Dept. of ECE, AJIET, Mangaluru Introduction to Electronics Engg.

[BESCK104C]

Module - 1
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Syllabus:
Power Supplies –Block diagram, Half-wave rectifier, Full-wave rectifiers and filters, Voltage
regulators, Output resistance and voltage regulation, Voltage multipliers.
Amplifiers – Types of amplifiers, Gain, Input and output resistance, Frequency response, Bandwidth,
Phase shift, Negative feedback, multi-stage amplifiers (Text 1)

Textbooks:
1. Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals & Applications’, 4 th Edition, Elsevier,
2015. DOI https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315737980. eBook ISBN9781315737980

1.1 POWER SUPPLIES:

Most of the electronic circuits require a source of well-regulated d.c. (direct current) at voltages of
typically between 5 V and 30 V. In some cases, this supply can be derived directly from batteries
(e.g. 6 V, 9 V, 12 V); but, in many others it is desirable to make use of a standard a.c. (alternate
current) mains outlet. Fig below shows the block diagram of a d.c Power Supply.

Fig 1.1 Block diagram of a d.c Power Supply.

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• The input ac voltage is at a relatively high voltage so a step-down transformer of appropriate

turns ratio is used to convert this to a low voltage.

• The a.c. output from the transformer secondary is then rectified using conventional silicon
rectifier to produce an unsmoothed (or pulsating d.c.) output. The rectifier circuit always has
some a.c. content known as ripple.
• The output of the rectifier circuit is then smoothed and filtered before being applied to a circuit
which will regulate (or stabilize) the output voltage so that it remains relatively constant in
spite of variations in both load current and incoming mains voltage.
Fig. 1.2 shows the realization of the block diagram of a D.C power supply using the electronic
components.

Figure 1.2 Block diagram of a d.c. power supply showing principal components

Figure 1.3 A simple d.c. power supply

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1.2 RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). The process of
converting AC to DC is called rectification, and it's done by using diodes that only allow current to
flow in one direction.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

A halfwave rectifier circuit uses only one diode for the transformation. A halfwave rectifier is
defined as a type of rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an AC voltage waveform to pass

while blocking the other half cycle.

Fig 1.4 A Simple half wave Rectifier

The Fig. above shows a simple half-wave rectifier circuit. The input voltage is applied to the
primary of a step-down transformer. The secondary of T1 steps down the 230 V r.m.s. to 12 V
r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus be 230/12)

D1 will be forward biased during each positive half-cycle (relative to common) and will
effectively behave like a closed switch. Direction of current is shown in figure. During negative
half cycle of the input voltage D1 is not conducting and acts loke a open switch.

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During the positive half-cycle, the diode will drop the 0.6 V to 0.7 V forward threshold voltage
normally associated with silicon diodes. However, during the negative half-cycle the peak a.c.
voltage will be dropped across D1 when it is reverse biased.

Assuming that the secondary of T1 provides 12 V r.m.s., the peak voltage output from the
transformer’s secondary winding will be given by:

Vm = Vpeak = Vrms/√2 = 1.414 × Vrms = 1.414×12 = 16.97V

The peak voltage applied to D1 will thus be approximately 17 V. The negative half-cycles are
blocked by D1 and thus only the positive half- cycles appear across RL.

Note, however, that the actual peak voltage across RL will be the 17 V positive peak being supplied
from the secondary on T1, minus the 0.7 V forward threshold voltage dropped by D1.

Waveforms of half-wave rectifier circuit :

Fig 1.6:Waveform of a Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

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EXAMPLE 1:

A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is connected to a 220 V r.m.s. mains supply.
If the secondary output is applied to a half-wave rectifier, determine the peak voltage that
will appear across a load.

Solution:

The r.m.s. secondary voltage is given by: Vs/Vp=N2/N1

VS = VP / 44 = 220 / 44 = 5 V

The peak voltage developed after rectification will be given by:

VPK = 1.414  5 V = 7.07 V

Assuming that the diode is a silicon device with a forward voltage drop of 0.6 V, the actual peak
voltage dropped across the load will be:

VL = 7.07 V − 0.6 V = 6.47V

1.2.2 Reservoir and smoothing circuits

Fig below shows a half wave rectifier with smoothing capacitor. The capacitor, C1, has been added
to ensure that the output voltage remains at, or near, the peak voltage even when the diode is not
conducting.

Figure 1.7 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir capacitor

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When the primary voltage is applied to T1, the first positive half-cycle output from the secondary of
the transformer will charge C1(reservoir capacitor) to the peak value seen across RL. Because C1
and R connected in parallel, the voltage across RL will be the same as that across C1.

The time required for C1 to charge to the maximum (peak) level is determined by the charging circuit
time constant (Time constant = R ×C). In this circuit, the series resistance comprises the secondary
winding resistance together with the forward resistance of the diode and the (minimal) resistance of
the wiring and connections. Hence C1 charges very rapidly as soon as D1 starts to conduct.
The time required for C1 to discharge is, in contrast, very much greater. The discharge time constant
is determined by the capacitance value and the load resistance, RL.

In practice, RL is very much larger than the resistance of the secondary circuit and hence C1 takes an
appreciable time to discharge. During this time, D1 will be reverse biased and will thus be held in its
non-conducting state. As a consequence, the only discharge path for C1 is through RL. Fig. 1.8 shows
the secondary voltage waveform together with the voltage developed across RL with and without C1
present.

Figure 1.8 Waveforms of half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir capacitor

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Fig. 1.9 shows a further refinement of the simple power supply circuit. This circuit employs two
additional components, R1 and C1, which act as a filter to remove the ripple.

Figure 1.9 Half-wave rectifier circuit with R–C smoothing filter

Here R1 and C1 acts like a potential divider. The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate
factor equal to:
Vripple = Xc /√R2 +Xc2

EXAMPLE 2:
The R–C smoothing filter in 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 =
100  and C 2 = 1,000 F. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine theamount
of ripple appearing at the output.

Soln: The reactance of thecapacitor, C2, at the ripple frequency (50 Hz):

The amount of ripple at the output of the circuit (i.e. appearing across C2) will be given by:
Vripple = 1×Xc /√R2 +Xc2

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1.2.3 L–C Smoothing Filter:

The LC capacitor filter is one of the most commonly used filters. This type of filter is used in any
type of power supply where the output current is low and the load current is relatively constant.

At the ripple frequency, L1 exhibits a high value of inductive reactance while C1 exhibits a low
value of capacitive reactance. The combined effect is that of an attenuator which greatly reduces
the amplitude of the ripple while having a negligible effect on the direct voltage.

Fig 1.10 Half Wave Rectifier with L-C Smoothing Circuit

Example 3: The L–C smoothing filter in 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists
of L1 = 10 H and C2 = 1000 μF. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the
amount of ripple appearing at the output.
Solution: The reactance of the capacitor C2,
Xc = 1/2ΠfC2
= 1 / 2*3.14* 50 * 1000*10-6

= 3.18Ω

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The reactance of L1,

XL = 2 ΠfL1 = 2*3.14* 50 *10 = 3140 Ω
The amount of ripple at the output of the circuit is
Vripple = 1* Xc / Xc + XL
= 1* 3.18 / (3.18+3140)
= 0.001V

1.3 Full-wave rectifiers

Half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient as conduction takes place only on alternate half-
cycles. A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier that converts the complete cycle of alternating
current into pulsating DC.
Full-wave rectifier circuits offer a considerable improvement over their half-wave counterparts.
They are not only more efficient but are significantly less demanding in terms of the reservoir and
smoothing components. There are two basic forms of full-wave rectifier; the bi-phase rectifier and
the bridge rectifier.

1.3.1 Bi-phase rectifier circuits:

Fig 1.11 Circuit diagram of Bi-Phase Rectifier circuit

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Fig. 1.11 shows a simple bi-phase rectifier circuit. Mains voltage (230 V) is applied to the primary
of the step-down transformer which has two identical secondary windings, each providing 12 V r.m.s.
(the turns ratio of T1 will thus be 230/12 or 20:1 for each secondary winding).

On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point B. Anode of diode D1is positive
with respect to its cathode and hence D1 conducts while D2 is reverse biased and will not allow
conduction. Thus, D1 alone conducts on positive half-cycles.

On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to point B. Anode of diode D2is positive
with respect to its cathode and hence D2 conducts while D1 is reverse biased and will not allow
conduction. Thus, D2 alone conducts on negative half-cycles.

Fig. 1.12 shows the bi-phase rectifier circuit with the diodes replaced by switches.
In Fig. 1.12(a) D1 is shown conducting on a positive half-cycle and in Fig. 1.12(b) D2 is shown
conducting. The result is that current is routed through the load in the same direction on successive
half-cycles.

Figure 1.12 (a) Bi-phase rectifier withD1 conducting and D2 non-conducting

(b) bi-phase rectifier with D2 conducting and D1non-conducting

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In full wave rectifier circuit, the pulses of voltage developed across RL will occur at a frequency of
100 Hz (not 50 Hz). This doubling of the ripple frequency allows us to use smaller values of reservoir
and smoothing capacitor to obtain the same degree of ripple reduction.

Waveform of Bi-Phase rectifier circuit:

Figure 1.13: Waveform of Bi-phase rectifier

1.3.2 Bi-phase rectifier with reservoir capacitor

Fig. 1.14 shows how a reservoir capacitor (C1) can be added to ensure that the output voltage remains
at, or near, the peak voltage even when the diodes are not conducting. Capacitor charges to
approximately 16.3 V at the peak of the positive half-cycle and holds the voltage at this level when
the diodes are in their non-conducting states.
The time required for C1 to charge to the maximum (peak) level is determined by the charging circuit
time constant (the series resistance multiplied by the capacitance value). In this circuit, the series
resistance comprises the secondary winding resistance together with the forward resistance of the
diode and the (minimal) resistance of the wiring and connections.
Hence C1 charges very rapidly as soon as either D1 or D2 starts to conduct. The time required for C1
to discharge is, in contrast, very much greater. The discharge time contrast is determined by the

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capacitance value and the load resistance, R . In practice, R is very much larger than the resistance
of the secondary circuit and hence C1 takes an appreciable time to discharge.
During this time, D1 and D2 will be reverse biased and held in a non-conducting state. As a
consequence, the only discharge path for C1 is through RL.
Fig. 1.15 shows voltage waveforms for the bi-phase rectifier, with and without C1 present.

Figure 1.14 Bi-phase rectifier with reservoircapacitor

Figure 1.15 Waveforms for the bi-phase rectifier

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1.3.3 Bridge rectifier circuits

An alternative to the use of the bi-phase circuit is that of using a four-diode bridge rectifier in which
opposite pairs of diodes conduct on alternate half-cycles. This arrangement avoids the need to have
two separate secondary windings.

A full-wave bridge rectifier arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.16. Mains voltage (230 V) is applied to
the primary of a step-down transformer. The secondary windings provide (approximately 17 V peak)
and has a turns ratio of 20:1.

Figure 1.16 Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point B. During which diodes D1 and
D2 conducts while D3 and D4 will not conduct.

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Conversely, on negative half-cycles, point B will be positive with respect to point A. Now D3 and D4
will allow conduction while D1 and D2 will not allow conduction.

Figure 1.17 (a) Bridge rectifier with D1 and D2 conducting, D3 and D4 non-conducting (b)
bridge rectifier with D1 and D2 non-conducting, D3 and D4 conducting

Waveform of bridge rectifier circuit :

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1.3.4 Bridge rectifier with reservoir capacitor

Figure 1.18 Bridge rectifier with reservoir capacitor

Fig. 1.18 shows how a reservoir capacitor (C1) can be added to maintain the output voltage when the
diodes are not conducting. The capacitor charges to approximately 16.3 V at the peak of the positive
half-cycle and holds the voltage at this level when the diodes are in their non-conducting states.

Figure 1.19 Waveforms for the bridge rectifier

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1.4 Voltage regulators:

In spite of providing output filter with full-wave rectifiers, the voltage regulation is unacceptable as
DC power supply used for electronic circuits draw peak current. Therefore, special voltage
regulators are required at the output of power supply.
Voltage regulator is a circuit that keeps the output voltage constant under all operating conditions.
Voltage regulation is the process of keeping a voltage steady under conditions of changing
applied voltage, changing load and temperature. There are two types of voltage regulators: shunt and
series.
A simple shunt voltage regulator is shown in the fig.1.20

Fig1.20: A Simple Shunt Zener Voltage Regulator

The resistance RS in the circuit is used to limit the zener current to a safe value when the load is
disconnected. When a load (RL) is connected, the zener current (IZ) will fall as current is diverted into
the load resistance (it is usual to allow a minimum current of 2 mA to 5 mA in order to ensure that
the diode regulates). The output voltage (VZ) will remain at the zener voltage until regulation fails at
the point at which the potential divider formed by RS and RL. Zener diode operates in the reverse
break down region and has a constant voltage VZ across its terminal. The unregulated dc input voltage
Vi must be greater than the zener breakdown voltage VZ.

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Regulated output voltage is given by:

where VIN is the unregulated input voltage. Thus the maximum value for RS can be
calculated from:
Rs max= RL * (Vin/Vz -1)
The power dissipated in the zener diode will be given by
PZ = I Z × VZ
hence the minimum value for RS can be determined from the off-load condition when:

where PZ max. is the maximum rated power dissipation for the zener diode.

EXAMPLE 4:
A 5 V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in
a simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5 V to a load having a resistance of 400 Ω, determine
a suitable value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9 V.

Soln: First we should determine the maximum value for the series resistor,
Rs max= RL x (Vin/Vz -1)

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Hence a suitable value for RS would be 150 Ω (roughly mid-way between the two
extremes)

Homework: If a 9 V Zener diode is to be used in a simple shunt regulator circuit to supply a load
having anominal resistance of 300 Ω; determine the maximum value of series resistor for operation
in conjunction with a supply of 15 V.

Output resistance and voltage regulation:

In a perfect power supply, the output voltage would remain constant regardless of the current taken
by the load. In practice, however, the output voltage falls as the load current increases.
To account for this fact, we say that the power supply has internal resistance (ideally this should
be zero). This internal resistance appears at the output of the supply and is considered as output
resistance. Hence Output resistance is defined as the change in output voltage divided by the
corresponding change in output current.

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where ΔΙ out represents a small change in output (load) current and ΔVout represents a
corresponding small change in output voltage.

The regulation of a power supply is given by the relationship:

Ideally, the value of regulation should be very small.

EXAMPLE 5:

The following data were obtained during a test carried out on a d.c. power supply: (i) Load test
Output voltage (no-load) = 12 V Output voltage (2 A load current) = 11.5 V (ii) Regulation test
Output voltage (mains input, 220 V) = 12 V Output voltage (mains input, 200 V) = 11.9 V
Determine (a) the equivalent output resistance of the power supply and (b) the regulation of the
power supply.

Solution: The output resistance can be determined from the load test data

The regulation can be determined from the regulation test data:

Thus

1.5 Voltage multipliers:

The voltage multipliers convert AC electrical power from a lower voltage to a higher DC voltage.
Voltage multiplier circuit consists of combination of diode and capacitor that delivers a DC voltage
twice or rnore times of the peak value of the input AC voltage. Such power supplies are used for

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high-voltage and low-current devices such as cathode-ray tubes (the picture tubes in TV receivers),
oscilloscopes and computer display.

Voltage doubler:
Consider a half-wave rectifier with capacitor filter. By adding a second diode and capacitor as
shown in Figure 1.21 the output of half wave rectifier is increased.
During the positive half cycle, diode D1 gets forward biased, capacitor C1 charges to the peak
voltagewith polarity indicated in the Figure; the diode D2 is reverse-biased and does not conduct.
During the negative half cycle, diode D2 being forward biased, capacitor C2 charges to the peak
voltagewith polarity shown in the Figure; the diode D1 is reverse-biased and does not conduct.

Figure 1.21 Voltage Doubler / Multiplier

Hence, the output voltage will be equal to the sum of voltages across capacitors C1 and C2.
i.e., VC1 + VC2 = 2 VIN

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Voltage Tripler:
The Voltage Tripler circuit is shown in fig 1.22. Here C1 charges to the positive secondary voltage
VIN, while C2 and C3 charge to twice the positive secondary voltage. The result is that the output
voltage is the sum of the voltages across C1 and C3 which is three times the voltage that would be
produced by a single diode.

Figure 1.22 Voltage Tripler / Multiplier

During the positive half cycle, diodes D1 and D2 forward biased, capacitor C1 gets charged to the
peak value VIN.
During the negative half cycle, diode D2 gets forward biased and diodes D1 & D3 reverse biased.
Diode D1 does not let discharge the capacitor C1, so voltage across C1 = VIN. The capacitor C2
gets charged with the combined voltage of C1 (VIN) and negative peak voltage of secondary
voltage; so, C2 gets charged to 2 VIN.
During the second positive half cycle, diodes D1 and D3 gets forward biased and D2 get reverse
biased. So, the capacitor C2 charges the capacitor C3 up to 2 VIN.
The capacitors C1 and C3 are in series and thus, the total voltage across these capacitors is VIN +
2 VIN = 3 VIN.

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Amplifiers – Types of amplifiers, Gain, Input and output resistance, Frequency response, Bandwidth,
Phase shift, Negative feedback, multi-stage amplifiers

Amplifiers:

Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of a signal. Amplifiers are
electronic devices used to increase the amplitude of the signals. An electronic amplifier is a device
that is used to increase the power, current, or voltage of a signal. Amplifiers are used in music
equipment, electronic devices such as television and radio receivers, audio equipment, and
computers to increase the amplitude of a signal.

Types of amplifiers

Different types of amplifiers used in electronic circuits are

AC coupled amplifiers
In AC coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that DC levels are isolated and
only the AC components of a signal are transferred from stage to stage.

DC coupled amplifiers

In DC coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that stages are not isolated to DC
potentials. Both AC and DC signal components are transferred from stage to stage.

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Large-signal amplifiers

Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable voltage and/or current levels (typically
from 1 V to 100 V or more).

Small-signal amplifiers
Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals (normally less than 1 V and often
much smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have to be specially designed to combat the effects of noise.

Audio frequency amplifiers

Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated with audio
signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).

Wideband amplifiers

Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of frequencies, typically from a
few tens of hertz to several megahertz.
Low-noise amplifiers
Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute negligible noise (signal disturbance)
to the signal being amplified. These amplifiers are usually designed for use with very small
signal levels (usually less than 10 mV or so).

Gain of Amplifier:

One of the most important parameters of an amplifier is the amount of amplification or gain
that it provides.
Gain is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage or output current to input current, or output
power to input power.

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These three ratios give, respectively, the voltage gain, current gain and power gain. Thus:

since power is the product of current and voltage (P = I V), we can infer that:

Example 6:
An amplifier produces an output voltage of 2 V for an input of 50 mV. If the input and output currents

in this condition are, respectively, 4 mA and 200 mA, determine:

(a) the voltage gain;

(b) the current gain;

(c) the power gain.

Solution:
(a) The voltage gain is calculated from:

(b) The current gain is calculated from

(c) The power gain is calculated from

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Note that the same result is obtained from:

Input and output resistance

Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed in ohms.
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output current and is
measured in ohms.

Frequency response:
Frequency Response of an electronics circuit allows us to see exactly how the output gain and the
phase changes at a particular single frequency, or over a whole range of different frequencies.

Frequency Response Curves are used to understand the behavior of an Amplifier.

The frequency response characteristics for various types of amplifiers are shown.

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The frequency response of an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the upper and lower cut-off
frequencies of the amplifier. These frequencies are those at which the output power has dropped to
50% (otherwise known as the −3 dB points) or where the voltage gain has dropped to 70.7%

Bandwidth:

Band Width is the difference between the upper and lower cut-off frequencies FH – FL

Where FH is the upper cut-off frequency and FL is the lower cut-off frequency.

The bandwidth of an amplifier must be sufficient to accommodate the range of frequencies present
within the signals that it is given as an input to the amplifier.

Phase shift:

Phase shift is the phase angle difference between the input and output voltages measured in
degrees.

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Numerical 7
Determine the mid-band voltage gain and upper and lower cut-off frequencies for the amplifier
whose frequency response is shown in Fig.
Solution:

The mid-band voltage gain corresponds with the flat part of the frequency response characteristic.
At that point the voltage gain reaches a maximumof 35
The voltage gain at the two cut-off frequenciescan be calculated from:

Feedback Network:

Feedback is defined as the process of returning part of the signal output from a circuit or device
back to the input of that circuit or device.

Positive feedback: If the signal feedback from output is in phase with the input signal, the feedback
is called positive feedback. This form of feedback is used in oscillator circuits.

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Negative feedback: If the signal feedback is of opposite polarity or out of phase by 180° with respect
to input signal, the feedback is called negative feedback. Negative feedback used to precisely control
the gain, reduce distortion and improve bandwidth. Negative feedback has the effect of reducing the
overall gain of the circuit.

Block diagram of an Amplifier with Negative Feedback:

Many practical amplifiers use negative feedback in order to precisely control the gain, reduce
distortion and improve bandwidth. The gain can be reduced to a manageable value by feeding back
a small proportion of the output. The amount of feedback determines the overall (or closed-loop)
gain. Since this form of feedback has the effect of reducing the overall gain of the circuit, this is
known as negative feedback.
The above fig shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with negative feedback applied.

In this circuit, the proportion of the output voltage fed back to the input is given by β and the
overall voltage gain will be given by

By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law,

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Therefore, the overall gain with negative feedback applied will be less than the gain without feedback.
Example 8:
An amplifier with negative feedback applied has an open-loop voltage gain of 50, and one-tenth of
its output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). Determine the overall voltage gain with negative
feedback applied

Solution: With negative feedback applied the overall voltage gain will be given by:

Example 9:

If, in example 8, the amplifier’s open-loop voltage gain increases by 20%, determine the percentage
increase in overall voltage gain.

Solution: The new value of voltage gain will be given by

The overall voltage gain with negative feedback will then be

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The increase in overall voltage gain, expressed as a percentage, will thus be

Note that this example illustrates one of the important benefits of negative feedback in
stabilizing the overall gain of an amplifier stage.

Example 9:

An integrated circuit that produces an open loop gain of 100 is to be used as the basis of an
amplifier stage having a precise voltage gain of 20. Determine the amount of feedback required.

Solution:

Multi-stage amplifiers:

Multi-stage amplifier is the amplifier where the output of first stage is connected to the input of the
second stage through a suitable coupling device and so on. In order to provide sufficiently large gain,
it is frequently necessary to use a number of interconnected stages within an amplifier. Figure below
shows the block diagram of multistage amplifier.

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The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages is simply the product of the individual voltage
gains.

The bandwidth of a multi- stage amplifier will be less than the bandwidth of each individual stage.
An increase in gain can only be achieved at the expense of a reduction in bandwidth.

Types of Couplings:

Signals can be coupled between the individual stages of a multi-stage amplifier using

i)R–C coupling

In this coupling method, the stages are coupled together using capacitors having a low reactance at
the signal frequency and resistors which also provide a means of connecting the supply. Since the
DC resistance of R is high, the efficiency of the amplifier reduces.

Limitations: i) Causes loss for the low frequency signals. ii) Difficult to match the impedance from
stage to stage

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(ii) L–C coupling

Inductance (L) is used as load impedance and capacitance (C) used as coupling elements. The
capacitor connects the output of one stage to the input of the next stage which allows the AC signal
while blocking the DC voltages. The amount of signal at the output of the stage depends on the
inductive reactance of L and signal frequency. See fig.1.21(b). Since the DC resistance of the coil (L)
is low, the efficiency of the amplifier is increased.

Limitations: only used in RF and high-frequency amplifiers.

(iii) Transformer coupling

When the output of the amplifier stage is connected to the input of the next stage through a
transformer, then it is called a transformer-coupled amplifier. The transformer used to couple two
stages is called a coupling transformer.

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The transformer coupling provides two functions:

i) pass AC signal by blocking DC and ii) allows impedance matching.

Advantages: i) It provides a very high gain. ii) It provides a very good impedance matching property.
iii) These amplifiers have high efficiency and low losses.

Limitations: i) Coupling transformer is expensive and bulky ii) Transformers tend to produce
humming noise iii) It has a poor frequency response.

Direct coupling

When the output of an amplifier stage is directly connected to the input of the next stage then it is
called Direct Coupling. In the Direct Coupling technique, no coupling device (such as a resistor,
capacitor, inductor) is used.

The circuit cost is low because the absence of expensive coupling components. It is used where dc
levels present on signals must be preserved.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. What is a regulated power supply? With neat block diagram explain the working of DC power
supply. Also mention the principal components used in each block.

2. With neat circuit diagram and waveforms explain half wave rectifier and full wave bridge rectifiers.

3. Define rectifier. Explain a bi-phase full wave rectifier. Show the appropriate waveforms.

4. Discuss the need of filter circuit. With circuit diagram and waveforms explain the operation of
smoothing C – filter for half wave rectifier.

5. What is voltage regulator? With neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of a voltage regulator
using zener diode considering source and load effects.

6. A half wave rectifier uses a silicon diode is fed from a supply of 240 V, 50 Hz with step down
transformer of ratio 3:1. Resistive load connected is 10 KΩ. The diode forward resistance is 75Ω and
transformer secondary is 10 Ω. Calculate i) secondary r.m.s voltage ii) peak voltage and iii) regulated
DC voltage across load.

7. The RC smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated a half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 =

150Ω and C2 = 1,000F. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of
ripple appearing at the output.

8. A 5V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in
a simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5V to a load having a resistance of 500 Ω, determine
a suitable value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9V.

9. For a 10V zener regulator an unregulated input 15V is applied. Determine maximum power
dissipated by it under no load condition, if series resistance is 100Ω.

10. The following data were obtained during a load test carried out on a d.c. power supply: Output
voltage (no-load) = 8.5 V Output voltage (800 mA load) = 8.1 V Determine the output resistance of
the power supply and estimate the output voltage at a load current of 400 mA.

11. The following data were obtained during aregulation test on a d.c. power supply: Output voltage
(a.c. input: 230 V) = 15 V Output voltage (a.c. input: 190 V) = 14.6 V Determine the regulation of

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the power supply and estimate the output voltage when the input voltage is 245 V.

12. What is voltage multiplier? With circuit diagram explain the operation of voltage doubler.

PART-2: AMPLFIERS

1. What is an amplifier? Explain the types of amplifiers. Explain the parameters (characteristics) of
amplifier.

2. What is the need of coupling? Explain the types of coupling in multi-stage amplifiers.

3. Mention advantages of negative feedback in amplifiers circuits. Derive the gain expression of
negative feedback concept.

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