that script in the head as follows −
Live Demo
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}
 //-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value =
"Say Hello" />
</body>
</html>
This code will produce the following results −

JavaScript in <body>...</body> section

If you need a script to run as the page loads so that the script generates
content in the page, then the script goes in the <body> portion of the
document. In this case, you would not have any function defined using
JavaScript. Take a look at the following code.
Live Demo
<html>
<head>
</head>

<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
document.write("Hello World")
//-->
</script>

<p>This is web page body </p>

</body>
</html>
This code will produce the following results −

JavaScript in <body> and <head> Sections

You can put your JavaScript code in <head> and <body> section altogether
as follows −
Live Demo
<html>
 <head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
document.write("Hello World")
//-->
</script>

<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value =

"Say Hello" />
</body>
</html>
This code will produce the following result −

JavaScript in External File

As you begin to work more extensively with JavaScript, you will be likely to
find that there are cases where you are reusing identical JavaScript code on
multiple pages of a site.
You are not restricted to be maintaining identical code in multiple HTML files.
The script tag provides a mechanism to allow you to store JavaScript in an
external file and then include it into your HTML files.
Here is an example to show how you can include an external JavaScript file
in your HTML code using script tag and its src attribute.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript" src = "filename.js"
></script>
</head>

<body>
 .......
</body>
</html>
To use JavaScript from an external file source, you need to write all your
JavaScript source code in a simple text file with the extension ".js" and then
include that file as shown above.
For example, you can keep the following content in filename.js file and then
you can use sayHello function in your HTML file after including the
filename.js file.
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}

JavaScript - Variables
JavaScript Datatypes
One of the most fundamental characteristics of a programming language is
the set of data types it supports. These are the type of values that can be
represented and manipulated in a programming language.
JavaScript allows you to work with three primitive data types −
●​ Numbers, eg. 123, 120.50 etc.
●​ Strings of text e.g. "This text string" etc.
●​ Boolean e.g. true or false.
JavaScript also defines two trivial data types, null and undefined, each of
which defines only a single value. In addition to these primitive data types,
JavaScript supports a composite data type known as object. We will cover
objects in detail in a separate chapter.
Note − JavaScript does not make a distinction between integer values and
floating-point values. All numbers in JavaScript are represented as
floating-point values. JavaScript represents numbers using the 64-bit
floating-point format defined by the IEEE 754 standard.

JavaScript Variables
Like many other programming languages, JavaScript has variables. Variables
can be thought of as named containers. You can place data into these
containers and then refer to the data simply by naming the container.
Before you use a variable in a JavaScript program, you must declare it.
Variables are declared with the var keyword as follows.
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var money;
var name;
//-->
</script>
You can also declare multiple variables with the same var keyword as follows
−
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var money, name;
//-->
</script>
Storing a value in a variable is called variable initialization. You can do
variable initialization at the time of variable creation or at a later point in time
when you need that variable.
For instance, you might create a variable named money and assign the
value 2000.50 to it later. For another variable, you can assign a value at the
time of initialization as follows.
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var name = "Ali";
var money;
money = 2000.50;
//-->
</script>
Note − Use the var keyword only for declaration or initialization, once for the
life of any variable name in a document. You should not re-declare same
variable twice.
JavaScript is untyped language. This means that a JavaScript variable can
hold a value of any data type. Unlike many other languages, you don't have
to tell JavaScript during variable declaration what type of value the variable
will hold. The value type of a variable can change during the execution of a
program and JavaScript takes care of it automatically.

JavaScript Variable Scope

The scope of a variable is the region of your program in which it is defined.
JavaScript variables have only two scopes.
●​ Global Variables − A global variable has global scope which means it
can be defined anywhere in your JavaScript code.
●​ Local Variables − A local variable will be visible only within a function
where it is defined. Function parameters are always local to that
function.
Within the body of a function, a local variable takes precedence over a global
variable with the same name. If you declare a local variable or function
parameter with the same name as a global variable, you effectively hide the
global variable. Take a look into the following example.
Live Demo
<html>
<body onload = checkscope();>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var myVar = "global"; // Declare a global
variable
function checkscope( ) {
var myVar = "local"; // Declare a local
variable
document.write(myVar);
}
//-->
</script>
</body>
</html>
This produces the following result −
local

JavaScript Variable Names

While naming your variables in JavaScript, keep the following rules in mind.
 ●​ You should not use any of the JavaScript reserved keywords as a
variable name. These keywords are mentioned in the next section. For
example, break or boolean variable names are not valid.
●​ JavaScript variable names should not start with a numeral (0-9). They
must begin with a letter or an underscore character. For
example, 123test is an invalid variable name but _123test is a valid
one.
●​ JavaScript variable names are case-sensitive. For
example, Name and name are two different variables.

JavaScript Reserved Words

A list of all the reserved words in JavaScript are given in the following table.
They cannot be used as JavaScript variables, functions, methods, loop
labels, or any object names.

abstract else instanceof switch

boolean enum int synchronized

break export interface this

byte extends long throw

case false native throws

catch final new transient

char finally null true

class float package try

 const for private typeof

continue function protected var

debugger goto public void

default if return volatile

delete implements short while

do import static with

double in super

JavaScript - Operators
What is an Operator?
Let us take a simple expression 4 + 5 is equal to 9. Here 4 and 5 are
called operands and ‘+’ is called the operator. JavaScript supports the
following types of operators.

●​ Arithmetic Operators
●​ Comparison Operators
●​ Logical (or Relational) Operators
●​ Assignment Operators
●​ Conditional (or ternary) Operators
Lets have a look on all operators one by one.

Arithmetic Operators
JavaScript supports the following arithmetic operators −
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

Sr.No. Operator & Description

1 + (Addition)
Adds two operands
Ex: A + B will give 30

2 - (Subtraction)
Subtracts the second operand from the first
Ex: A - B will give -10

3 * (Multiplication)
Multiply both operands
Ex: A * B will give 200

4 / (Division)
Divide the numerator by the denominator
Ex: B / A will give 2

5 % (Modulus)
Outputs the remainder of an integer division
Ex: B % A will give 0

6 ++ (Increment)
Increases an integer value by one
Ex: A++ will give 11
7 -- (Decrement)
Decreases an integer value by one
Ex: A-- will give 9

Note − Addition operator (+) works for Numeric as well as Strings. e.g. "a" +
10 will give "a10".

Example
The following code shows how to use arithmetic operators in JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>

<script type = "text/javascript">

<!--
var a = 33;
var b = 10;
var c = "Test";
var linebreak = "<br />";

document.write("a + b = ");
result = a + b;
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("a - b = ");
result = a - b;
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("a / b = ");
result = a / b;
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("a % b = ");
result = a % b;
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
 document.write("a + b + c = ");
result = a + b + c;
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

a = ++a;
document.write("++a = ");
result = ++a;
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

b = --b;
document.write("--b = ");
result = --b;
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
//-->
</script>

Set the variables to different values and then try...

</body>
</html>

Output
a + b = 43
a - b = 23
a / b = 3.3
a % b = 3
a + b + c = 43Test
++a = 35
--b = 8
Set the variables to different values and then try...

Comparison Operators
JavaScript supports the following comparison operators −
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −
Sr.No. Operator & Description

1 = = (Equal)
Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if yes, then the conditio
becomes true.
Ex: (A == B) is not true.

2 != (Not Equal)
Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if the values are not equa
then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A != B) is true.

3 > (Greater than)

Checks if the value of the left operand is greater than the value of the rig
operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A > B) is not true.

4 < (Less than)

Checks if the value of the left operand is less than the value of the right operand,
yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A < B) is true.

5 >= (Greater than or Equal to)

Checks if the value of the left operand is greater than or equal to the value of th
right operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A >= B) is not true.

6 <= (Less than or Equal to)

 Checks if the value of the left operand is less than or equal to the value of the rig
operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A <= B) is true.

Example
The following code shows how to use comparison operators in JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 10;
var b = 20;
var linebreak = "<br />";

document.write("(a == b) => ");

result = (a == b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("(a < b) => ");

result = (a < b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("(a > b) => ");

result = (a > b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("(a != b) => ");

result = (a != b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("(a >= b) => ");

result = (a >= b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
 document.write("(a <= b) => ");
result = (a <= b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
//-->
</script>
Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...
</body>
</html>

Output
(a == b) => false
(a < b) => true
(a > b) => false
(a != b) => true
(a >= b) => false
a <= b) => true
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

Logical Operators
JavaScript supports the following logical operators −
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

Sr.No. Operator & Description

1 && (Logical AND)

If both the operands are non-zero, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A && B) is true.

2 || (Logical OR)
If any of the two operands are non-zero, then the condition becomes true.
 Ex: (A || B) is true.

3 ! (Logical NOT)
Reverses the logical state of its operand. If a condition is true, then the Logic
NOT operator will make it false.
Ex: ! (A && B) is false.

Example
Try the following code to learn how to implement Logical Operators in
JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = true;
var b = false;
var linebreak = "<br />";

document.write("(a && b) => ");

result = (a && b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("(a || b) => ");

result = (a || b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("!(a && b) => ");

result = (!(a && b));
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
(a && b) => false
(a || b) => true
!(a && b) => true
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

Bitwise Operators
JavaScript supports the following bitwise operators −
Assume variable A holds 2 and variable B holds 3, then −

Sr.No. Operator & Description

1 & (Bitwise AND)

It performs a Boolean AND operation on each bit of its integer arguments.
Ex: (A & B) is 2.

2 | (BitWise OR)
It performs a Boolean OR operation on each bit of its integer arguments.
Ex: (A | B) is 3.

3 ^ (Bitwise XOR)
It performs a Boolean exclusive OR operation on each bit of its integer argument
Exclusive OR means that either operand one is true or operand two is true, but n
both.
Ex: (A ^ B) is 1.

4 ~ (Bitwise Not)
It is a unary operator and operates by reversing all the bits in the operand.
 Ex: (~B) is -4.

5 << (Left Shift)

It moves all the bits in its first operand to the left by the number of places specifie
in the second operand. New bits are filled with zeros. Shifting a value left by on
position is equivalent to multiplying it by 2, shifting two positions is equivalent
multiplying by 4, and so on.
Ex: (A << 1) is 4.

6 >> (Right Shift)

Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operand’s value is moved right by the numbe
of bits specified by the right operand.
Ex: (A >> 1) is 1.

7 >>> (Right shift with Zero)

This operator is just like the >> operator, except that the bits shifted in on the le
are always zero.
Ex: (A >>> 1) is 1.

Example
Try the following code to implement Bitwise operator in JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 2; // Bit presentation 10
var b = 3; // Bit presentation 11
var linebreak = "<br />";

document.write("(a & b) => ");

result = (a & b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
 document.write("(a | b) => ");
result = (a | b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("(a ^ b) => ");

result = (a ^ b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("(~b) => ");

result = (~b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("(a << b) => ");

result = (a << b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("(a >> b) => ");

result = (a >> b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
(a & b) => 2
(a | b) => 3
(a ^ b) => 1
(~b) => -4
(a << b) => 16
(a >> b) => 0
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

Assignment Operators
JavaScript supports the following assignment operators −
Sr.No. Operator & Description

1 = (Simple Assignment )
Assigns values from the right side operand to the left side operand
Ex: C = A + B will assign the value of A + B into C

2 += (Add and Assignment)

It adds the right operand to the left operand and assigns the result to the le
operand.
Ex: C += A is equivalent to C = C + A

3 −= (Subtract and Assignment)

It subtracts the right operand from the left operand and assigns the result to the le
operand.
Ex: C -= A is equivalent to C = C - A

4 *= (Multiply and Assignment)

It multiplies the right operand with the left operand and assigns the result to the le
operand.
Ex: C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A

5 /= (Divide and Assignment)

It divides the left operand with the right operand and assigns the result to the le
operand.
Ex: C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A

6 %= (Modules and Assignment)

It takes modulus using two operands and assigns the result to the left operand.
Ex: C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A
Note − Same logic applies to Bitwise operators so they will become like <<=,
>>=, >>=, &=, |= and ^=.

Example
Try the following code to implement assignment operator in JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 33;
var b = 10;
var linebreak = "<br />";

document.write("Value of a => (a = b) => ");

result = (a = b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("Value of a => (a += b) => ");

result = (a += b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("Value of a => (a -= b) => ");

result = (a -= b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("Value of a => (a *= b) => ");

result = (a *= b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("Value of a => (a /= b) => ");

result = (a /= b);
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write("Value of a => (a %= b) => ");

result = (a %= b);
 document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Value of a => (a = b) => 10
Value of a => (a += b) => 20
Value of a => (a -= b) => 10
Value of a => (a *= b) => 100
Value of a => (a /= b) => 10
Value of a => (a %= b) => 0
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

Miscellaneous Operator
We will discuss two operators here that are quite useful in JavaScript:
the conditional operator (? :) and the typeof operator.

Conditional Operator (? :)
The conditional operator first evaluates an expression for a true or false value
and then executes one of the two given statements depending upon the
result of the evaluation.

Sr.No. Operator and Description

1 ? : (Conditional )
If Condition is true? Then value X : Otherwise value Y

Example
Try the following code to understand how the Conditional Operator works in
JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 10;
var b = 20;
var linebreak = "<br />";

document.write ("((a > b) ? 100 : 200) => ");

result = (a > b) ? 100 : 200;
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

document.write ("((a < b) ? 100 : 200) => ");

result = (a < b) ? 100 : 200;
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
((a > b) ? 100 : 200) => 200
((a < b) ? 100 : 200) => 100
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

typeof Operator
The typeof operator is a unary operator that is placed before its single
operand, which can be of any type. Its value is a string indicating the data
type of the operand.
The typeof operator evaluates to "number", "string", or "boolean" if its
operand is a number, string, or boolean value and returns true or false based
on the evaluation.
Here is a list of the return values for the typeof Operator.

Type String Returned by typeof

Number "number"

String "string"

Boolean "boolean"

Object "object"

Function "function"

Undefined "undefined"

Null "object"

Example
The following code shows how to implement typeof operator.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 10;
var b = "String";
var linebreak = "<br />";
 result = (typeof b == "string" ? "B is String" :
"B is Numeric");
document.write("Result => ");
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);

result = (typeof a == "string" ? "A is String" :

"A is Numeric");
document.write("Result => ");
document.write(result);
document.write(linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Result => B is String
Result => A is Numeric
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

JavaScript - if...else Statement

While writing a program, there may be a situation when you need to adopt
one out of a given set of paths. In such cases, you need to use conditional
statements that allow your program to make correct decisions and perform
right actions.
JavaScript supports conditional statements which are used to perform
different actions based on different conditions. Here we will explain
the if..else statement.

Flow Chart of if-else

The following flow chart shows how the if-else statement works.
JavaScript supports the following forms of if..else statement −
●​ if statement
●​ if...else statement
●​ if...else if... statement.

if statement
The if statement is the fundamental control statement that allows JavaScript
to make decisions and execute statements conditionally.

Syntax
The syntax for a basic if statement is as follows −
if (expression) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is true
}
Here a JavaScript expression is evaluated. If the resulting value is true, the
given statement(s) are executed. If the expression is false, then no statement
would be not executed. Most of the times, you will use comparison operators
while making decisions.

Example
Try the following example to understand how the if statement works.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var age = 20;

if( age > 18 ) {

document.write("<b>Qualifies for
driving</b>");
}
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Qualifies for driving
Set the variable to different value and then try...

if...else statement
The 'if...else' statement is the next form of control statement that allows
JavaScript to execute statements in a more controlled way.

Syntax
if (expression) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is true
} else {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is false
}
Here JavaScript expression is evaluated. If the resulting value is true, the
given statement(s) in the ‘if’ block, are executed. If the expression is false,
then the given statement(s) in the else block are executed.

Example
Try the following code to learn how to implement an if-else statement in
JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var age = 15;

if( age > 18 ) {

document.write("<b>Qualifies for
driving</b>");
} else {
document.write("<b>Does not qualify for
driving</b>");
}
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Does not qualify for driving
Set the variable to different value and then try...

if...else if... statement

The if...else if... statement is an advanced form of if…else that allows
JavaScript to make a correct decision out of several conditions.

Syntax
The syntax of an if-else-if statement is as follows −
if (expression 1) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression 1 is true
} else if (expression 2) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression 2 is true
} else if (expression 3) {
 Statement(s) to be executed if expression 3 is true
} else {
Statement(s) to be executed if no expression is true
}
There is nothing special about this code. It is just a series of if statements,
where each if is a part of the else clause of the previous statement.
Statement(s) are executed based on the true condition, if none of the
conditions is true, then the else block is executed.

Example
Try the following code to learn how to implement an if-else-if statement in
JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var book = "maths";
if( book == "history" ) {
document.write("<b>History Book</b>");
} else if( book == "maths" ) {
document.write("<b>Maths Book</b>");
} else if( book == "economics" ) {
document.write("<b>Economics Book</b>");
} else {
document.write("<b>Unknown Book</b>");
}
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then
try...</p>
</body>
<html>

Output
Maths Book
Set the variable to different value and then try...

JavaScript - Switch Case

You can use multiple if...else…if statements, as in the previous chapter, to
perform a multiway branch. However, this is not always the best solution,
especially when all of the branches depend on the value of a single variable.
Starting with JavaScript 1.2, you can use a switch statement which handles
exactly this situation, and it does so more efficiently than repeated if...else
if statements.

Flow Chart
The following flow chart explains a switch-case statement works.

Syntax
The objective of a switch statement is to give an expression to evaluate and
several different statements to execute based on the value of the expression.
The interpreter checks each case against the value of the expression until a
match is found. If nothing matches, a default condition will be used.
switch (expression) {
case condition 1: statement(s)
break;
 case condition 2: statement(s)
break;
...

case condition n: statement(s)

break;

default: statement(s)
}
The break statements indicate the end of a particular case. If they were
omitted, the interpreter would continue executing each statement in each of
the following cases.
We will explain break statement in Loop Control chapter.

Example
Try the following example to implement switch-case statement.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var grade = 'A';
document.write("Entering switch block<br />");
switch (grade) {
case 'A': document.write("Good job<br />");
break;

case 'B': document.write("Pretty good<br />");

break;

case 'C': document.write("Passed<br />");

break;

case 'D': document.write("Not so good<br />");

break;

case 'F': document.write("Failed<br />");

break;
 default: document.write("Unknown grade<br
/>")
}
document.write("Exiting switch block");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Entering switch block
Good job
Exiting switch block
Set the variable to different value and then try...
Break statements play a major role in switch-case statements. Try the
following code that uses switch-case statement without any break statement.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var grade = 'A';
document.write("Entering switch block<br />");
switch (grade) {
case 'A': document.write("Good job<br />");
case 'B': document.write("Pretty good<br />");
case 'C': document.write("Passed<br />");
case 'D': document.write("Not so good<br />");
case 'F': document.write("Failed<br />");
default: document.write("Unknown grade<br />")
}
document.write("Exiting switch block");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>
Output
Entering switch block
Good job
Pretty good
Passed
Not so good
Failed
Unknown grade
Exiting switch block
Set the variable to different value and then try...

JavaScript - While Loops

While writing a program, you may encounter a situation where you need to
perform an action over and over again. In such situations, you would need to
write loop statements to reduce the number of lines.
JavaScript supports all the necessary loops to ease down the pressure of
programming.

The while Loop

The most basic loop in JavaScript is the while loop which would be
discussed in this chapter. The purpose of a while loop is to execute a
statement or code block repeatedly as long as an expression is true. Once
the expression becomes false, the loop terminates.

Flow Chart
The flow chart of while loop looks as follows −
Syntax
The syntax of while loop in JavaScript is as follows −
while (expression) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is true
}

Example
Try the following example to implement while loop.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>

<script type = "text/javascript">

<!--
var count = 0;
document.write("Starting Loop ");

while (count < 10) {

 document.write("Current Count : " + count +
"<br />");
count++;
}

document.write("Loop stopped!");
//-->
</script>

<p>Set the variable to different value and then

try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Starting Loop
Current Count : 0
Current Count : 1
Current Count : 2
Current Count : 3
Current Count : 4
Current Count : 5
Current Count : 6
Current Count : 7
Current Count : 8
Current Count : 9
Loop stopped!
Set the variable to different value and then try...

The do...while Loop

The do...while loop is similar to the while loop except that the condition
check happens at the end of the loop. This means that the loop will always be
executed at least once, even if the condition is false.

Flow Chart
The flow chart of a do-while loop would be as follows −
Syntax
The syntax for do-while loop in JavaScript is as follows −
do {
Statement(s) to be executed;
} while (expression);
Note − Don’t miss the semicolon used at the end of the do...while loop.

Example
Try the following example to learn how to implement a do-while loop in
JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var count = 0;

document.write("Starting Loop" + "<br />");

do {
document.write("Current Count : " + count +
"<br />");
 count++;
}

while (count < 5);

document.write ("Loop stopped!");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Starting Loop
Current Count : 0
Current Count : 1
Current Count : 2
Current Count : 3
Current Count : 4
Loop Stopped!
Set the variable to different value and then try...

JavaScript - For Loop

The 'for' loop is the most compact form of looping. It includes the following
three important parts −
●​ The loop initialization where we initialize our counter to a starting
value. The initialization statement is executed before the loop begins.
●​ The test statement which will test if a given condition is true or not. If
the condition is true, then the code given inside the loop will be
executed, otherwise the control will come out of the loop.
●​ The iteration statement where you can increase or decrease your
counter.
You can put all the three parts in a single line separated by semicolons.

Flow Chart
The flow chart of a for loop in JavaScript would be as follows −
Syntax
The syntax of for loop is JavaScript is as follows −
for (initialization; test condition; iteration statement) {
Statement(s) to be executed if test condition is true
}

Example
Try the following example to learn how a for loop works in JavaScript.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var count;
document.write("Starting Loop" + "<br />");

for(count = 0; count < 10; count++) {

document.write("Current Count : " + count );
document.write("<br />");
}
document.write("Loop stopped!");
//-->
</script>
 <p>Set the variable to different value and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Starting Loop
Current Count : 0
Current Count : 1
Current Count : 2
Current Count : 3
Current Count : 4
Current Count : 5
Current Count : 6
Current Count : 7
Current Count : 8
Current Count : 9
Loop stopped!
Set the variable to different value and then try...

JavaScript for...in loop

The for...in loop is used to loop through an object's properties. As we have
not discussed Objects yet, you may not feel comfortable with this loop. But
once you understand how objects behave in JavaScript, you will find this loop
very useful.

Syntax
The syntax of ‘for..in’ loop is −
for (variablename in object) {
statement or block to execute
}
In each iteration, one property from object is assigned to variablename and
this loop continues till all the properties of the object are exhausted.

Example
Try the following example to implement ‘for-in’ loop. It prints the web
browser’s Navigator object.
 Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var aProperty;
document.write("Navigator Object Properties<br />
");
for (aProperty in navigator) {
document.write(aProperty);
document.write("<br />");
}
document.write ("Exiting from the loop!");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different object and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Navigator Object Properties
serviceWorker
webkitPersistentStorage
webkitTemporaryStorage
geolocation
doNotTrack
onLine
languages
language
userAgent
product
platform
appVersion
appName
appCodeName
hardwareConcurrency
maxTouchPoints
vendorSub
vendor
productSub
cookieEnabled
mimeTypes
plugins
javaEnabled
getStorageUpdates
getGamepads
webkitGetUserMedia
vibrate
getBattery
sendBeacon
registerProtocolHandler
unregisterProtocolHandler
Exiting from the loop!
Set the variable to different object and then try...

JavaScript - Loop Control

JavaScript provides full control to handle loops and switch statements. There
may be a situation when you need to come out of a loop without reaching its
bottom. There may also be a situation when you want to skip a part of your
code block and start the next iteration of the loop.
To handle all such situations, JavaScript
provides break and continue statements. These statements are used to
immediately come out of any loop or to start the next iteration of any loop
respectively.

The break Statement

The break statement, which was briefly introduced with the switch statement,
is used to exit a loop early, breaking out of the enclosing curly braces.

Flow Chart
The flow chart of a break statement would look as follows −
Example
The following example illustrates the use of a break statement with a while
loop. Notice how the loop breaks out early once x reaches 5 and reaches
to document.write (..) statement just below to the closing curly brace −
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var x = 1;
document.write("Entering the loop<br /> ");

while (x < 20) {

if (x == 5) {
break; // breaks out of loop completely
}
x = x + 1;
document.write( x + "<br />");
}
document.write("Exiting the loop!<br /> ");
//-->
</script>

<p>Set the variable to different value and then

try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Entering the loop
2
3
4
5
Exiting the loop!
Set the variable to different value and then try...
We already have seen the usage of break statement inside a
switch statement.

The continue Statement

The continue statement tells the interpreter to immediately start the next
iteration of the loop and skip the remaining code block. When
a continue statement is encountered, the program flow moves to the loop
check expression immediately and if the condition remains true, then it starts
the next iteration, otherwise the control comes out of the loop.

Example
This example illustrates the use of a continue statement with a while loop.
Notice how the continue statement is used to skip printing when the index
held in variable x reaches 5 −
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var x = 1;
document.write("Entering the loop<br /> ");

while (x < 10) {

x = x + 1;

if (x == 5) {
continue; // skip rest of the loop body
}
 document.write( x + "<br />");
}
document.write("Exiting the loop!<br /> ");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Entering the loop
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
Exiting the loop!
Set the variable to different value and then try...

Using Labels to Control the Flow

Starting from JavaScript 1.2, a label can be used with break and continue to
control the flow more precisely. A label is simply an identifier followed by a
colon (:) that is applied to a statement or a block of code. We will see two
different examples to understand how to use labels with break and continue.
Note − Line breaks are not allowed between
the ‘continue’ or ‘break’ statement and its label name. Also, there should
not be any other statement in between a label name and associated loop.
Try the following two examples for a better understanding of Labels.

Example 1
The following example shows how to implement Label with a break
statement.
Live Demo
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
document.write("Entering the loop!<br /> ");
outerloop: // This is the label name
for (var i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
document.write("Outerloop: " + i + "<br />");
innerloop:
for (var j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
if (j > 3 ) break ; // Quit the
innermost loop
if (i == 2) break innerloop; // Do the
same thing
if (i == 4) break outerloop; // Quit the
outer loop
document.write("Innerloop: " + j + " <br
/>");
}
}
document.write("Exiting the loop!<br /> ");
//-->
</script>
</body>
</html>

Output
Entering the loop!
Outerloop: 0
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Innerloop: 3
Outerloop: 1
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Innerloop: 3
Outerloop: 2
Outerloop: 3
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Innerloop: 3
Outerloop: 4
Exiting the loop!

Example 2
Live Demo
<html>
<body>

<script type = "text/javascript">

<!--
document.write("Entering the loop!<br /> ");
outerloop: // This is the label name

for (var i = 0; i < 3; i++) {

document.write("Outerloop: " + i + "<br />");
for (var j = 0; j < 5; j++) {
if (j == 3) {
continue outerloop;
}
document.write("Innerloop: " + j + "<br />");
}
}

document.write("Exiting the loop!<br /> ");

//-->
</script>

</body>
</html>

Output
Entering the loop!
Outerloop: 0
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Outerloop: 1
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Outerloop: 2
Innerloop: 0
Innerloop: 1
Innerloop: 2
Exiting the loop!

JavaScript - Functions
A function is a group of reusable code which can be called anywhere in your
program. This eliminates the need of writing the same code again and again.
It helps programmers in writing modular codes. Functions allow a
programmer to divide a big program into a number of small and manageable
functions.
Like any other advanced programming language, JavaScript also supports all
the features necessary to write modular code using functions. You must have
seen functions like alert() and write() in the earlier chapters. We were using
these functions again and again, but they had been written in core JavaScript
only once.
JavaScript allows us to write our own functions as well. This section explains
how to write your own functions in JavaScript.

Function Definition
Before we use a function, we need to define it. The most common way to
define a function in JavaScript is by using the function keyword, followed by
a unique function name, a list of parameters (that might be empty), and a
statement block surrounded by curly braces.

Syntax
The basic syntax is shown here.
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function functionname(parameter-list) {
statements
}
//-->
</script>

Example
Try the following example. It defines a function called sayHello that takes no
parameters −
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello there");
}
//-->
</script>

Calling a Function
To invoke a function somewhere later in the script, you would simply need to
write the name of that function as shown in the following code.
Live Demo
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function sayHello() {
document.write ("Hello there!");
}
</script>

</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value
= "Say Hello">
</form>
<p>Use different text in write method and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output

Function Parameters
Till now, we have seen functions without parameters. But there is a facility to
pass different parameters while calling a function. These passed parameters
can be captured inside the function and any manipulation can be done over
those parameters. A function can take multiple parameters separated by
comma.

Example
Try the following example. We have modified our sayHello function here.
Now it takes two parameters.
Live Demo
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function sayHello(name, age) {
document.write (name + " is " + age + " years
old.");
}
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello('Zara',
7)" value = "Say Hello">
</form>
<p>Use different parameters inside the function and
then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output

The return Statement

A JavaScript function can have an optional return statement. This is required
if you want to return a value from a function. This statement should be the
last statement in a function.
For example, you can pass two numbers in a function and then you can
expect the function to return their multiplication in your calling program.

Example
Try the following example. It defines a function that takes two parameters and
concatenates them before returning the resultant in the calling program.
Live Demo
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function concatenate(first, last) {
var full;
full = first + last;
return full;
}
function secondFunction() {
var result;
result = concatenate('Zara', 'Ali');
document.write (result );
}
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "secondFunction()"
value = "Call Function">
</form>
<p>Use different parameters inside the function and
then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
There is a lot to learn about JavaScript functions, however we have covered
the most important concepts in this tutorial.
●​ JavaScript Nested Functions
●​ JavaScript Function( ) Constructor
●​ JavaScript Function Literals