Chapter 31 Faraday’s Law

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Michael Faraday conducted a series of experiments in England in 1831 on the electricity
and magnetism.
●
The experimental outcomes concluded that an emf can be induced in a circuit by modifying
magnetic field.
●
Similar results were obtained independently by Joseph Henry in the United States in the
same year.
●
The results of the experiments brought us Faraday’s law of induction which is a very basic
and important law of electromagnetism.
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A changing magnetic flux in a process can induce an emf and therefore a current.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henry
31.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction
●
Consider the ammeter and magnet
shown in Figure 31.1.
●
There is a loop of wire connected to the
terminals of the ammeter.
●
Move the magnet toward the loop. The
ammeter reads a negative value as
shown in Figure 31.1a (reading is
arbitrary).
●
Now bring the magnet to rest and hold it
stationary relative to the loop. The
ammeter does not read anything as
shown in Figure 31.1b.

●
Move the magnet back. The ammeter reads a positive value as shown in Figure 31.1c.
●
Hold the magnet stationary. The ammeter does not read anything.
●
The loop detects the movement of the magnet relative to it. This is related to a change in the
magnetic field.
●
A relationship exists between current and changing magnetic field.
●
A current is created without a battery.
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A current in such a process is called an induced current and it is said to be produced by an
induced emf.

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●
Consider the experiment illustrated in Figure 31.2. A similar experiment was conducted by
Faraday.
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The iron ring has two coils: a primary coil and a secondary coil.
●
A current set up by a battery in the primary coil produces a magnetic field when the switch is
closed.
●
The secondary coil is connect to an ammeter. There is no reading in the ammeter.
●
However, at the instant the switch is closed, the ammeter reads a value in one direction
and returns to zero.
●
At the instant the switch is opened, the ammeter reads a value again but in opposite
direction and then returns to zero.
●
When there is a steady current in the circuit or no current at all, the ammeter reads nothing.
●
What happens? A magnetic field is set up in the iron ring when the switch is closed and the
field passes through the secondary coil.
●
The changing magnetic field from zero to some finite value induces a current in the
secondary coil.
●
Faraday concluded that a changing
magnetic field can induce a current in a
loop.
●
If the magnetic field reaches a steady
value, the current in loop ceases.
●
In this process, the loop behaves as if a
source of emf were connected to it for a
short time.
●
Customarily, it is said that an induced emf
is produced in the loop.

3
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The magnetic flux through the loop changes with time in both of the experiments shown.
●
There is a relationship between the induced emf and the time rate of change of magnetic
flux through the loop.
●
This relationship is known as Faraday’s law of induction:
d ΦB
ℇ=−
dt
where ΦB =∫ ⃗ B⋅d ⃗
A is the magnetic flux through the loop.
●
Let’s say the coil consists of N loops each having the same area and the same magnetic flux
ΦB .
●
An emf is induced in each loop. The total emf is sum of all emfs as they are in series.
●
So the total induced emf in the coil becomes

d ΦB
ℇ=−N
dt
●
Consider a loop with an area A placed in a uniform magnetic field ⃗
B
as shown in Figure 31.3.
●
The induced emf in the loop is given by
d
ℇ=− ( BA cos θ )
dt
where BA cos θ is the magnetic flux through the loop.
●
According to this equation, an emf can be induced in the circuit in the
following ways:
– The magnitude of ⃗ B can change with time.
– The area enclosed by the loop can change with time.
– The angle θ between ⃗ B and the normal to the loop can change with
time
– Any combination of the above can occur. 4
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https://javalab.org/en/faradays_law_en/

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31.2 Motional emf
●
In the previous section, we dealt with stationary circuits where a magnetic field changing
with time induces an emf.
●
Now we will consider a different case in which the magnetic field is constant but the circuit
itself is moving through the field.
●
The emf induced in this case is called motional emf.
●
In Figure 31.7 a straight conductor of length l is moving to the right in a
magnetic field directed into the page.
●
Its velocity is assumed to be constant and perpendicular to the field.
●
The electrons inside it experience a magnetic force ⃗ FB =q ⃗v × ⃗
B directed
to the bottom of the page. It is perpendicular to both ⃗v and ⃗ B .
●
The magnetic force makes the electrons move to the lower end of the
conductor and they accumulate there. That creates a net positive charge
at the upper end of the conductor.
●
The separation of the charges inside the conductor sets up an electric field
⃗E inside it.
●
The charge accumulation at the ends of the rod continues until the
magnetic force qvB is balanced by the electric force qE on the charges.
●
In the equilibrium, these forces satisfy
qvB=qE or E=vB

●
We can related the electric field set up in the conductor to the potential difference across the
ends of the conductor given by Δ V =El . Using the above equation we find
Δ V =El=Blv
●
Note that the upper end of the conductor is at a higher electric potential than the lower end. 10
●
Therefore, the movement of the conductor through the magnetic field maintains a potential
difference between its ends.
●
If the direction of the motion is reversed, the polarity of the potential difference is reversed
as well.
●
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 31.8a. Now the conductor is a part of a closed circuit.
●
Assume that the conductor bar has no resistance. But there is a resistance R connected to
the stationary part of the circuit.
●
An applied force ⃗ Fapp pulls the rod to right in the region of the constant magnetic field.
●
The electrons inside the conductor experience a magnetic force to the bottom of the page.
as discussed in the previous case.
●
However, now a charge accumulation does not occur because the electrons are free to
move in the circuit. Therefore, a current is induced in the circuit.
●
The movement of the conductor creates a magnetic flux changing with time through the area
formed by the conductor and the circuit. So a motional emf is induced across the moving bar,

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●
Let’s calculate the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the circuit. At a given instant,
the area is given by lx where x is the position of the bar. Then the flux is
Φ B =Blx
●
Faraday’s law gives us

d ΦB d dx
ℇ=− =− ( Blx ) =−Bl
dt dt dt

ℇ=−Blv
●
The magnitude of the induced current becomes

|ℇ | Blv
I= =
R R
●
Figure 31.8b shows the equivalent circuit diagram for this example.
●
Where is the source of the energy for the induced current and the energy delivered to the
resistor? If we model the circuit as a system, then we see that it is nonisolated because an
external force, that is ⃗
Fapp , is applied to the conducting bar. The work done by the applied
force provides the energy for the induced current and the resistor.
●
Since bar moves with a constant velocity, it is in equilibrium under the actions of the magnetic
force and the applied force. Therefore, we get F app =F B=IlB .
●
The power delivered by the applied force is then
B 2 l 2 v 2 ℇ2
P=F app v = ( IlB ) v = =
R R
●
This power input is equal to the rate at which energy delivered to the resistor.
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 31.3 Lenz’ Law
●
What is the meaning of the negative sign in the equation stating Faraday’s law? Remember
that the equation is given by
d ΦB
ℇ=−
dt
●
If the magnetic flux increases with time, the induced emf has a negative sign. If the flux
decreases with time, the induced emf has a positive sign. So the emf changes sign or direction
when the magnetic flux increases or decreases.
●
This situation is called Lenz’s law:
The induced current in a loop in the direction that creates a magnetic field that opposes the
change in the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the loop.
●
In other words, the induced current does not want the magnetic flux through the loop to be
decreasing or increasing. It tends to keep the original magnetic flux through the loop from
changing.
●
Consider the circuit given in Figure 31.11a. A conducting bar is moving to the right in a region
where a uniform magnetic field exists.
●
As the bar moves to the right, the area enclosed by circuit increases and therefore the
magnetic flux through this area increases.
●
In response to the changing
magnetic flux, an emf (or current)
with a negative sign is induced in
the circuit.
●
This induced current sets up a
magnetic field in the circuit.
●
According to Lenz’s law this
magnetic field should be in a
direction so that it leads to a
decrease in the magnetic flux. 18
●
The external magnetic field is directed into the page. So the magnetic field set up by the
induced current should be directed out of the page.
●
That means the induced current should be directed in the counterclockwise when the bar
moves to the right.
●
Now consider the case shown in Figure 31.11b. The bar moves to the left and therefore the
magnetic flux through the area is decreasing.
●
In response to this decreasing, the induced current sets up a magnetic field directed into the
page to increase the lowering magnetic flux. Therefore, the current is directed clockwise.

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31.4 Induced emf and Electric Fields
●
We know that a current sets up in a conductor when an electric field
exerts an electric force on the charged particles.
●
Then there should be an electric field related to an induced current in
a loop created by a changing magnetic flux.
●
This electric field is the result of the changing magnetic flux.
●
Also we know that the existence of an electric field does not depend
on the presence of test charges.
●
We conclude that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field
in empty space (even in the absence of a conducting loop).
●
This induced electric field is not conservative, but it is
nonconservative, as opposed to the electrostatic field created by
stationary charges.
●
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 31.15.
●
If the magnetic field in the region changes with time, an emf is
induced in the loop as Faraday’s law states.
●
The induced current in the loop indicates an induced electric field ⃗
E .
●
This electric field should be tangent to the loop as the induced current is along the circular
loop.
●
The work done by the induced electric field on a test charge q once around the loop is equal
to q ℇ . From another point of view, the same work can be given by qE (2 π r) where qE is the
electric force on the test charge and 2πr is the path followed by the test charge under the
action of electric force.
●
These two work expressions must be equal:
q ℇ=qE (2 π r )
ℇ
E=
2πr 25
●
Insert the expression Φ B =BA=B π r 2 for the magnetic flux into the equation we derived:

1 d ΦB r dB
E=− =−
2 π r dt 2 dt
●
So if the time dependence of the magnetic field is given, the induced electric field can be
evaluated from this equation.
●
The emf for any closed path can be expressed as the line integral of ⃗ E⋅d s⃗ over that path:
ℇ=∮ ⃗ E⋅d ⃗s .In more general cases, E may not be constant and the path may not be a circle.
●
Hence, Faraday’s law of induction, ℇ=−d Φ B / dt , can be written in the general form
d ΦB
∮ ⃗E⋅d ⃗s=− dt
●
The induced electric field ⃗
E in this equation is a nonconservative field that is generated by
a changing magnetic field.
●
The field ⃗E that satisfies the above equation cannot possibly be an electrostatic field
because were the field electrostatic and hence conservative, the line integral of ⃗
E⋅d s⃗ over a
closed loop would be zero, which would be in contradiction to the above equation:

∮ ⃗E⋅d ⃗s=0 for a conservative electric field

Why do we have circular electric field lines?Go to the end of the presentation (highly optional). 26
●
Induced electric field is in the form circular
lines concentric with each other.

●
We would draw radial lines for the
electric field using the symmetry
considerations. In that case, we would
have electric field lines starting at a point
and ending at some other point. But such
electric field lines would require free
charges around the axis of the
symmetry, according to Gauss’s law.

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From Halliday & Resnick FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS T E N T H E D I T I O N

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31.6 Eddy Currents
●
When a bulk piece of metal moves through a magnetic field,
circulating currents are created inside it.
●
These currents are called eddy currents.
●
Consider the metal plate shown in Figure 31.21. Attached to the
end of a rigid bar, it swings back and forth through a magnetic
field.
●
When the plate enters the region of the magnetic field, an emf is
induced in the plate as the magnetic flux changes.
●
The electrons move in the plate in response to the induced emf.
they produce swirling eddy currents.
●
The direction of the currents is dictated by Lenz’s law.
●
Since the magnetic flux is increasing, the induced currents set up
an opposite magnetic field.
●
Therefore, the eddy currents produce effective magnetic poles on
the plate, which are repelled by the poles of the magnet.
●
As a result, a repulsive force acts on the plate which opposes its
motion.

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●
Look at Figure 31.22a. The magnetic field is directed into the page. As the plate enters the
field, the magnetic flux increases. So the eddy current is counterclockwise (it sets up a
magnetic field out of the page) by Lenz’s law.
●
As the plate leaves the field, the magnetic flux decreases. So the eddy current is in clockwise
(it sets up a magnetic field directed into the page) by Lenz’s law.
●
As for the magnetic force on the plate, it retards the motion of the plate when the plate enters
or leaves the field.
●
Eventually, the plate stops swirling and comes to rest.
●
If slots are cut in the plate as shown in Active Figure 31.22b, the eddy currents and the
corresponding retarding force are greatly reduced. We can understand this reduction in force
by realizing that the cuts in the plate prevent the formation of any large current loops.

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 From SEARS AND ZEMANSKY’S UNIVERSITY PHYSICS WITH MODERN
PHYSICS 13TH EDITION

From SEARS AND ZEMANSKY’S UNIVERSITY PHYSICS WITH MODERN

35
Solution
The initial case: The final case:
⃗
A ⃗
A
⃗
B ⃗
B
θ =0 θ =180∘

ΦB = ⃗ A⋅⃗
B → Φ B = AB cos θ
Φ B ,i = A B and Φ B ,f =− A B
Δ ΦB Φ B ,f −ΦB , i
ℇ=−N → ℇ=−N
Δt Δt
− AB− AB AB
ℇ=−N → ℇ=2 N
Δt Δt
π (0.5 m )2 (50×10−6 T )
ℇ=2(25) → ℇ=9.82 mV
0.2 s

36
Solution
In the final case the area of loop is zero so the magnetic flux is zero too: A f =0 → Φ B , f =0
The initial area and the initial magnetic flux is: A i = π R 2 → ΦB , i = π R 2 B
Then the induced emf is:
Δ ΦB 0− π R 2 B π R2 B
ℇ=− → ℇ=− → ℇ=
Δt Δt Δt
π (0.12 m)2 (0.15 T)
ℇ= → ℇ=33.9 mV
0.2 s

37
Solution
We have a magnetic field changing with time. So the induced emf is due the time rate of the change of the
magnetic flux through the coil:
d ΦB dB d
→ ℇ=−NA ( 0.01 t +0.04 t ) → ℇ=−NA (0.01+0.08 t )
2
ℇ=−N → ℇ=−NA
dt dt dt
2
at t =5 s → ℇ=−30 π (0.04 m) [0.01+0.08(5 s)] → ℇ=−61.8 mV

38
 Solution
(a)
1
Bcenter =μ0 n I → B end= 2 μ 0 n I
Emf induced in the aluminum ring is
A Δ(B end ) − A Δ ( 2 μ 0 n I )
1
Δ ΦB Δ( A B end ) 2 μ0 n Δ I
ℇ=− =− =− = → ℇ=− π r 2
Δt Δt Δt Δt 2 Δt
The induced current is then:
|ℇ| 2μ n ΔI
I= → I = π r2 0
R 2R Δt
(b)
The magnetic field of the ring is found by using the equation for a magnetic field of a circular coil carrying
a current I:
μ0 I μ0 2 μ0 n Δ I μ 20 n π r 22 Δ I
B ring = → B ring = πr → B ring =
2r 2 r1 2 2 R Δ t 4 r1 R Δ t
(c)
The magnetic field of the solenoid is to the right by rigth-hand rule.
The magnetic flux is increasing because of the increasing current. That means the induced emf is negative.
So the induced current is in opposite direction which is counterclockwise.
A counterclockwise current in the ring produces a magnetic field directed to the left by right-hand rule. 39
Solution
The magnetic field is the solenoid is changing because of the time-changing current.
Therefore, the magnetic flux through the coil is changing with time. That leads to an induced emf in the coil:
d ΦB dB d dI
=−NA ( μ 0 n I )=−NA μ 0 n =−NA μ0 n [ 30 (1.6) e ]
−1.6 t
ℇ=−N =− NA
dt dt dt dt
ℇ=250 π (0.06 m)2 (4 π ×10−7 T⋅m/A )(400)(30)(1.6) e−1.6 t
ℇ=−68.2 e−1.6 t mV

40
 Solution
N v=0.5 m/s
v=0.5 m/s S N
θ =53 ∘

W E B=50 μ T

S
(a)
Calculate the component of the magnetic field perpendicular to the velocity: B ⊥ =B sin 53 ∘
Then the induced emf is given by: ℇ=B⊥ l v=B sin 53∘ lv
Evalaute it by inserting the numerical quantities:
ℇ=(50×10−6 T)sin 53 ∘ (2 m )(0.5 m/s)
ℇ=39.9 μ V
(b)
The magnetic force on the electrons inside the wire is to the east. They accumulate on the east end.
Therefore, the west end becomes positively charged.

+++ −−−
41
Solution
(a)
The bar should be in equilibrium for the constant speed motion. The magnetic force and the applied force act
on it. So the forces on it should be equal in magnitude: F app =F B
|ℇ | Bl v
F app =I l B where I is the induced current in the circuit: I = → I=
R R
2 2 2 2
B l v (2.5 T) (1.2 m ) (2 m/s)
F app = → F app =
R 6Ω
F app =3 N

(b)
P=F app v → P=(3 N)(2 m/s)

P=6 W

42
 The bar is moving with a constant speed; it is in equilibirum:
F B=mg sin θ
Solution A magnetic force acts on it because of the induced current:
|ℇ | B l v
Draw the free-body diagram of the bar: F B=I l B⊥ and I= = ⊥
R R
2 2
B l v
F B= ⊥
R
2 2
B⊥l v R mg sin θ
=mg sin θ → v=
R 2 2
B⊥ l
insert B ⊥ =B cos θ
R mg sin θ R mg sin θ
v= 2 2 2
= 2 2 2
B cos θ l B l cos θ

43
Solution
(a)
d ΦB
The general form of Faraday's law states: ∮ ⃗
E⋅d s⃗ =−
dt
The magnitude of the electric field is constant over the circular path and its direction is tangent to it.
d d dB d
E (2 π r 2 )=− (B A)=− (B π r 22 )=− π r 22 =− π r 22 (0.03 t 2 +1.4)=− π r 22 (0.06 t)
dt dt dt dt
E=−0.03 r 2 t
At t=3 s → E=−0.03(0.02 m)(3 s) → E=−1.8 mN/C

(b)
The flux is increasing with time. Lenz's law dictates an out of the page magnetic field.
So the electric field must be directed in counterclockwise.

44
Solution
(a)
The induced current produces a magnetic field directed into the page.
That means the induced current tries to decrease the magnetic flux.
Therefore, the out of page magnetic field is increasing by Lenz's law.
(b)

|ℇ |= | |
d ΦB
dt
d dB dB IR IR
IR= (BA )= A → = = 2
dt dt dt A πr
−3
dB (2.5×10 A)(0.5 Ω)
=
dt π (0.08 m )2
dB
=0.062 T/s
dt
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Solution
The flux changes because of the moving rod. The area between the rod and the wire increases.

ℇ=− Δ Φ
Δt
=−
Δ( BA)
Δt
=−
BΔ A
Δt
=− ( )
μ0 I Δ r l
2πr Δt
where Δ r is the change in r in time Δ t .
Δr
r changes because of the motion of the rod → v =
Δt
μ I lv μ 0 vI l
ℇ=− 0 → |ℇ|=
2 πr 2πr

46
Solution
Consider the infinitesimal area dA that dx the infinitesimal part of the bar makes. This area is
changing as the bar moves. Calculate the magnetic flux through this area which is at a distance
x from the current-carrying wire.
μ0 I
d Φ B=B dA where B is and dA is vt dx .
2π x
μ0 I μ 0 I vt r +l 1 μ 0 I vt μ 0 I vt
d Φ B=
2πx
v t dx → Φ B =
2π r x
∫ dx → Φ B =
2π
ln x|r +l
r → Φ B =
2π
ln ( 1+l / r )

| |
|ℇ |=
d ΦB
dt
→ |ℇ |=
μ0 I v
2π
ln ( 1+l /r )

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 Solution
Consider the area that the infinitesimal loop shown in the right makes. The area is dA or Ldx.
Integrating the infinitesimal magnetic flux through the infinitesimal area, we will find the total
flux. We do this because the magnetic field is not constant over the loop.
μ0 I
d Φ B=B dA where B is and dA is Ldx .
2π x
r+w
μ0 I L r+w 1
( )
μ0 I μ0 I μ0 I L μ0 I L r +w
L dx → ΦB = ∫ ∫ r+w
d Φ B= L dx= dx → Φ B = ln x|r → Φ B = ln
2πx r 2πx 2π r x 2π 2π r
Now calculate the induced emf. There is an induced emf because the location of the loop r is changing
as it moves:

| |
w dr
− 2
|ℇ |=| |
d ΦB
dt
→ |ℇ |= 0
μ IL d
2 π dt[ ( )]
ln
r +w
r
→ |ℇ |= 0
μ I L r dt
2π
1+
w
→ |ℇ |= 0
μ IL wv
2 π r r +w
where v=
dr
dt
r
|ℇ | μ0 I L v w
I= → I=
R 2 π R r r +w 48
Why do we have circular electric field lines? (Highly optional)
Note: You are not responsible from this part.

49
50
Why do we have straight electric field lines? (Highly optional)
Note: You are not responsible from this part.

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