Unit - I

Introduction, History, Intelligent Systems, Foundations of AI, Sub

areas of AI, Applications. Problem Solving – State-Space Search
and Control Strategies: Introduction, General Problem Solving,
Characteristics of Problem, Exhaustive
Searches, Heuristic Search Techniques, Iterative-Deepening A*,
Constraint Satisfaction

Topic: AI Introduction:

In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are

getting in touch with different new technologies day by day. Here,
one of the booming technologies of computer science is Artificial
Intelligence which is ready to +create a new revolution in the
world by making intelligent machines.The Artificial Intelligence is
now all around us. It is currently working with a variety of
subfields, ranging from general to specific, such as self-driving
cars, playing chess, proving theorems, playing music, Painting, etc.

AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer

science which has a great scope in future. AI holds a tendency to
cause a machine to work as a human.
Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and

Intelligence, where Artificial defines "man-made," and

intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-

made thinking power." So, we can define AI as:

"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create

intelligent machines which can behave like a human, think like
humans, and able to make decisions."

Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human

based skills such as learning, reasoning, and solving problems

With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a

machine to do some work, despite that you can create a machine
with programmed algorithms which can work with own
intelligence, and that is the awesomeness of AI.
It is believed that AI is not a new technology, and some people
says that as per Greek myth, there were Mechanical men in early
days which can work and behave like humans.

Why Artificial Intelligence?

Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that

what is the importance of AI and why should we learn it.
Following are some main reasons to learn about AI: o With the
help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can
solve real-world problems very easily and with accuracy such as
health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual
Assistant, such as Cortana, Google Assistant, Siri, etc. o With
the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an
environment where survival of humans can be at risk. o AI
opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new
Opportunities.

Goals of Artificial Intelligence:

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks

3. An intelligent connection of perception and action

 4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires
human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic

5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent

behavior, learn new things by itself, demonstrate, explain,
and can advise to its user.

What Comprises to Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer science even

it's so vast and requires lots of other factors which can contribute
to it. To create the AI first we should know that how intelligence is
composed, so the Intelligence is an intangible part of our brain
which is a combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-
solving perception, language understanding, etc.

To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial

Intelligence requires the following discipline:

o Mathematics o Biology o Psychology o Sociology o Computer

Science o Neurons Study
o Statistics
Advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems

are prone to less errors and high accuracy as it takes
decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-
decision making, because of that AI systems can beat a
chess champion in the Chess game. o High reliability: AI
machines are highly reliable and can perform the same
action multiple times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in
situations such as defusing a bomb, exploring the ocean
floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
 o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital
assistant to the users such as AI technology is currently
used by various Ecommerce websites to show the products
as per customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public
utilities such as a self-driving car which can make our
journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security
purpose, Natural language processing to communicate with
the human in human-language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence:

Every technology has some disadvantages, and thesame goes for

Artificial intelligence. Being so advantageous technology still, it
has some disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind while
creating an AI system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:

o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is

very costly as it requires lots of maintenance to meet
current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter
machines with AI, but still they cannot work out of the box,
as the robot will only do that work for which they are
trained, or programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an
outstanding performer, but still it does not have the feeling
so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with
 human, and may sometime be harmful for users if the
proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of
technology, people are getting more dependent on devices
and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can
imagine some new ideas but still AI machines cannot beat
this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative
and imaginative

Topic:History of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for
researchers. This technology is much older than you would imagine.
Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-
1952)
o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was
done by Warren McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They
proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for
modifying the connection strength between neurons. His rule is
now called Hebbian learning.
 o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English
mathematician and pioneered Machine learning in 1950. Alan
Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
in which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's
ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human
intelligence, called a Turing test.

The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-

1956)
o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the
"first artificial intelligence program"Which was named as
"Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52
Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs
for some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by
American Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth
Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP,

or COBOL were invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high
at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-

1974)
o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms
which can solve mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum
created the first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.
 o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in
Japan which was named as WABOT-1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter
duration. AI winter refers to the time period where computer
scientist dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government
for AI researches. o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on
artificial intelligence was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)
o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert
System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the
decision-making ability of a human expert. o In the Year 1980, the
first national conference of the American Association of Artificial
Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second
AI Winter duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI
research as due to high cost but not efficient result. The expert
system such as XCON was very cost effective.
The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-
2011)
o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess
champion, Gary Kasparov, and became the first computer to
beat a world chess champion.
o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form
of Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006.
Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started
using AI.

o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a

quiz show, where it had to solve the complex questions as well
as riddles. Watson had proved that it could understand natural
language and can solve tricky questions quickly.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence

(2011-present)
o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature
"Google now", which was able to provide information to the
user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won
a competition in the infamous "Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on
complex topics with two master debaters and also performed
extremely well. o Google has demonstrated an AI program
"Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and which had taken
 hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't
notice that she was talking with the machine.

Topic:Intelligent system:

intelligent systems can also include sophisticated AI-based software

systems, such as chatbots, expert systems and other types of software.

Essentially, an intelligent device is anything that contains a functional,

although not usually general-purpose, computer with Internet
connectivity. An embedded system may be powerful and capable of
complex processing and data analysis, but it is usually specialized for
tasks relevant to the host machine.

Intelligent systems exist all around us in point-of-sale (POS)

terminals, digital televisions, traffic lights, smart meters, automobiles,
digital signage and airplane controls, among a great number of other
possibilities. Built-in intelligence is an integral component of the
developing internet of things (IoT), in which almost everything
imaginable can be provided with unique identifiers and the ability to
automatically transfer data over a network without requiring human-
to-human or human-to-computer interaction.
Topic:Foundations of AI and sub areas of AI:

AI into five distinct research areas

 Machine Learning

 Expert Systems

 Computer Vision

 Natural Language Processing

 Robotics

1.Machine Learning:

Machine learning (ML) is the science of empowering machines to

make decisions without human intervention. This sub-discipline
forms the backbone of AI, enabling computers to learn and interpret
patterns in images, sounds, and structured data using
multidimensional arrays. ML is further subdivided into four types of
learning:

• Supervised learning: Given an array of features (i.e., week of the

year, price, etc.) and a labeled output variable (e.g., sales), predict
the best possible estimate of the label variable given some new
input array.
• Unsupervised learning: Given an array of features (e.g.,
demographic information, ZIP code, etc.), expose and visualize
hidden relationships and anomalies within the array.

• Semi-supervised: Given an array of features and a limited

quantity of some labeled output variable, predict the best possible
estimates for the missing label variables.

• Reinforcement learning: Given some objective, train an

artificial agent to maximize its utility according to some user-
defined utility function.
Machine learning is to thank for many high-profile
innovations over the past few years, but it’s more difficult to
do correctly than commonly believed.

2.Expert Systems:

An expert system (ES) is an artificial agent which leverages pre-

programmed knowledge to offer advice or make decisions. An
expert system can take advantage of human insights discovered
through trial and error

• Expert systems are more predictable and are less likely to make
extreme errors when faced with previously-unseen inputs

• Expert systems have historically been faster and easier to

implement, though ML has become much more accessible in
recent years

Google’s Nest thermometer

Google’s Nest home automation technology is a prime example of an
ES at work. Users program their preferences into Nest over time,
enabling the system to automatically adjust housing temperature to
desired levels and reduce heating expenses. Using ML to predict
desired temperatures could lead to wild swings in settings and energy
costs, so user-defined logic is critical to stabilizing these predictions.
(Another examples :MYCIN,DENDRAL,PXDES,CADET)

3.Computer Vision:

Computer vision (CV) is the automatic extraction, analysis, and

interpretation of images or videos. CV converts photos and videos
into numerical arrays, enabling ML algorithms to draw inferences,
make predictions, and even generate new images based on user-
defined inputs.

Example of an image being converted to an array:

Potential uses for CV have been studied for decades, but CV has only
recently become possible at scale thanks to three innovations:

• More efficient algorithms: Deep learning and convolutional

neural networks.specifically significantly reduces the memory
footprint and computational runtime of CV tasks.

• Better computing resources: GPU improvements, distributed

architectures (e.g., Spark), and the availability of inexpensive
cloud computing resources have made it cheaper than ever to run
memory-hungry CV algorithms.

• Availability of images to train on: The proliferation of social

media platforms, community forums, and digital / mobile cameras
have drastically increased the number of publicly-available
images that can be used to train CV algorithms.
These three innovations have opened the floodgates for new CV use
cases, including self-driving cars and automated retailers (e.g.,
Amazon Go). As cameras, LIDAR(light detection and ranging), and
other spatial sensors become less expensive, we’ll soon find ways to
alleviate many of our most inefficient processes using CV.

4.Natural Language Processing:

Natural language processing (NLP) is the automatic extraction,

analysis, and generation of human language. NLP algorithms parse
sentences in various ways (e.g., splitting by word, splitting by letter,
reading both left-to-right and right-to-left, etc.) to automatically draw
inferences about the writer’s meaning and intent. NLP’s various use
cases include:

• Named entity recognition and conference resolution

• Part-of-speech tagging

• Reading comprehension & question answering

• Machine translation

• Text summarization & topic modeling

• Spellcheck & autocomplete

Like CV, NLP has come a long way over the past decade thanks to
innovations in deep learning that have made it faster and easier to
train ML models on human language. In the past, engineers would
spend hours examining, filtering, and transforming text to avoid
computational bottlenecks. Today, out-of-the-box solutions like
fast.ai’s NLP library can crush reading comprehension accuracy
records without need for time-intensive preprocessing.

Siri and Alexa are great examples of NLP in action: by listening for
“wake words”, these tools allow you to play music, search the Web,
create to-do lists, and control popular smart-home products — all
while your smartphone stays in your pocket. These virtual assistants
will continue to improve over time as they gather data from existing
users, unlocking new use cases and integrating with the modern
enterprise.

5.Robotics:

Robotics is the science of designing, constructing, operating, and

applying robots to solve human problems. Robots come in thousands
of shapes and sizes, making it difficult to nail down the precise
meaning of the term.

Boston Dynamic’s Atlas

The field of robotics research has evolved at breakneck speed over the
past decade. Most robots rely on expert systems to accomplish their
objective, but the robots of tomorrow will become exponentially more
useful by incorporating machine learning, computer vision, and
natural language processing into their operating systems.
Topic:AI Applications:

1. AI in E-Commerce:

a)Personalized Shopping

Artificial Intelligence technology is used to create recommendation

engines through which you can engage better with your customers.
These recommendations are made in accordance with their browsing
history, preference, and interests. It helps in improving your
relationship with your customers and their loyalty towards your
brand.

b)AI-powered Assistants

Virtual shopping assistants and chatbots help improve the user

experience while shopping online. Natural Language Processing is
used to make the conversation sound as human and personal as
possible. Moreover, these assistants can have realtime engagement
with your customers. Did you know that on amazon.com, soon,
customer service could be handled by chatbots?

c)Fraud Prevention

Credit card frauds and fake reviews are two of the most significant
issues that ECommerce companies deal with. By considering the
usage patterns, AI can help reduce the possibility of credit card frauds
taking place. Many customers prefer to buy a product or service based
on customer reviews. AI can help identify and handle fake reviews.
2. AI in Navigation:

Based on research from MIT, GPS technology can provide users with
accurate, timely, and detailed information to improve safety. The
technology uses a combination of Convolutional Neural Network and
Graph Neural Network, which makes lives easier for users by
automatically detecting the number of lanes and road types behind
obstructions on the roads. AI is heavily used by Uber and many
logistics companies to improve operational efficiency, analyze road
traffic, and optimize routes.

3. AI in Robotics:

Robotics is another field where artificial intelligence applications are

commonly used. Robots powered by AI use real-time updates to sense
obstacles in its path and pre-plan its journey instantly.

It can be used for -

• Carrying goods in hospitals, factories, and warehouses

• Cleaning offices and large equipment

• Inventory management

4. AI in Human Resource
Did you know that companies use intelligent software to ease the
hiring process?

Artificial Intelligence helps with blind hiring. Using machine learning

software, you can examine applications based on specific parameters.
AI drive systems can scan job candidates' profiles, and resumes to
provide recruiters an understanding of the talent pool they must
choose from.

5. AI in Healthcare:

Artificial Intelligence finds diverse applications in the healthcare

sector. AI is used in healthcare to build sophisticated machines that
can detect diseases and identify cancer cells. AI can help analyze
chronic conditions with lab and other medical data to ensure early
diagnosis. AI uses the combination of historical data and medical
intelligence for the discovery of new drugs.

6. AI in Agriculture:

Artificial Intelligence is used to identify defects and nutrient

deficiencies in the soil. This is done using computer vision, robotics,
and machine learning, AI can analyze where weeds are growing. AI
bots can help to harvest crops at a higher volume and faster pace than
human laborers.
7. AI in Gaming:
Another sector where Artificial Intelligence applications have found
prominence is the gaming sector. AI can be used to create smart,
human-like NPCs to interact with the players.

It can also be used to predict human behavior using which game

design and testing can be improved. The Alien Isolation games
released in 2014 uses AI to stalk the player throughout the game. The
game uses two Artificial Intelligence systems -
‘Director AI’ that frequently knows your location and the ‘Alien AI,’ driven
by sensors and behaviors that continuously hunt the player.

8. AI in Automobiles:

Artificial Intelligence is used to build self-driving vehicles. AI can be

used along with the vehicle’s camera, radar, cloud services, GPS, and
control signals to operate the vehicle. AI can improve the in-vehicle
experience and provide additional systems like emergency braking,
blind-spot monitoring, and driverassist steering.

9. AI in Social Media:

Instagram

On Instagram, AI considers your likes and the accounts you follow to

determine what posts you are shown on your explore tab.
Facebook
Artificial Intelligence is also used along with a tool called DeepText.
With this tool, Facebook can understand conversations better. It can
be used to translate posts from different languages automatically.

Twitter

AI is used by Twitter for fraud detection, removing propaganda, and

hateful content. Twitter also uses AI to recommend tweets that users
might enjoy, based on what type of tweets they engage with.

10. AI in Marketing:

Artificial intelligence applications are popular in the marketing

domain as well.

• Using AI, marketers can deliver highly targeted and personalized

ads with the help of behavioral analysis, pattern recognition, etc. It
also helps with retargeting audiences at the right time to ensure
better results and reduced feelings of distrust and annoyance.

• AI can help with content marketing in a way that matches the

brand's style and voice. It can be used to handle routine tasks like
performance, campaign reports, and much more.

• Chatbots powered by AI, Natural Language Processing, Natural

Language Generation, and Natural Language Understanding can
analyze the user's language and respond in the ways humans do.
• AI can provide users with real-time personalizations based on their
behavior and can be used to edit and optimize marketing
campaigns to fit a local market's needs.

Heuristic Search:
A Heuristic is a technique to solve a problem faster than classic
methods, or to find an approximate solution when classic methods
cannot. This is a kind of a shortcut as we often trade one of optimality,
completeness, accuracy, or precision for speed. A Heuristic (or a
heuristic function) takes a look at search algorithms. At each
branching step, it evaluates the available information and makes a
decision on which branch to follow.
It does so by ranking alternatives. The Heuristic is any device that is
often effective but will not guarantee work in every case.
So why do we need heuristics? One reason is to produce, in a
reasonable amount of time, a solution that is good enough for the
problem in question. It doesn’t have to be the best- an approximate
solution will do since this is fast enough.
Most problems are exponential. Heuristic Search let us reduce this to
a rather polynomial number. We use this in AI because we can put it
to use in situations where we can’t find known algorithm.