(1).

Spearman Two Factor Theory:

• Charles Spearman proposed that intelligence has two main parts.
• His work in the early 1900s (1904, 1923, 1927) set the stage for modern
intelligence research.

(2). Key Components of Intelligence:

(i). General Intelligence (g):

• A single, overall ability that affects performance on all types of tasks.
• Think of it as the brain’s overall power or energy.
(ii). Specific Abilities (s):
• Unique skills tied to individual tasks or tests, supported by specific groups of
neurons for particular operations.

(III). Factor Analysis Findings:

• Spearman used factor analysis to study how different intelligence tests relate.
• Some tests are heavily influenced by the general factor (g), while others depend
more on specific abilities (s).

(IV). How g and s Work:

(i). g-factor:
• Described as a common “energy” that runs through the entire cortex, driving
overall mental performance.
(ii). s-factor:
• Linked to localized brain groups that handle specific mental tasks.
• Spearman likened these groups to separate “engines” sharing the brain’s
energy.

(V). Cognitive Principles:

• Spearman believed that differences in g are most visible in how we:

o Understand our experiences,
o Recognize relationships, and
o Figure out correlations (like solving analogies A:B::C:?).

(VI). Criticism of the Theory:

• Some tests show stronger correlations than the two-factor model predicts,
implying that there are other abilities beyond just g and s.
 • This challenges the simplicity of the two-part theory.

(2). Thurstone and The Primary Mental Abilities:

• Louis Thurstone revolutionized factor analysis in 1931 to uncover the underlying
structure of intelligence.
• He challenged the idea of a single general intelligence (g) by proposing that
several distinct group factors better explain the variations in mental abilities.

(I). Factor Analysis Innovations:

• Developed procedures that searched correlation matrices for hidden group

factors.
• His methods enabled researchers to empirically determine both the number and
nature of these factors based on test performance.

(II). Key Findings on Intellectual Abilities:

• Thurstone's analyses revealed that different intellectual tests correlated in ways

that suggested multiple broad group factors rather than a single, all-
encompassing factor.
• Throughout his career, he proposed nearly a dozen different factors to explain
various aspects of mental performance.

(IV). Primary Mental Abilities (PMA) Test:

• In 1938, Thurstone developed the PMA Test, designed to measure distinct

mental skills individually.
• Although the PMA Test separated different abilities, later findings showed that
these skills were moderately correlated, hinting at an underlying general
intelligence (g).
(3). Guilford and The Structure-of-Intellect (SOI) Model:
• Guilford (1967) developed the SOI model to organize his research findings into a
clear, visual framework.
• His model breaks down intellectual abilities into three distinct dimensions.

(I). Three Dimensions of the SOI Model:

(i). Operations:

• Refers to the type of mental process required by a task.

• Guilford identified five main operations:
o Cognition: Discovering, knowing, or understanding information.
o Memory: Storing information, such as remembering a series of numbers.
o Divergent Thinking: Retrieving and generating multiple items from
memory.
o Convergent Thinking: Finding one correct answer from memory.
o Evaluation: Judging how well an item meets specific logical criteria.

(ii). Contents:

• Involves the nature of the material presented to the individual.

• The five content categories are:
o Visual: Information received through images.
o Auditory: Information received through sounds.
o Symbolic: Items like mathematical symbols that stand for something.
o Semantic: Meanings of words and symbols.
o Behavioral: Understanding the mental states and actions of others.

(iii). Products:

• Represents the types of mental structures produced as answers.

• There are six kinds:
o Unit: A single entity with unique properties.
o Class: A group of similar items (e.g., a set of triangles).
o Relation: A connection between two items (e.g., two tones an octave
apart).
o System: A combination of three or more items forming a whole (e.g., a
melody or a plan).
o Transformation: A change made to information (e.g., correcting a
misspelling).
 o Implication: An inferred conclusion (e.g., expecting thunder after
lightning).

(II). Total Factors and Research Findings:

• Guilford’s model creates 150 distinct factors (5 operations × 5 contents × 6

products).
• Each combination represents a different factor of intellect, and Guilford claimed
to have verified over 100 of these factors in his research.

(III). Innovations and Impact:

• The SOI model captures the complexity of intelligence by highlighting both

convergent (single correct answer) and divergent (multiple valid answers)
thinking.
• This approach pushed test developers to broaden their understanding of
intelligence, moving beyond the traditional focus on just one correct answer.
• However, the detailed breakdown can also lead to complications—such as tests
like Digit Span on the WAIS-III potentially assessing abilities through multiple
sensory channels, resulting in a vast number of factors (up to 450), which might
overcomplicate the notion of intelligence.

(4). Gardner and The Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• Howard Gardner (1983, 1993) proposed that instead of one single intelligence,
humans have several distinct types of intelligences.
• His theory is loosely based on brain–behavior studies and argues that each
intelligence operates independently.

(I). Criteria for an Autonomous Intelligence:

• Gardner set out eight criteria that a mental ability must meet to be considered an
independent intelligence:
• Brain Damage Isolation: It can be selectively damaged or spared by brain injury.
• Exceptional Individuals: Savants show remarkable talent in one area despite
overall limitations.
• Core Operations: It relies on one or more basic processing skills.
• Developmental History: It follows a clear developmental path with key
milestones.
• Evolutionary Plausibility: It has roots that might be shared with other
organisms.
 • Experimental Psychology: It appears in lab studies on cognition.
• Psychometric Evidence: It can be measured using tests.
• Symbol Encoding: It can be communicated using symbols like language,
images, or math.

(II). Seven Confirmed Intelligences:

• Based on these criteria, Gardner identifies seven key intelligences:

• Linguistic: Verbal skills and language use.
• Logical-Mathematical: Reasoning and problem-solving with numbers.
• Spatial: Visualizing and manipulating objects.
• Musical: Ability to perform, compose, or appreciate music.
• Bodily-Kinesthetic: Coordination and control of body movements.
• Interpersonal: Understanding and interacting with others.
• Intrapersonal: Self-awareness and understanding one’s own emotions.

(III). Further Details on the Less-Discussed Intelligences:

• Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence:
o Includes skills used by athletes, dancers, and even primitive hunters.
o It is about using the body to solve problems or create products.
• Personal Intelligences (Interpersonal & Intrapersonal):
o Intrapersonal: Ability to understand one’s own feelings and thoughts,
seen in reflective writers and artists.
o Interpersonal: Ability to gauge and influence others’ moods and
motivations, a common trait in leaders like Mahatma Gandhi.
• Musical Intelligence:
o Involves understanding melody, rhythm, and timbre.
o Emphasizes not just structure but also the emotional impact of music.
o The savant phenomenon, such as the case of Leslie Lemke who, despite
severe disabilities, demonstrated exceptional musical talent, supports
the idea of separate intelligences.

(IV). Recent Additions and Overall Perspective:

• Gardner (1998) later proposed additional candidates:

o Naturalistic Intelligence: Ability to recognize patterns in nature (e.g.,
Charles Darwin).
o Spiritual Intelligence: Concern with cosmic and spiritual issues.
o Existential Intelligence: Concern with the meaning of life.
 (4). Sternberg and The Triarchic Theory of Successful
Intelligence
Sternberg’s theory (1985b, 1986, 1996) defines successful intelligence as the ability to
adapt to, shape, and select environments to meet personal and societal goals.

(I). Analytical Intelligence (Componential):

• Meta-components: Involves planning and decision-making (e.g., choosing the
best problem-solving strategy).

• Performance components: Covers mental processes like reasoning and

memory used to complete tasks.

• Knowledge Acquisition: Focuses on learning and understanding new

information (e.g., expanding vocabulary).

• Example: Highly intelligent individuals often plan thoroughly before solving

problems.

(II). Creative Intelligence (Experiential):

• Core Idea: Ability to handle new situations and think outside the box.

• Key Aspects:

o Novelty: Adapting to unfamiliar tasks.

o Automatization: Mastering repeated tasks until they become second

nature (e.g., reading or playing an instrument becomes automatic with
practice).

(III). Practical Intelligence (Contextual):

• Core Idea: Applying intelligence to real-world challenges.

• Key Processes:

o Adaptation: Adjusting to different environments (e.g., varying job

interview skills across cultures).

o Selection: Choosing environments that match personal strengths (e.g.,

gifted children thriving in careers that suit their abilities).

o Shaping: Modifying the environment to better fit one’s needs (e.g., an

employee influencing workplace changes).

• Example: A successful entrepreneur adapts, selects, and shapes their

environment for optimal success.