STUDY OF DIFFRACTION PATTERN AND

DETERMINATION OF CENTRAL MAXIMA

PROJECT REPORT
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

Submitted By:

HITESH

CLASS:12th E

Submitted To:

NEHA SHARMA MAM

Roll No :
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section No. Title Page No.

1. Acknowledgement 2

2. Objective & Introduction 3

3. Theory 4

4. Materials & Experimental Setup 5

5. Procedure & Observations 6

6. Calculations & Results 7

7. Sources of Error & Applications 8

8. Conclusion & References 9

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Physics teacher, Mrs. Neha Sharma, for her exceptional
guidance throughout this project. Her profound knowledge and patient explanations helped me understand
the complex principles of diffraction and conduct this experiment successfully.

I extend my thanks to our school for providing the necessary laboratory resources and equipment. The
laboratory assistants deserve special mention for their technical support in setting up the optical bench and
laser equipment.
 I am grateful to
my classmates
for valuable
discussions that
enhanced my
understanding,
and to my
parents for
their
unwavering
support throughout my academic journey.

OBJECTIVE & INTRODUCTION

Objective

To study the diffraction pattern formed by a single slit using a Helium-Neon laser source and to determine:

1.​ The width of the central maxima

2.​ The width of the slit using the diffraction formula

Introduction

Diffraction is a phenomenon characteristic of wave behavior that occurs when waves encounter an
obstacle or aperture. It manifests as the bending of waves around corners of an obstacle or through an
aperture into the region of geometrical shadow. This behavior is fundamental to all waves, including light.

The study of diffraction has been pivotal in establishing the wave nature of light, which was historically
debated between proponents of the wave theory (Huygens, Young, Fresnel) and the particle theory (Newton).
Thomas Young's 1801 double-slit experiment provided compelling evidence for the wave nature of light
through the observation of interference patterns.
 In this project, we focus on Fraunhofer diffraction, which occurs when both the light source and
observation screen are effectively at infinite distances from the diffracting aperture. This is achieved in
laboratory settings using a collimated light beam and observing the pattern at a sufficiently large distance.

The single-slit diffraction pattern is characterized by a central bright maximum flanked by alternating dark
and bright bands of decreasing intensity. This pattern results from the constructive and destructive
interference of light waves passing through different parts of the slit.

THEORY

Light exhibits wave properties

characterized by wavelength (λ),
frequency (f), and amplitude.
When studying diffraction, we
focus on these wave properties.

Huygens' Principle

Christiaan Huygens proposed

that every point on a wavefront
acts as a source of secondary spherical wavelets. The wavefront at any later time is the envelope of these
wavelets. When light encounters an aperture, only portions of the wavefront that pass through continue to
propagate, creating secondary wavelets that interfere to form the diffraction pattern.

Single-Slit Diffraction

When monochromatic light passes through a single slit of width 'a', the intensity distribution on a distant
screen follows:
 Where:

•​ I0I_0 is the intensity at the center of the pattern

•​

•​ θ\theta is the angle of diffraction

•​ λ\lambda is the wavelength of light

Minima Conditions

The intensity minima occur when:

Where m=±1,±2,±3,…m = \pm 1, \pm 2,

\pm 3, \dots

For small angles, which is typically the case:

Where:
•​ is the distance from the central
maximum to the point of interest
•​ is the distance between the slit and screen

Therefore, the positions of minima can be expressed as:

From this, we can determine the slit width:

 The width of the central maximum (W) is:

MATERIALS & EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Materials Required

1.​ Helium-Neon (He-Ne) Laser

a.​ Wavelength: 632.8 nm

b.​ Power: 5 mW

2.​ Optical Bench with graduated scale

3.​ Single Slit (estimated width: 0.1-0.2 mm)

4.​ Screen with white matte surface

5.​ Measuring Instruments

a.​ Digital micrometer (precision: 0.001 mm)

b.​ Meter scale (least count: 1 mm)

6.​ Safety Equipment

a.​ Laser safety goggles

b.​ Warning signs

 Experimental Setup

The experimental setup was arranged on an optical bench as follows:

1.​ Laser Source

a.​ Securely mounted at one end of the optical bench

b.​ Height adjusted to align with the center of the slit

2.​ Single Slit

a.​ Mounted on an adjustable holder positioned 20 cm from the laser

b.​ Oriented vertically to produce a horizontal diffraction pattern

3.​ Screen

a.​ Placed at distance D = 100 cm from the slit

b.​ Millimeter scale attached for direct measurement

c.​ Positioned perpendicular to the optical axis

Alignment Procedure

1.​ With the laser on, the beam path was checked to ensure it passed centrally through the slit

2.​ Adjustments were made until the diffraction pattern appeared symmetrical

3.​ The optical bench was leveled to ensure all components were in the same horizontal plane

4.​ Light-absorbing material was placed around the setup to minimize reflections

PROCEDURE & OBSERVATIONS

Procedure

1.​ Preparation

The laboratory was

darkened to enhance
pattern visibility
 a.​ Safety goggles were worn throughout the experiment

2.​ Setup Verification

a.​ The laser was allowed to warm up for stability

b.​ Alignment was verified by observing pattern symmetry

c.​ Distance between slit and screen (D) was measured as 100 cm

3.​ Measurement Process

a.​ The center of the central maximum was marked as reference (0 mm)

b.​ Positions of the first, second, and third minima on both sides were measured

c.​ Each measurement was repeated three times to reduce random errors

4.​ Width of Central Maximum

a.​ Determined by measuring distance between first minima on either side

Observations

Physical Measurements:

•​ Distance between slit and screen (D) = 100 cm

•​ Wavelength of He-Ne laser light (λ) = 632.8 nm = 632.8 × 10^-9 m

CALCULATIONS & RESULTS

After performing the diffraction experiment using a He-Ne laser and a single slit, the following results were
obtained:

1. Measurement of Minima Positions

The positions of the minima were measured on both sides of the central maximum. The data collected from
the diffraction pattern is summarized below:

Order of Minimum Left Side Right Side Average Distance from Center
(m) (mm) (mm) (mm)
 1 -4.3 4.1 4.2

2 -8.6 8.4 8.5

3 -12.8 12.6 12.7

2. Width of Central Maximum

The width of the central maximum was calculated by measuring the distance between the first minima on
either side of the central maximum. The measured width is 8.4 mm.

3. Calculation of Slit Width

Using the formula for slit width:

Where:

●​ mm = 1, 2, 3 (for different minima),​

●​ λ\lambda = 632.8 nm (wavelength of He-Ne laser),​

●​ DD = 100 cm (distance from slit to screen),​

●​ xmx_m = distance from the center to the minima.​

The calculated slit width for the first order minimum (m = 1) was found to be:

For the second and third minima, the slit width was calculated as follows:

Order of Minimum (m) Distance from Center (mm) Calculated Slit Width (mm)

1 4.2 0.1507

2 8.5 0.1489

3 12.7 0.1495

The average calculated slit width is approximately 0.1497 mm.

4. Theoretical Width of Central Maximum

The theoretical width of the central maximum can be calculated using the formula:
Substituting the values:

5. Comparison of Measured and Theoretical Results

●​ Measured Width of Central Maximum: 8.4 mm​

●​ Theoretical Width of Central Maximum: 8.45 mm​

●​ Percentage Difference: ​

This indicates that the measured and theoretical results are in excellent agreement.

6. Validation of Diffraction Theory

The experimental results support the diffraction theory as the measured slit width, central maximum width,
and diffraction pattern all closely match the predictions based on the wave nature of light.

These results validate the theoretical framework for diffraction, providing strong evidence for the wave nature
of light. The slight discrepancy between the measured and theoretical values can be attributed to
experimental errors, which are discussed in the next section.

SOURCES OF ERROR & APPLICATIONS

Sources of Error
 Systematic Errors

1. Slit Width Uniformity

a.​ The slit may not have perfectly parallel edges

b.​ Impact: Superposition of diffraction patterns from different effective widths

Random Errors

1. Position Measurement

a.​ Uncertainty in reading minima positions

b.​ Impact: With a least count of 0.5 mm, up to 6% error in first minimum position.

CONCLUSION & REFERENCES

Conclusion

The experiment successfully demonstrated single-slit diffraction and verified theoretical predictions:

1.​ The diffraction pattern followed the predicted intensity distribution.

2.​ The slit width was determined to be 0.1497 mm, consistent with the theoretical calculation.

3.​ The measured central maximum width (8.4 mm) agreed closely with the theoretical prediction (8.45
mm).

References

The following sources were helpful for me to complete this project .

●​ PHYSICS NCERT TEXTBOOK CLASS 12th

●​ PHYSICS NCERT EXAMPLAR 12
●​ Comprehensive lab manual Class 12
●​ Https://www.learncbse.com
●​ Https://www.quora.com