APPENDIX A.
PNEUMATICS THEORY
Al. Introduction
The theory was taking mainly from Lab-Volt "Pneumatics Fundamentals" student manual.
The principle of pneumatics is to use a gas to transmit power. The gas most often used in pneumatics
is ordinary air since this is a highly compressible fluid (its molecules can be pushed closer together
in a confine space thus occupying a smaller volume), easy to transport and store, inexpensive and
can be returned to the atmosphere after use.
A pneumatic circuit contains a source of compressed air with a conditioning unit, conductors such as
pipe or tubing, actuators and directional control valves to manipulate the operation of the actuators:
A.2 Conditioning Unit
Figure 6-1 shows the non-simplified symbol of a conditioning unit while Figure 6-2 shows the
simplified symbol. It consists of a main shutoff valve (that opens and closes the air supply line),
pressure regulator (to limit and maintain a constant pressure in the circuit) with its gauge, filter (to
remove the contaminants present in the unfiltered compressed air), a 4-port manifold (that allows the
distribution of compressed air through four branches with directional valves) and a muffler (to
decrease the noise level created by expanding air), a lubricator (it adds oil mist or fog into the
compressed air flow to lubricate the moving parts)" and a accumulator (that stores pressurized air to
provide short-term supply of compressed air to a particular device).
Figure 6-1. Schematic diagram of a conditioning unit
Figure 6-2. Simplified symbol of a conditioning unit
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A.3 Directional Control Valves (DCVs)
DCVs are used to stop and control the direction of flow in a fluid power branch circuit. They are
classified according to the number of positions, the number of ways, and the number of valve ports.
The number of positions corresponds to the number of possible flow path configurations, and the
number of ways corresponds to the number of fluid port connections in one position of the valve (there
are two-way, three-way and four-way types).
A 3-way, 2-position directional control valve can be used in normally passing and normally non-
passing applications, to provide one of two branch circuits with flow, or select between two power
supplies.
Figure 6-3 shows these four possible uses.
j r_ _ _
1. I
i
I
--, -
- - - --
Normally Non-Passing Normally Selecting a branch Selecting a power
Passing circuit source
Figure 6-3. 3-way/2-positions directional control valve applications
A variety of devices, called valve actuators, may be used to action (shift the spool) directional control
valves. The different types are:
✓ Manual and mechanical: pushbutton, lever, pedal, cam or linkage from a machine member
✓ Pilot: a piston moved by pressure, controlled by another directional valve
✓ Solenoid: a rod moved by magnetic forces
Pilot-operated valves can be 3-way and 4-way, 2-positions or 3-position. Usually, pilot valves are
used to remotely control linear or rotary actuators in one or two directions (using a 3-way or a 4-way
valve respectively) and then exhaust their working lines. Pilot-operated valves can use one pilot (a
spring will return the spool when pilot pressure is removed) or two pilots (opposing pilots, one at each
end of the valve, are used to shift the spool back and forth, but the circuit must exhaust one pilot
before the other pilot can shift the spool). The lack of return springs in double-piloted valves allows
the spool position to be maintained or memorized without maintaining pilot pressure.
A.4 Pneumatic Actuators
They are the devices that convert the energy of a pressurized fluid into mechanical motion and force.
The two basic types of pneumatic actuators are the cylinders (which generate linear motion) and
motors or rotary actuators (which generate rotary motion).
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A.4.1 Cylinders
The two types of linear-motion actuators are the single-acting and double-acting cylinders. The single-
acting cylinders generate forces in a single direction (spring returned) whereas double-acting
cylinders generate forces during both extension and retraction of the rod .
Pascal's Law states that the pressure applied on a confined fluid is transmitted in all directions, and
acts with equal force on equal areas and at right angles to them. Pascal's law relates pressure (P, in
kilopascals), force (F, in Newton) and area (A, in square centimeters):
P = F (kilopascals or pound force per square inch)
A
To calculate the force generated by a piston during its extension, the pascal's law formula can be
rewritten as F=PxA. Therefore, the generated force is equal to the pressure in the cap end of the
cylinder (full area or face area, AF) times the piston area being acted upon (annular area, AA). If the
radius of the cylinder is R, the diameter of the cylinder is D, the radius of the rod is Rrod and the
diameter of the rod is Drod,
2 1r X D ;yl i11der
AF -,r
- x Rcylinder -
-
-- - -
4
?
2 A ,rxD~
AA = AF -trX R rod = F -
4
The system must generate more pressure to pull than to push a load.
A.4.1 Pneumatic Motors
Pneumatic motors convert fluid energy into mechanical rotational energy. When a differential
pressure is created within a pneumatic motor, the higher pressure air expands. This expanding air
acts upon the internal surfaces of the motor to cause the motor output shaft to turn.
There are three basic types of pneumatic motors: vane (may be unidirectional or bidirectional), piston
(are used as low speeds and can generate a high starting torque) and turbine (unidirectional only.
They can drive devices such as small drilling and grinding tools used by dentists, or drive heavily
commercial rotary saws and drills).
The displacement of a pneumatic motor is the volume of air required for the motor shaft to turn one
complete revolution. It is expressed in cubic centimeters per revolution (cm 3/r) or cubic inches per
revolution (in 3/r). Due to mechanical friction and internal leakages, the displacement varies with air
pressure.
The theoretical motor speed of a pneumatic motor is calculated by dividing the flow rate by the motor
displacement. Due to internal leakages and compressibility of air, the actual motor speed will be less
than the theoretical speed.
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The amount of power in W (or hp) generated by a pneumatic motor is given by the torque (the turning
effort or rotary force generated at the motor shaft) and by the speed of the shaft.
p,ower (w) =Torque( N •m) x Speed (r I min) _ Torque(/bf ·in)xSpeed(r l min)
- - - - - - - - - - , or , p,ower (hp ) - - - - - -- - - - - - - -
9.54 63025
Therefore, the motor output power is zero when the speed or the torque becomes zero. Due to internal
leakage, mechanical friction and compressibility of air, the actual amount of power generated by a
pneumatic motor will be less than the theoretical value given by the formula.
APPENDIX B. ELECTRO PNEUMATICS THEORY
8.1 What Is Electro pneumatics?
A pneumatic system can be controlled either manually or automatically. Manual control is used in
pneumatic systems performing operations that are not repetitive and electrical control (electro-
pneumatics) is used in processes that require a repetition of a series of operations.
Electrical control is by far the most popular type of automatic control used for industrial pneumatic
applications. An electrical control circuit consists of an input element, a controller element and an
actuating mechanism. Indicating devices such as pilot lamps and meters are not a part of the control
circuit because they have no effect on the control process. Please refer to Appendix E to read about
the electrical control system that is going to be used in your activities (the PLC)
8.2 Controller element
It decides which action to take based on the signal received from the input element. The controller
may be a set of electromechanical relays, a programmable logic controller (PLC), a logic function
pneumatic valve or a computer. The signal issued from the controller is called "control signal" because
it is used to control the motion of an actuator through an actuating mechanism.
8.2.1 Time-delay relay/ counter
A Timer and a counter are different devices that have similar characteristics. The time-delay
relay/counter basically consists of a solenoid coil, an internal timer or a control (count) terminal, a
reset terminal (only for the counter) and Normally-Open (NO) and Normally-Closed (NC) contacts.
The contacts can be activated or deactivated after a preset time or count of input pulses in the
counting function. In the case of a PLC, the relay contacts and coil are virtual, there is no physical
components to wire. This is one of advantages over any other electrical control system.
8.2.2 Time-Delay Valves
Time delay valves involve bleeding air into or out of a volume chamber (accumulator). When the
pressure in the accumulator reaches a certain point, -it shifts the spool of a pilot activated directional
control valve, which causes the actuation of the cylinder connected to it.
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I
I
1\C: C ll MULAI O fi
I
1• ---1 .-/ I✓-.r -··
'· ,
I I ( ) 1"\ . I
I
L . _, .. •• - · j
I
llV \ I
I
Figure 6-4. Time Delay Valve
B.3 actuating mechanism
It provides air flow to a pneumatic actuator according to the control signals received from the
controller. Examples of actuating mechanism are solenoid-operated directional valves and pilot-
operated directional valves
APPENDIXC. HYRAULICS THEORY
C.1 What Is Hydraulics?
Because liquids are not very compressible, they permit to transfer and multiply forces, this is what
differentiate the use of liquid (hydraulics) from the use of air (pneumatics) in a system, because of
this principle, with low applied pressure it can be generated a great amount of force. Hydraulic power
if often called "the muscle of industry", it can be used to lift huge heavy loads.
A hydraulic circuit is a path for oil (or water) to flow through hoses and components, similarly to
pneumatics. The elements used are very similar, it requires a Fluid Power System (in this case it has
a reservoir that holds the oil, a pump, and a pressure relief valve which limits system pressure to a
safe level and returns the excess of oil pressure into the reservoir), Directional Control Valves (DCV),
and actuators (cylinders and motors).
In some hydraulic applications it is necessary for two cylinders to start and stop extending at the same
time, which is called "synchronized". This can be achieved in different ways using a series or a parallel
configuration, but changing the effects on the load too.
C.2 Series configuration
Since the discharge flow from one cylinder is the input flow to the second cylinder, the series
configuration system means the cylinders are already synchronized. In this configuration neither
cylinder can move unless the other is also moving.
However, the most important advantage of a series configuration is the pressure intensification,
applying the same Pascal principles. If the two cylinders are of the same size, the total force of the
two cylinders in series is equal to the system pressure multiplied by the area of one of the piston.
However, differences in cylinder size will cause considerable force increasing as shown in Figure 6-5.
Intensification of the system pressure will occur if the upstream cylinder is blocked or restricted by a
heavy load on the downstream cylinder. In this example, the input force exerted on the full piston area
of the upstream cylinder is 1775 N. Since the flow from the rod end of this cylinder is partially blocked
by the heavy load on the downstream cylinder, the pressure at the rod end of the upstream cylinder
will rise until the force applied on the annular piston area of the upstream cylinder equals the input
force of 1775 N. Due to the difference in exposure area between the full and annular piston area, the
pressure at the rod end of the upstream cylinder will intensify by a factor equal to the ratio of the full
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piston area to the annular piston area, AtfAa, resulting in a pressure of 5763 KPa at the cap end of
the downstream cylinder, and in a force of 6570 N at the output load. The intensification ratio At!Aa
will hold as long as there is no load on the upstream cylinder.
UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM
CYLINDER 1 CYUNDER2
(2.54-cm BORE x 1.59-cm ROD) (3.81-cm BORE x 1.59-cm ROD)
SYSTEM PRESSURE:
3500 kPa
2
11 .4-cm
5763 kPa HEAVY
LOAD
INPUT FORCE 1775 N
1775N
OUTPUT FORCE
6570 N !!!
Figure 6-5. Pressure intensification in a series circuit
C.3 Parallel configuration
In theory, two cylinders connected in parallel should operate in synchronization if they are of identical
size and stroke and if they are evenly loaded, since they receive the same flow rate from the same
power unit. In practice, however, from the manufacturing process there are always small differences
in dimensions, internal friction, surface texture, internal leakage, etc. For this reason, some elements
should be inserted in the circuit to achieve synchronization.
There are two methods: the "mechanical yoke" and to use a flow control valve.
C.3.1 Mechanical Yoke
In this method, a strong yoke connects the two cylinder rods together. The weight of the two loads is
distributed evenly between the two cylinders so that the cylinders extend at the same speed, even if
the loads are of different weight.
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HEAVY LOAD
LIGHT LOAD
PUMP FLOW
Figure 6-6. Mechanical Yoke
C.3.1 Flow Control Valve
If mechanical synchronization is not possible or practical, parallel cylinders can be approximately
synchronized using a flow control valve . In this method, the flow control valve is connected in series
with the cylinder requiring the lowest pressure to move in order to increase the resistance of the line,
as shown In Figure 6-7. However, the cylinders will operate synchronized for a limited number of
cycles. The flow control valve should be then re-adjusted to synchronize them again. Also load
variations will cause the cylinders to go out of synchronization if the flow control valve is of non-
compensated type.
LIGHT LOAD HEAVY LOAD
'. 3500 kPa \
---; r
I,
-[J,
- -L_j (
- - - ·, ,- - )
CYLINDER-1 LINE I [ CYUNOEA-2 LINE
PUMP FLOW I">-- - - - - - ~
Figure 6-7. Synchronizing cylinders in Parallel configuration
