UNIT 5

Performance and Control of Induction and

Synchronous Motor Drives
INDUCTION MOTOR Left side: HIGH resistance rotor
• Starting torque = HIGH

VARIATION IN TORQUE-SPEED
(because high rotor resistance improves torque at start.)
• Slip at normal running = HIGH
(means motor runs slower than synchronous speed even under load.)

Discussion: • What happens?

• If slip increases (high resistance → high slip),
➔ mechanical power decreases,
➔ efficiency decreases.
• Conclusion:
High resistance rotor = good for starting, bad for running efficiency.

Right side: LOW resistance rotor

• Starting torque = LOW
(motor struggles to start heavy loads.)
• Starting current = HIGH
(large inrush of current during start.)
• Slip at normal running = LOW
(motor runs close to synchronous speed — efficient.)
• What happens?
• If slip is low (low resistance → low slip),
➔ mechanical power increases,
➔ efficiency increases.
• Conclusion:
Low resistance rotor = bad starting, but excellent running efficiency.

Final Box:
Solution:
Instead of complex wound rotor motors,
Design special cage rotors (deep-bar or double-cage types)
to automatically adjust rotor resistance at different speeds
using leakage reactance effects.

Thus, we achieve the desired torque-speed curve without

complicated construction.
 What is a Wound Rotor Induction Motor?
• A wound rotor induction motor (also called slip ring induction motor) is a special type of motor
where rotor windings are similar to stator windings (i.e., copper wire coils) — not simple bars like in
squirrel cage motors.
• These windings are connected to external resistances through slip rings and brushes.

Slip rings allow connecting external resistances to the rotor during operation.

How it works practically:

• At Start:
• Extra resistance is inserted into the rotor via slip rings.
• This:
• Increases rotor resistance ➔ Improves starting torque.
• Reduces starting current ➔ Protects motor and supply line.
• After reaching ~80% of full speed:
• Resistance is gradually reduced or short-circuited.
• Now, rotor behaves like a low-resistance rotor, giving:
• Low slip ➔ High efficiency during steady-state running.
 INDUCTION MOTOR Desired Motor Characteristic:
The motor should behave like:
VARIATION IN TORQUE-SPEED • A high-resistance rotor ➔ at high slips (i.e., during
starting)
• A low-resistance rotor ➔ at low slips (i.e., during
normal running)
• Desired Motor Characteristic
Goal:
• Should behave: like the high-resistance wound-rotor curve; Get good starting torque and high running efficiency
in one motor.
at high slips, & like the low-resistance wound-rotor curve at
low slips High R_2 curve (solid curve at left):
• High rotor resistance.
• Torque peak shifts toward high slip (left side of speed axis).
• Good starting torque but lower efficiency at running
speeds.

Low R_2 curve (solid curve at right):

• Low rotor resistance.
• Torque peak occurs at low slip (closer to full speed).
• Bad starting torque but very efficient during running
 INDUCTION MOTOR Leakage reactance (X₂) is the reactance due
to flux that does not link both stator and
VARIATION IN TORQUE-SPEED rotor — it “leaks”
• Leakage Reactance X₂ increases if the rotor bars are
Control of Motor Characteristics by Cage Rotor Design:
deeper inside the rotor.
• Leakage reactance X2 represents the referred form of the rotor’s leakage (Because magnetic flux cannot easily couple to stator —
reactance (reactance due to the rotor’s flux lines that do not couple with more “leakage”.)
the stator windings.) • If bars are placed near the rotor surface,
➔ Leakage is less,
• Generally, the farther away the rotor bar is from the stator, the greater its ➔ X₂ is smaller,
X2 , since a smaller percentage of the bar’s flux will reach the stator. ➔ Better torque at high speeds.
• Thus, if the bars of a cage rotor are placed near the surface of the rotor, If X₂ is small, torque becomes larger!
they will have small leakage flux and X2 will be small.

Torque is not simply inversely proportional or directly

proportional to R_2 .
• It depends on how R_2 balances against X_2 .
 INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• An induction motor has the ability to start directly, however direct
starting of an induction motor is not advised due to high starting
currents, may cause dip in power system voltage; that across-
the-line starting not acceptable
• for wound rotor, by inserting extra resistance can be reduced; this
increase starting torque, but also reduces starting current
• For cage type, starting current vary widely depending primarily on
motor’s rated power & on effective rotor resistance at starting
conditions
 INDUCTION MOTORS
Reduces the voltage applied to the
motor during starting.
• After motor picks up speed, switches
STARTING over to full supply voltage.

Connection Steps:
• Autotransformer starter: 1. During starting:
• Contacts 1 and 3 are closed.
• During starting 1 & 3 closed, • Motor gets reduced voltage via
autotransformer.
when motor is nearly up to
speed; those contacts Although induction motors can self-
start, direct starting is not preferred
opened & 2 closed due to high inrush currents causing
voltage dips.
• Note: as starting current In wound rotor motors, inserting
reduced proportional to resistance improves starting torque
decrease in voltage, starting and reduces current.
In cage motors, starting current varies
torque decreased as square depending on design.
of applied voltage, therefore An autotransformer starter reduces
just a certain reduction applied voltage during starting,
lowering current proportionally, but
possible if motor is to start starting torque reduces with the
with a shaft load attached square of voltage, limiting the
reduction possible when a shaft load
is attached.
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• A typical full-voltage (across-the-line) motor magnetic
starter circuit
 INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• Start button pressed, rely coil M 1. Start Button Pressed:
• Operator presses the Start button.
energized, & N.O. contacts • M relay coil is energized.
M1,M2,M3 close • This causes the normally open (N.O.) contacts M1, M2, M3 to
close.
• Therefore power supplied to motor 2. Motor Starts:
& motor starts • Power flows through the closed contacts to the motor.
• Motor starts running.
• Contacts M4 also close which short 3. M4 Contact Closes:
out starting switch, allowing • Contact M4 also closes.
• It shorts out the Start button — meaning the operator can release
operator to release it (start button) the button without stopping the motor.
without removing power from M • M relay stays latched ON.
4. Stop Button Pressed:
relay • Operator presses the Stop button.
• When stop button pressed, M relay • M relay de-energizes, opening contacts M1, M2, M3.
• Power is cut off from motor ➔ motor stops.
de-energized, & M contacts open,
stopping motor
 INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING Protective Features of Magnetic Motor Starter:
• A magnetic motor starter circuit has 1. Short-Circuit Protection:
several built-in protective features: • Fuses F1, F2, F3 protect the motor.
• If a sudden high current (due to a short-circuit) flows, the
1- short-circuit protection fuses blow and disconnect the motor.
2- overload protection 2. Overload Protection:
• Provided by Overload (OL) Relays:
3- under-voltage protection
• Consists of an overload heater and overload contacts.
• Short-circuit protection provided by • If motor draws excessive current for a long time,
fuses F1,F2,F3 overload relay trips and stops the motor.
• Short-time overloads (like during starting) are tolerated.
• If sudden sh. cct. Develops within motor
3. Under-Voltage Protection:
causes a current (many times greater
than rated current) flow; these fuses blow • If supply voltage falls too much:
disconnecting motor from supply • M relay de-energizes automatically.
(however, sh. cct. by a high resistance or • Motor is disconnected to protect it from under-voltage
operation.
excessive motor loads will not be cleared
by fuses)
In short:
• Short-circuit ➔ Fuses blow.
• Overload ➔ Overload relay trips.
• Under-voltage ➔ M relay drops out.
 INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING 1. Start Button Pressed:
• Overload protection for motor is provided • M relay energizes.
“OL” relays which consists of 2 parts: an • Motor starts, but initially, full starting resistors are in
over load heater, and overload contacts series with the motor.
• when an induction motor overloaded, it is • Starting current is reduced.
eventually damaged by excessive heating 2. Time-Delay Relays 1TD, 2TD, 3TD:
caused by high currents • 1TD relay energizes first after a small delay.
• However this damage takes time & motor • It cuts out part of the starting resistance.
will not be hurt by brief periods of high • Motor picks up some speed.
current (such as starting current) • 2TD relay energizes next.
• Another section of resistance is removed.
• Undervoltage protection is also provided by
controller • Motor speeds up more.
• 3TD relay energizes last.
If voltage applied to motor falls too much, • All resistances are removed.
voltage applied to M relay also fall, & relay • Motor is now directly connected to full supply.
will de-energize
The M contacts open, removing power from
motor terminals Thus, the motor sees full voltage gradually, not
immediately.
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• 3 step resistive starter
• Similar to previous,
except that there are
additional components
present to control
Removal of starting
resistors
• Relays 1TD, 2TD, & 3 TD
are time-delay relay
INDUCTION MOTORS
STARTING
• Start button is pushed in this circuit, M relay energizes
and power is applied to motor as before
• Since 1TD, 2TD, & 3TD contacts are all open the full
starting resistor in series with motor, reducing the
starting current
• When M contacts close, notice that 1 TD relay is
energized, however there is a finite delay before 1TD
contacts close, cutting out part of starting resistance &
simultaneously energizing 2TD relay
• After another delay, 2TD contacts close, cutting out
second part of resistor & energizing 3TD relay
• Finally 3TD contacts close, & entire starting resistor is
out of circuit
 INDUCTION MOTOR induction Motor: Speed Control Basics

SPEED CONTROL Important Point:

• Induction motors are NOT ideal for wide-range speed
control.
• Induction motors are not good machines for • Normal induction motors have only a small speed
variation (less than 5% slip) even under changing load.
applications requiring considerable speed control.
• The normal operating range of a typical induction Why?
motor is confined to less than 5% slip, and the speed • Motor speed is tied very closely to synchronous
variation is more or less proportional to the load speed n_sync minus a small slip.
• More slip → More rotor copper loss ➔ Bad efficiency.
• Since PRCL = s PAG , if slip is made higher, rotor copper
losses will be high as well
• There are basically 2 general methods to control
induction motor’s speed:
- Varying synchronous speed
- Varying slip

Change rotor resistance or stator voltage.

INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• nsync= 120 fe / p
• so the only ways to change nsync is (1) changing
electrical frequency (2) changing number of
poles
• slip control can be accomplished, either by
varying rotor resistance, or terminal voltage of
motor
• Speed Control by Pole Changing
• Two major approaches:
1- method of consequent poles
2- multiple stator windings
INDUCTION MOTOR 1. Method of Consequent Poles

SPEED CONTROL Basic Concept:

• By changing how coils are connected, you can double
the number of magnetic poles.
1- method of consequent poles • Simple reconnections — no physical changes inside
motor.
relies on the fact that number of
poles in stator windings can easily Example:
changed by a factor of 2:1, with • If original winding makes 2 poles, after reconnection, it
simple changes in coil connections can make 4 poles.
- a 2-pole stator winding for • More poles → Lower speed (because n_sync =120f/p.

pole changing. Very small rotor pitch

➔ How it works (easy to imagine):
• Current flow in winding creates North (N) and South (S) poles.
• In next figure for windings of phase • If we reverse the direction of current in some coil groups,
“a” of a 2 pole stator, method is • We create two North poles and two South poles ➔ Consequent poles.
illustrated • This doubles the number of poles.

• In a 2-pole winding,
Induction motor speed can be controlled by
• Current flows such that magnetic field exits at one group (N) and enters at the opposite
changing synchronous speed. group (S) — creating 2 poles.
One method is pole changing, where the number
• After reconnection,
of stator poles is changed by reconnecting coil
• Magnetic fields leave from both groups → two North poles.
groups.
• Flux must return somewhere → two new South poles automatically formed (consequent
The method of consequent poles allows
poles).
changing poles by a factor of 2:1. Thus, 4 poles created instead of 2 poles.
By reversing current in part of the winding, the
number of poles doubles, reducing synchronous
speed accordingly.
INDUCTION MOTOR Starting case (normal 2-pole operation):

SPEED CONTROL
• A view of one phase of a pole changing winding
• In fig(a) , current flow in phase a, causes magnetic
field leave stator in upper phase group (N) & enters
stator in lower phase group (S), producing 2 stator
magnetic poles

Magnetic field:
• Leaves the stator at upper phase group ➔ acts as a North Pole
(N).
• Enters stator at lower phase group ➔ acts as a South Pole (S).

• Direction of current in lower group (a2) is reversed (shown by arrow

direction changed).
Magnetic field behavior:
• Now, at both groups (a1 and a2):
• Magnetic field leaves the stator ➔ Both are North Poles (N).
But flux must return!
• The magnetic flux returns through two points in between a1 and a2,
creating two South Poles (S) automatically ➔ called Consequent South
Poles.
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
• Now, if direction of current flow in lower phase group reversed,
magnetic field leave stator in both upper phase group, & lower
phase group, each will be a North pole while flux in machine must
return to stator between two phase groups, producing a pair of
consequent south magnetic poles (twice as many as before)
• Rotor in such a motor is of cage design, and a cage rotor always
has as many poles as there are in stator
• when motor reconnected from 2 pole to 4 pole , resulting
maximum torque is the same (for :constant-torque connection)
half its previous value (for: square-law-torque connection used for
fans, etc.), depending on how the stator windings are rearranged
• Next figure, shows possible stator connections & their effect on
torque-speed
 INDUCTION MOTOR In constant torque connection:
• Torque is same at high and low speed.
SPEED CONTROL • Power reduces proportionally with speed
(because Power = Torque × Speed).
• Possible connections of stator coils in a pole- • In constant HP connection:
• Power is same at both speeds.
changing motor, together with resulting torque- • Torque at low speed is higher (because
speed characteristics: Torque ∝ 1/Speed).
(a) constant-torque connection : power • In fan torque connection:
• Follows the nature of fan/pump loads,
capabilities remain constant in both high & low where torque ∝ speed².
speed connections
In the method of consequent poles, the stator
(b) constant hp connection: power capabilities winding current connections are changed to
of motor remain approximately constant in double the number of poles, reducing motor
both high-speed & low-speed connections speed by half.
During reconnection, magnetic field patterns
(c) Fan torque connection: torque capabilities are altered by reversing current direction in
of motor change with speed in same manner certain phase groups.
as fan-type loads Torque-speed characteristics after pole change
depend on the winding arrangement, resulting
Shown in next figure ➔ in either constant torque, constant horsepower,
or fan-type torque-speed curves, suitable for
different industrial applications.
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL
Figure of possible connections
of stator coils in a pole changing
motor
(a) constant-torque Connection:
torque capabilities of motor
remain approximately
constant in both high-speed
& low-speed connection
(b) Constant-hp connection:
power capabilities of motor
remain approximately
constant in …
(c) Fan torque connection:
INDUCTION MOTOR Problem with Consequent Poles Method:

SPEED CONTROL • When using only consequent poles, you can only change
poles in 2:1 ratio (example: 2-pole 4-pole).
• Therefore, speed control is limited to exactly 2 speeds (high
• Major Disadvantage of consequent-pole method of speed and half speed).
Solution: Multiple Stator Windings
changing speed: speeds must be in ratio of 2:1 • Two completely separate stator windings are wound inside
• traditional method to overcome the limitation: the same stator.
employ multiple stator windings with different • Each winding has a different number of poles (like one
winding for 4 poles, another winding for 6 poles).
numbers of poles & to energize only set at a time • Only one winding is energized at a time.
Example: a motor may wound with 4 pole & a set of
6 pole stator windings, then its sync. Speed on a 60 Example:
• A motor wound with:
Hz system could be switched from 1800 to 1200 • One 4-pole winding ➔ Speed = 1800 RPM (at 60 Hz)
r/min simply by supplying power to other set of • One 6-pole winding ➔ Speed = 1200 RPM (at 60 Hz)
windings • Motor can switch between 1800 and 1200 RPM by selecting
which winding to energize.
• however multiple stator windings increase expense Important Point:
of motor & used only it is absolutely necessary • More flexibility in speed control.
• But increases motor cost and complexity (because more
• Combining method of consequent poles with copper, more insulation, more switching required).
multiple stator windings a 4 –speed motor can be Advanced Combination:
developed • Consequent Poles + Multiple Windings together ➔
A 4-speed motor becomes possible.
Example: with separate 4 & 6 pole windings, it is
possible to produce a 60 Hz motor capable of
running at 600, 900, 1200, and 1800 r/min
 INDUCTION MOTOR but there is a problem!

SPEED CONTROL
• If only frequency is changed without adjusting
terminal voltage, two major issues occur:
(a) Core Saturation:
• Speed Control by Changing Line • If frequency is reduced but voltage remains same, the
flux inside the motor increases.
Frequency • Magnetic core gets saturated ➔ Nonlinear behavior,
overheating, inefficiency.
• Changing the electrical frequency will (b) Excessive Magnetizing Current:
change the synchronous speed of the • More flux causes very high magnetizing current.
machine • Leads to distorted currents and reduced efficiency.
Therefore, when frequency is changed,
• Changing the electrical frequency
voltage must also be adjusted
would also require an adjustment to the proportionally to keep the air-gap flux
terminal voltage in order to maintain the constant.
same amount of flux level in the
machine core. If not the machine will
experience
Speed can also be controlled by changing
(a) Core saturation (non linearity effects) the supply frequency, but it must be
accompanied by voltage adjustment to
(b) Excessive magnetization current avoid core saturation and excessive
magnetizing currents, typically maintaining
a constant V/f ratio.
 1. Voltage Control Method

Voltage Control Method How it works:

•The supply voltage to the motor is varied (reduced or
increased).
•Since torque in an induction motor is approximately
proportional to the square of the applied voltage:
• The voltage control method adjusts the speed of an
induction motor by varying the voltage supplied to the What happens when voltage is reduced:
motor. •Magnetic flux reduces inside the motor.
•Torque decreases, so speed also falls under load.

• This method is simple and economical for small motors Advantages:

•Simple and cheap method.
and is primarily used where a broad range of speed •Good for small motors.
control is not required. It operates under the principle •Useful where exact speed control is not needed.
that the torque produced in an induction motor is directly
proportional to the square of the applied voltage. Disadvantages:
•Not efficient for large motors.
•Poor torque characteristics at low voltages.
• Reducing the supply voltage decreases the magnetic •Limited speed control range (only moderate changes
flux, thereby lowering the torque and speed. However, possible).
this method is not efficient for large motors or
applications requiring precise speed control due to its
limited range and impact on torque.
The voltage control method varies the motor speed by
adjusting the applied voltage, with torque proportional to the
square of voltage. It is simple but inefficient for large motors
and precise control applications.
 Key points:

Frequency Control Method •Frequency and speed are directly proportional.

•To avoid core saturation, voltage is adjusted
proportionally — V/f ratio kept constant.

• Speed control of 3 phase induction motor using vfd: Common Implementation:

•Using Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs).
• The frequency control method varies the speed of an •VFDs electronically generate variable-frequency
induction motor by changing the frequency of the supply.
electrical power supplied to the motor while keeping the
supply voltage constant.
The frequency control method changes
• This method provides a wide range of precise speed the motor speed by varying the supply
control, making it suitable for applications requiring frequency while keeping voltage
variable speeds and high efficiency. As the speed of an proportional to frequency, ensuring
induction motor is directly proportional to the supply constant flux. It provides precise,
frequency, adjusting the frequency allows for smooth efficient speed control through VFDs.
control over the motor's speed without significantly
affecting the torque.
• This control strategy is commonly implemented using •Disadv
electronic variable-frequency drives (VFDs), offering •Higher initial cost (for VFD equipment).
flexibility and energy efficiency in motor operations. •Requires electronic control systems.
 Stator Resistance Control Method

Stator Resistance Method How it works:

•External resistances are added in series with the
stator winding.
• Speed control of induction motor by stator voltage control:
• The stator resistance method controls the speed of an induction motor by What happens:
adding external resistance in series with the stator winding.
•Added resistance causes voltage drop.
• This method primarily affects the starting torque and speed of the motor by •Torque-speed curve is altered — motor speed
introducing voltage drop across the added resistance, which changes the reduces for the same load torque.
torque-speed characteristic of the motor.
• Whle it's an uncomplicated and low-cost method for speed control, Advantages:
particularly for slip-ring induction motors, its application is limited due to
reduced efficiency and significant power loss in the resistance. •Very simple and low cost.
•Useful for small motors or special applications like
slip ring motors.

Disadvantages:
•Very poor efficiency (energy is wasted as heat in
resistors).
•Significant power loss.
•Limited usage today except for cheap or simple
applications.

The stator resistance method controls speed by adding series resistances to the stator, reducing voltage at
motor terminals. It is simple but inefficient due to power loss in resistances.
INDUCTION MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL

• Variable-frequency speed
control
(a) family of torque-speed
characteristic curves for speed
below base speed (assuming line
voltage derated linearly with
frequency
(b) Family of torque-speed
characteristic curves for speeds
above base speed, assuming line
voltage held constant
 Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor
Drive: If motor saturates:
•High magnetizing current.
• Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive – Synchronous speed, •Distorted line current and voltage.
therefore, the motor speed can be controlled by varying supply frequency.
Voltage induced in stator is proportional to the product of supply frequency •Increased core losses and copper losses.
and air-gap flux. If stator drop is neglected, terminal voltage can be considered •Loud noise and vibrations.
proportional to the product of frequency and flux.
•Inefficient and potentially damaging
• Any reduction in the supply frequency, without a change in the terminal operation.
voltage, causes an increase in the air-gap flux. Induction motors are designed
to operate at the knee point of the magnetization characteristic to make full Maintain Constant V/f Ratio
use of the magnetic material. Therefore, the increase in flux will saturate the
motor. This will increase the magnetizing current, distort the line current and To avoid saturation,
voltage, increase the core loss and the stator copper loss, and produce a high- reduce voltage proportionally when you reduce freq.
pitch acoustic noise. While an increase in flux beyond the’rated value is Keep:
undesirable from the consideration of saturation effects, a decrease in flux is
{V/f} = {constant}
also avoided to retain the torque capability of the motor. Therefore, the
Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive below the rated where:
frequency is generally carried out at rated air-gap flux by varying terminal •V = supply voltage, f = supply frequency.
voltage with frequency so as to maintain (V/f) ratio constant at the rated value. Result:
•Air-gap flux stays constant.
•Motor avoids saturation.
•Motor torque capability is maintained.
This is called V/f control.
 where K is a constant, and Ls and L′r are, respectively,
the stator and stator referred rotor inductances. Positive
sign is for motoring operation and negative sign is for
braking operation.
Variation in terminal voltage with
frequency is therefore as shown in Fig.
Below Base Speed
6.33(a). V is kept constant above the base
(with constant V/f):
speed. Below the base speed (V/f) ratio is
•As frequency decreases, synchronous speed decreases.
maintained constant, except at low
•Torque remains approximately constant across all speeds.
frequencies where (V/f) ratio is increased
•Speed control is smooth and efficient.
to keep maximum torque constant.
Corresponding speed torque curves are Below Base Speed
shown in Fig. 6.33(b) both for motoring (with constant V/f):
and braking operations. The curves •As frequency decreases, synchronous speed decreases.
suggest that speed control and braking •Torque remains approximately constant across all
operation are available from nearly zero speeds.
speed to above synchronous speed. •Speed control is smooth and efficient.
In variable frequency control (V/f control) of induction motor drives, supply frequency and voltage are varied together
to maintain a constant V/f ratio, preserving the air-gap flux. Below base speed, both voltage and frequency are reduced
proportionally, maintaining constant torque. Above base speed, voltage is kept constant while frequency increases,
causing torque to decrease. This method provides wide and smooth speed control, good efficiency, small speed drop
under load, and excellent transient performance.
Operating Between Synchronous Speed and Maximum
Torque Point
• A given torque is obtained with a lower current when the operation
at any frequency is restricted between the synchronous speed and What it means:
the maximum torque point, both for motoring and braking
operations. Therefore, the motor operation for each frequency is •In torque-speed curves at different frequencies:
restricted between the synchronous speed and maximum torque •We only operate between:
point as shown by solid lines in Fig. 6.33(b). •Synchronous speed (n_s) and
•Speed at maximum torque (n_{Tmax}).
• The Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive provides
good running and transient performance because of the following
features: Why?
•Between synchronous speed and Tmax point:
• Speed control and braking operation are available from zero speed •Motor produces high torque for low current.
to above base speed.
•Efficiency is high.
• During transients (starting, braking and speed reversal) the •Copper losses are minimized.
operation can be carried out at the maximum torque with reduced Therefore, motor operation is always kept in this
current giving good dynamic response. “efficient region” for each frequency.
• Copper losses are low, and efficiency and power factor are high as In braking also:
the operation is restricted between synchronous speed and •Regenerative braking (sending power back to source)
maximum torque point at all frequencies. occurs efficiently in the same region.
• Drop in speed from no load to full load is small.
• The most importantadvantage of Variable Frequency Control of Advantages of Variable Frequency Control
Induction Motor Drive is that it allows a variable speed drive
with above-mentioned good running and transient Good Running and Transient Performance:
performance to be obtained from a squirrel cage induction •Speed control possible from zero speed to
motor. The squirrel cage motor has a number of advantages above base speed.
over a dc motor. It is cheap, rugged, reliable and longer
lasting. Because of the absence of commutator and brushes, •Braking and reversal can happen smoothly.
it requires practically no maintenance, it can be operated in During Transients (starting, braking,
an explosive and contaminated environment, and can be reversal):
designed for higher speeds, voltage and power ratings. It also •Maximum torque can be achieved with low
has lower inertia, volume and weight. Though the cost of a current ➔ Fast dynamic response.
squirrel cage motor is much lower compared to that of a dc
motor of the same rating, the overall cost of variable Efficiency and Power Factor:
frequency induction motor drives, in general are higher. But •High because of:
because of the advantages listed above, variable frequency •Low copper loss.
induction motor drives are preferred over dc motor drives for •Reduced heating.
most applications. In special applications requiring Small Speed Drop:
maintenance free operation, such as underground and
underwater installations, and also in applications involving •Very little difference between no-load speed and
explosive and contaminated environments, such as in mines full-load speed ➔ Good regulation.
and chemical industry, variable frequency induction motor
drives are a natural choice. They have several other
applications such as traction, mill run out tables, steel mills,
pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, spindle drives,
conveyers, machine tools, and so on.

VFD-driven squirrel cage motors dominate modern industry today!

Closed Loop Speed Control of Induction
Motor Drives What is a closed-loop system?
•Speed is measured and fed back to adjust the
motor control automatically.
•This helps maintain constant speed even if load
• A Closed Loop Speed Control of Induction Motor changes.
Drives is shown in Fig. 6.43. It employs inner slip-
speed loop with a slip limiter and outer speed
loop. Since for a given current, slip speed has a Structure of Closed-Loop System:
fixed value, the slip speed loop also functions as •Outer loop: Controls actual motor speed.
an inner current loop. Further it also ensures that •Inner loop: Controls slip speed (difference
the motor operation always occurs on the portion between stator magnetic field speed and rotor
of speed-torque curve between synchronous speed).
speed and the speed at the maximum torque for •Slip speed is related to motor torque.
all frequencies, thus ensuring high torque to •Also behaves like a current control loop
current ratio. The drive uses a PWM inverter fed
from a dc source, which has capability for What ensures?
regenerative braking and four-quadrant operation. •Motor always operates between synchronous speed
The drive scheme is however applicable to any VSI and maximum torque point.
or cycloconverter drive having regenerative or •Thus, high torque-to-current ratio is always achieved.
dynamic braking capability. The drive operation is •Efficient braking and motoring across all speeds.
explained below.
The Variable Frequency Control of Induction Motor Drive maintains high performance by operating between
synchronous speed and maximum torque points at all frequencies. It enables excellent speed control, fast dynamic
response, high efficiency, and reliable braking operation. Using closed-loop control with slip-speed feedback and
PWM inverter, the drive achieves superior torque-to-current ratios, high stability, and maintenance-free operation,
making squirrel cage induction motor drives ideal for most industrial applications.
 Inner Slip-Speed Loop (Slip Flux Control Block:
1️⃣ Outer Speed Loop (Speed Regulator) •Ensures that air-gap flux remains constant at all frequencies.
Controller) •Provides flux command to voltage controller.
What it does: What it does: Voltage Controller Block:
•Compares the desired motor •The slip regulator adjusts the •Adjusts the terminal voltage V applied to motor according to the V/f control
speed (w_m^*) with the actual slip based on the commanded strategy.
motor speed (w_m) sensed by slip speed w_sl^* and the If frequency reduces ➔ voltage is reduced proportionally to maintain
the speed sensor. actual motor speed (\w_m). constant flux.
•Produces a speed error •It computes the synchronous
(e_{com}. speed command w_{ms}.
Speed Controller Block: Meaning:
•Based on the speed error, it •Synchronous speed w_{ms} is
generates a commanded slip the sum of:
speed (w_sl*). •w_ms = w_m + w_sl

In a closed-loop slip-controlled PWM inverter

drive, the desired motor speed is compared with
the actual speed, and the speed error is used to
generate a slip speed command. The slip
regulator calculates the required synchronous
speed. Voltage and flux control maintain a
constant air-gap flux using the V/f principle. A
PWM inverter supplies variable-frequency,
variable-voltage AC to the motor, allowing
efficient speed control, fast dynamic response,
regenerative braking, and four-quadrant operation.
 speed Error Processing

• The speed error is processed through a PI What happens:

controller and a slip regulator. PI controller is •The speed error (difference between commanded speed \w_m^*
used to get good steady-state accuracy, and to and actual speed \w_m)
attenuate noise. The slip regulator sets the •is passed through a PI Controller.
slip speed command ω*sl, whose maximum Role of PI Controller:
value is limited to limit the inverter current to a •P (Proportional) Action: Reduces the speed error quickly.
permissible value. The synchronous speed, •I (Integral) Action: Eliminates steady-state error for accurate final
obtained by adding actual speed ωm and slip speed.
speed ω*sl, determines the inverter •Also: Helps attenuate noise (makes the system smoother).
frequency. The reference signal for the Closed Output:
Loop Speed Control of Induction Motor Drives •The PI controller output is the Slip Speed Command w_sl^*.
of the machine terminal voltage V* is •Inverter frequency is set according to this synchronous speed.
generated from frequency f using a function
generator. It ensures nearly a constant flux Behavior During Speed Changes
operation up to base speed and the operation Step Increase in Speed Command
at a constant terminal voltage above base •Positive speed error created.
speed. •Slip speed w_sl* is pushed to maximum positive value (allowed by slip
• A step increase in speed command ω*m regulator).
produces a positive speed error. The slip •Motor accelerates using maximum available torque (within safe current
speed command ω*sl is set at the maximum limit).
value. The drive accelerates at the maximum •Speed error reduces gradually.
permissible inverter current, producing the •Finally, motor settles at a slip speed where motor torque = load torque.
maximum available torque, until the speed Step Decrease in Speed Command
error is reduced to a small value. The drive •Negative speed error created.
finally settles at a slip speed for which the •Slip speed w_ sl* becomes maximum negative value.
motor torque balances the load torque. •Motor decelerates under regenerative braking.
•Maximum braking torque is used.
•As speed error becomes small, braking stops, and motor settles at a
matching slip speed.
• A step decrease in speed command produces a negative speed error. The slip speed command
is set at the maximum negative value. The drive decelerates under regenerative braking, at the
maximum permissible current and the maximum available braking torque, until the speed error
is reduced to a small value. Now the operation shifts to motoring and the drive settles at the slip
speed for which the motor torque equals the load torque.

• The drive has fast response because the speed error is corrected at the maximum available
torque. Direct control of slip assures stable operation under all operating conditions.

• For operation beyond the base speed, the slip speed limit of the slip regulator must be increased
linearly with the frequency until the breakdown value is reached. This is achieved by adding to
the slip regulator output an additional slip speed signal, proportional to frequency and of
appropriate sign. For frequencies higher than the frequency for which the breakdown torque is
reached, the slip speed limit is kept fixed near the breakdown value.

In a closed-loop slip controlled PWM inverter drive, the speed error is processed through a
PI controller and slip regulator to generate a slip speed command. The synchronous speed
is determined by adding actual speed and slip speed, setting the inverter frequency.
Voltage is generated based on frequency to maintain constant flux below base speed
and constant voltage above base speed. During acceleration and deceleration, maximum
permissible current and torque are used, enabling fast dynamic response, regenerative
braking, and stable operation. Operation beyond base speed is managed by adjusting slip
limits appropriately to ensure safe and efficient performance.
Rotor Resistance Control of an Induction
Motor Basic Idea:
•External resistances are connected in series with the rotor
windings through slip rings.
• Rotor Resistance Control is also one of the •Applicable only to wound-rotor induction motors (not squirrel
methods by which we can control the speed of
the Induction motor. The speed of the wound cage motors).
induction motor can be controlled by •Maximum torque tau_max} remains constant, regardless of
connecting an external resistance in the rotor
circuit through slip rings. This method is not rotor resistance.
applicable to cage rotor induction motors. •But slip at maximum torque s_max torque}} depends on rotor
As we know that the maximum torque is resistance.
independent of the rotor resistance, yet the
accurate location of the maximum
torque Ʈmax is dependent on it. The larger the
value of the resistance, the larger will be the
value of the slip at which the maximum
torque occurs.
• If the resistance of the motor is increased,
then the pull-out speed of the motor
decreases. But the maximum torque remains
constant. Thus, by Rotor By adjusting rotor resistance, you can control motor speed
Resistance Control method, the speed between rated speed and lower speeds.
control is provided by the rated speed to the
lower speeds. This method of speed control is Advantages:
very simple. It is possible to have a large •Simple and low-cost method.
starting torque, low starting current, and large •Good starting torque at low starting current.
values of the pullout torque at a small value •Large pull-out torque at lower speeds.
• The major disadvantage of the rotor
resistance control method is that the Rotor Resistance Control adjusts the
efficiency is low because of the speed of a wound-rotor induction motor by
adding external resistances into the rotor
additional losses present in the resistors circuit. It shifts the slip at maximum
connected within the rotor circuit. The torque to higher values, allowing speed
efficiency is greatly reduced at low control below rated speed. Though simple
speeds because of the higher value of and capable of high starting torque, it
suffers from low efficiency due to power
the slip. This method of speed control is loss in external resistors.
used in Cranes, Ward Leonard drives,
and other intermittent load applications
because of the low cost and high torque
capability at the lower speed.
 Basic Idea:
Slip Power Recovery Scheme •Instead of wasting rotor slip power in
resistors,
used in Induction Motor •Recover the slip power and feed it back (or
use it) to improve efficiency.
Applicable for:
• Slip Power Recovery Scheme used •Wound-rotor induction motors only.
in Induction Motor – Figure 6.53
shows an equivalent circuit of a By adjusting V_r and P_r:
wound-rotor induction motor with •You can control motor speed below or above
voltage Vr injected into its rotor, synchronous speed.
assuming stator-to-rotor turns ratio
unity. When rotor copper loss is
neglected
• where Pr is the power absorbed by the source Vr. The Why is it better than Rotor
magnitude and sign of Pr can be controlled by controlling the Resistance Control?
magnitude and phase of Vr. When Pr is zero, motor runs on its
natural speed torque characteristic. A positive Pr will reduce •Power is not wasted in external
Pm, and therefore, motor will run at a lower speed for the same resistors.
torque. When Pr is made equal to Pg, then Pm and consequently •Efficiency is high because slip power
speed will be zero. Thus, variation of Pr from 0 to Pg will allow
speed control from synchronous to zero speed. Polarity of Vr is recovered or usefully redirected.
for this operation is shown in Fig. 6.53 by a continuous line.
Two Practical Slip Power
When Pr is negative, i.e. Vr acts as a source of power, Pm will be Recovery Schemes:
larger than Pg and motor will run at a speed higher than
synchronous speed. Polarity of Vr for speed control above
synchronous speed is shown by a dotted line in Fig. 6.53. 1. Static Scherbius Drive:
•Rotor slip power is fed back to
• When rotor copper loss is neglected, Pr is equal to Slip Power AC supply through an inverter and
Recovery Scheme used in Induction Motor, sPg. Speed control transformer.
below synchronous speed is obtained by controlling the slip-
power. the same approach was adopted in rotor resistance
control. However, instead of wasting power in external 2. Static Kramer Drive:
resistors, it is usefully employed here. Therefore, these methods •Rotor slip power is converted
of speed control are classified as Slip Power Recovery Scheme into DC using a rectifier and fed
used in Induction Motor recovery schemes. Two such schemes,
Static Sherbius and Static Kramer Drives, are described here. to a DC motor or DC bus.
 Basic Working:
•Rotor slip power is converted into DC using a diode bridge
Static Kramer Drive rectifier.
•The DC power is then fed into a DC motor.
• Rotor slip power is converted into dc by a diode •Induction motor and DC motor are mechanically coupled
bridge (Fig. 6.57(a)). The dc power is now fed to (shafts connected together).
dc motor mechanically coupled to induction
motor. Torque supplied to load is sum of torque Thus, total load torque is the sum of:
produced by induction and dc motors. Speed
control is obtained by controlling field current {Load Torque} = {Induction Motor Torque} + {DC Motor Torque}
of dc motor. Speed control is done by controlling the DC motor’s field
• Figure 6.57(b) shows variations of Vd1 and Vd2 current (I_f).
with speed for two values of dc motor field
current. The steady state operation is obtained Operation Details: For larger speed range:
when Vd1 = Vd2, i.e. at A and B for field •Two DC voltages: •Replace diode bridge
currents If1 and If2. Speed control is possible •V_{d1} = DC voltage output from rotor
from synchronous speed to around half of with thyristor bridge.
synchronous speed. When larger speed range rectifier. •Now, firing angle of
is required, diode bridge is replaced by a •V_{d2} = DC voltage across DC motor. thyristor rectifier is
thyristor bridge. Now relationship between Vd1 •Steady-state condition:
and speed can be altered by controlling firing controlled ➔ allows full
angle of thyristor rectifier (see Fig. 6.57(c)). •V_{d1} = V_{d2}
Speed can now be controlled up to standstill. • Steady-state operating points are speed control down to
where V_{d1} curve meets V_{d2} line standstill (zero speed).
(points A and B for two different field
currents).
Speed Control Range:
•From synchronous speed (zero slip)
•To about half synchronous speed
(higher slip).
 In a Static Kramer Drive, rotor
slip power is rectified into DC
and fed into a mechanically
coupled DC motor. Speed
control is achieved by
controlling the DC motor
field current. Using a
thyristor rectifier extends
speed control range from
synchronous speed down to
standstill.

•V_{d1} = DC voltage output

from rotor rectifier.
•V_{d2} = DC voltage across DC
motor.

•V_{d1} = V_{d2}
• Steady-state operating points are
where V_{d1} curve meets V_{d2} line
(points A and B for two different field
currents).
 Basic Working:

Static Scherbius Drive

•Rotor slip power is partially rectified into DC
using a diode bridge.
•Then converted back to AC using a controlled
inverter.
•This AC power is fed back to the supply grid.
• It provides the speed control of a wound rotor motor
below synchronous speed. A portion of rotor ac power The slip power is recovered and reused ➔
is converted into dc by a diode bridge. The controlled higher efficiency.
rectifier working as an inverter converts it back to ac
and feeds it back to the ac source. Power fed back (i.e. operation Details:
Pr) can be controlled by controlling inverter counter
emf Vd2, which in turn is controller by controlling the •DC link inductor is placed between rectifier and
inverter firing angle. The dc link inductor is provided to inverter to smooth the DC current.
reduce ripple in dc link current Id. •Inverter counter EMF (V_{d2}) controls how much
slip power is fed back.
• Since Slip Power Recovery Scheme used in Induction •Inverter firing angle is adjusted to control V_{d2}.
Motor is fed back to the source, unlike rotor By controlling inverter firing angle:
resistance control where it is wasted in resistors, drive
has a high efficiency. The drive has higher efficiency •You can control how much slip power is
than stator voltage control by ac voltage controllers extracted, and thus control the motor speed.
because of the same reasons.
•Speed control is possible below synchronous speed only (cannot go above synchronous
speed).
•Power factor is poor because:
•Both motor and inverter draw reactive power from the supply.
Drive input power is the difference between motor input power and the power fed back. Reactive input power is the
sum of motor and inverter reactive powers. Therefore, drive has a poor power factor throughout the range of its
operation.
From Fig. 6.54(a), neglecting stator and rotor drops
where α is the inverter firing angle and, n and m are, respectively, the stator to rotor turns ratio of motor and
source side to converter side turns ratio of the transformer. Neglecting drop across inductor

Substituting from Eqs. (6.93) and (6.94) yields

where a = n/m.

Maximum value of α is restricted to 165° for safe commutation of inverter thyristors. Slip can be controlled
from 0 to 0.966a when α is changed from 90 to 165°. By appropriate choice of a, required speed range can be
obtained.
Transformer is used to match the voltages Vd1 and Vd2. At the lowest speed required from the drive, Vd1 will
have the maximum value Vd1m given by

where smax, is the value of slip at the lowest speed. If α is restricted to 165°, m is chosen such that the inverter
voltage has a value Vd1m when α is 165° i.e.
 Such a choice of m ensures inverter operation at the highest firing angle at the lowest motor speed, giving
highest power factor (Eqn. (5.109)) and lowest reactive power at the lowest speed. This improves the drive
power factor and reduces reactive power at all speeds in the speed range of the drive.

Figure 6.55(a) shows equivalent circuit of motor referred to the rotor, neglecting magnetizing branch. Derivation
of Eq. (6.90) shows that when referred to dc link, resistance (sR′s + Rr) will be 2(sR′s + Rr). This gives
approximate dc equivalent circuit of the drive (Fig. 6.55(b)), where Vd1 and Vd2 are given in Eqs. (6.93) and
(6.94). Rd is the resistance of dc link inductor. Equivalent circuit ignores the commutation overlap in the diode
bridge. Now
If rotor copper loss is neglected

he drive has applications in fan and pump

drives which require speed control in a
narrow range only. If maximum slip is
denoted by smax, then power ratings of
diode bridge, inverter and transformer can
be just smax times the motor power rating
(Eq. 6.97). For example, when speed is to
be reduced below synchronous speed by
only 20%, power ratings of diode bridge,
inverter and transformer will be just 20% of
motor power rating. Consequently, drive
has a low cost.
 Speed Control of Synchronous Motor
Inverter Fed Open Loop Synchronous Motor Drive
• In this method, the synchronous motor
is supplied by a variable frequency
inverter in an open loop. Open loop
means there is no feedback to the
supply, so the inverter doesn’t know the
rotor’s position. This method is suitable
when precise speed control isn’t
necessary. The main supply is fed into a
rectifier inverter set to achieve the
desired frequency. The motor’s
synchronous speed can be varied
according to this frequency.
 Working Steps (Block Diagram Description):
1.Three-phase AC supply from the mains.
2.Rectifier converts it to DC.
3.LC filter smooths the rippled DC into steady DC.
4.Inverter (Voltage Source Inverter or Current Source Inverter) converts DC into variable-frequency AC.
5.Variable-frequency AC is fed to the synchronous motor.
By varying the inverter’s frequency setting, you control the motor’s speed.
• In above figure, you can see the block diagram of Advantages:
the speed control drive. The three-phase supply •Simple and easy to implement.
from the mains is converted to dc by using •Suitable for applications needing
rectifiers. Then the rippled dc is smoothened by identical speeds in multiple motors.
using LC filters. The DC is fed to the inverters. •Low cost because no need for
These inverters can be either voltage source sensors (like encoders).
inverters or current source inverter. The frequency Disadvantages:
of the supply fed to the motor can be varied and •No feedback, so hunting or
accordingly speed control of synchronous motor spontaneous oscillations can
can be done. Open loop operation is useful when a happen.
number of motors need to be run at exactly the •Hunting: Small, repeated speed
same speed. This method has a disadvantage variations around the desired speed.
though. This method causes spontaneous •Not suitable for applications needing
oscillation or hunting. precise speed or position control.

In an inverter-fed open loop synchronous motor drive, variable frequency supply is provided to the
motor by an inverter without feedback from the rotor. Speed control is achieved by adjusting
inverter output frequency. The method is simple and cost-effective but suffers from hunting and is
not suitable for precise speed control applications.
Self Synchronous (Closed – Loop) Operation Basic Idea:

Unlike open-loop operation (no feedback),

closed-loop self-synchronous control uses
feedback from the rotor speed.
Rotor speed is measured and compared to a
preset (desired) speed.
Difference (error) is processed by a controller
(differentiator and rectifier), and the inverter
output frequency is adjusted accordingly.

Goal:
•Keep the rotor synchronized with the stator
magnetic field.
Rectifier: •Eliminate hunting and ensure precise speed
•Rectifies the 3-phase AC into DC (pulsating DC). control.
•Output still has some ripple.
If load increases and speed drops:
LC Filter (Inductor L and Capacitor C):
•The inductor (L) and capacitor (C) smooth out the ripples in DC. •Inverter reduces frequency slightly ➔
•Produces a stable DC voltage. •Motor stays synchronized with new rotor speed
•This DC is then supplied to the inverter.
•The inverter converts DC back into AC — but now as a square wave output.
•The frequency and phase of the inverter output are controlled based on rotor position feedback.
Control Based on Rotor Position or Armature Voltage:
•The inverter receives feedback signals:
•From rotor position sensors (like encoders)
•Or armature induced voltages (back EMF sensing).
•This feedback is used to control when the inverter should switch — ensuring perfect synchronization between stator field and rotor.
This way, the rotor is always magnetically locked to the stator field.
• Self-synchronous (closed-loop) operation is used for precise
speed control. Here, the inverter output frequency is based on the
rotor speed. The rotor speed is fed back to a differentiator, and the
difference between preset and actual speed is sent to the rectifier.
The inverter then adjusts the frequency to control the motor speed
accurately. For example, if the speed drops due to increased load,
the stator supply frequency reduces to keep the rotor in sync with
the stator magnetic field. This method prevents spontaneous
oscillation or hunting.
Starting Methods of a Single
Phase Induction Motor
• The Single Phase Motor is not self-
starting and hence needs an
auxiliary means or equipment to
start the single-phase induction
motor. Mechanical methods are
impractical and, therefore the
motor is started temporarily
converting into a two-phase
motor. Problem:
• Single-phase Induction motors are •A single-phase induction motor is not self-starting because a single-
phase AC supply creates a pulsating magnetic field, not a rotating one.
usually classified according to the
•Temporarily create a two-phase system during starting using auxiliary
auxiliary means used to start the starting methods.
motor. They are classified
according to the starting methods.
 Construction:

Split Phase Induction Motor •Rotor: Standard single cage rotor (like squirrel cage induction
motor).
•Stator: Two windings:
• The Split Phase Motor is also known as a •Main Winding
Resistance Start Motor. It has a single cage rotor, •➔ Low resistance, high inductive reactance.
and its stator has two windings known as main •Starting (Auxiliary) Winding
winding and starting winding. Both the windings •➔ High resistance, low inductive reactance.
are displaced 90 degrees in space. The main Windings are displaced 90° electrically in space.
winding has very low resistance and a high A resistor is connected in series with the starting winding.
inductive reactance whereas the starting Working Principle:
winding has high resistance and low inductive 1.At starting:
1.Both main and starting windings are connected in parallel.
reactance. The connection diagram of the motor 2.Due to different impedance values, currents are not in
is shown below: phase.
3.This phase difference creates a rotating magnetic field,
starting the motor.
2.Starting Torque:
1.Moderate starting torque, about 1.5 to 2 times the full-
load running torque.
2.Not suitable for very high starting torque applications.
Disconnection of Starting Winding:

After motor reaches 70–80% of synchronous speed:

•Starting winding is disconnected from supply.
•The motor continues running on main winding only.
• A resistor is connected in series with the auxiliary
winding. The current in the two windings is not equal as
a result, the rotating field is not uniform. Hence, the
starting torque is small, of the order of 1.5 to 2 times
the stated running torque. At the starting of the motor
both the windings are connected in parallel.
Relay Disconnection (Small Motors):
• As soon as the motor reaches the speed of about 70 to •At starting: Heavy current flows ➔ Relay contacts close ➔ Starting
winding connected.
80 % of the synchronous speed the starting winding is •As speed increases: Current reduces ➔ Relay contacts open ➔
disconnected automatically from the supply mains. If Starting winding disconnected.
the motors are rated about 100 Watt or more, a
centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the starting The Split Phase Induction Motor uses two
winding and for the smaller rating motors relay is used stator windings — main and starting —
for the disconnecting of the winding. displaced 90° apart. The starting winding
has higher resistance, creating a phase
• A relay is connected in series with the main winding. In difference to generate a starting torque.
the starting, the heavy current flows in the circuit, and Once the motor reaches 70–80% of
the contact of the relay gets closed. Thus, the starting synchronous speed, the starting winding is
winding is in the circuit, and as the motor attains the disconnected by a centrifugal switch (for
predetermined speed, the current in the relay starts large motors) or relay (for small motors).
decreasing. Therefore, the relay opens and disconnects This motor is simple, inexpensive, and
the auxiliary winding from the supply, making the motor suitable for moderate starting torque
runs on the main winding only. applications.
• The phasor diagram of the Split Phase Induction Motor is shown below:
• The current in the main winding (IM) lags behind the supply voltage V almost by
the 90-degree angle. The current in the auxiliary winding IA is approximately in
phase with the line voltage. Thus, there exists a time difference between the
currents of the two windings. The time phase difference ϕ is not 90 degrees, but
of the order of 30 degrees. This phase difference is enough to produce a rotating
magnetic field.
• The Torque Speed Characteristic of the Split Phase motor is shown below:

Key points:
•Main Winding Current (I_M):
•Lags behind the supply voltage V almost by 90°.
•(Because main winding has high inductive reactance.)
•Starting (Auxiliary) Winding Current (I_A):
•Approximately in phase with supply voltage.
•(Because starting winding has high resistance and low reactance.)

Result:
•A phase angle \phi is created between I_M and I_A.
•\phi is about 30° (not 90°).

Importance:
•Even though the phase difference is only ~30°,
•It is sufficient to produce a weak rotating magnetic field to start the motor.

(Later, centrifugal switch removes I_A after the motor picks up speed.)
 •Starting Torque:
•About 1.5 times the full-load torque.
•Maximum Torque (Pull-Out Torque):
•About 2.5 times the full-load torque.
•Occurs at about 75% of synchronous speed.
•Starting Current:
•High, about 7–8 times the full-load current.
•(This is a disadvantage — causes higher stress during starting.)
At Point n_0:
•Centrifugal switch operates ➔ Starting winding is
disconnected.

After n_0:
•Motor continues running with only the main winding.

Here, n0 is the point at which the centrifugal switch operates.

The starting torque of the resistance start motor is about 1.5
times the full load torque. The maximum torque is about 2.5
times the full load torque at about 75% of the synchronous
speed. The starting current of the motor is high about 7 to 8
times the full load value.

The direction of the Resistance Start motor can be reversed by

reversing the line connection of either the main winding or the
starting winding. The reversal of the motor is possible at the
standstill condition only.
• Applications of Split Phase Induction
Motor
• This type of motor is cheap and is
suitable for easily starting loads
where the frequency of starting is
limited. This type of motor is not
used for drives that require more
than 1 KW because of the low
starting torque. The various
applications are as follows:

• Used in the washing machine, and

air conditioning fans.
• The motors are used in mixer
grinders, floor polishers.
• Blowers, Centrifugal pumps.
• Drilling and lathe machine.
 Capacitor Start Induction Motor
Basic Concept:
A single-phase induction motor that uses a capacitor in series
• Capacitor Start Motors are single-phase Induction with the starting (auxiliary) winding to create a larger phase
Motors that employ a capacitor in the auxiliary difference between currents in main and auxiliary windings.
winding circuit to produce a greater phase difference Main idea:
•A bigger phase difference (~90°) creates a stronger rotating
between the current in the main and the auxiliary magnetic field during starting ➔
windings. The name capacitor starts itself shows that •Much higher starting torque compared to a simple split phase
the motor uses a capacitor for the purpose of motor.
starting. The figure below shows the connection The Name:
•“Capacitor Start” because capacitor is used only during starting
diagram of a Capacitor Start Motor.
Construction:
•Rotor:
•Cage rotor (same as squirrel cage rotor).
•Stator:
•Two windings: Main and Auxiliary (Starting).
•Placed 90° apart electrically.
•Extra components:
•Capacitor C_s in series with the starting winding.
•Centrifugal switch S_c to disconnect the auxiliary winding and
capacitor once motor reaches ~75-80% rated speed.
• The capacitor start motor has a cage
rotor and has two windings on the stator. At starting:
They are known as the main winding and •Current in Main Winding (I_M):
the auxiliary or the starting winding. The •Lags behind the voltage due to inductive reactance.
two windings are placed 90 degrees •Current in Auxiliary Winding (I_A):
apart. A capacitor CS is connected in •Leads or is almost in phase because of capacitor action.
series with the starting winding. A
Result:
centrifugal switch SC is also connected
•90° phase difference between I_M and I_A.
to the circuit.
•Creates a balanced two-phase motor effect.
• The Phasor Diagram of the Capacitor
Start motor is shown below Thus:
•A strong rotating magnetic field is produced at start.
•Motor starts with very high torque.
• IM is the current in the main winding which is lagging the auxiliary current Torque-Speed Characteristic
IA by 90 degrees as shown in the phasor diagram above. Thus, a single-
phase supply current is split into two phases. The two windings are Features:
displaced apart by 90 degrees electrical, and their MMF’s are equal in
magnitude but 90 degrees apart in the time phase. •Starting Torque:
• The motor acts as a balanced two-phase motor. As the motor •Very high ➔ 3 to 4.5 times the full load
approaches its rated speed, the auxiliary winding and the starting torque.
capacitor are disconnected automatically by the centrifugal switch •Running Torque:
provided on the shaft of the motor.
•After centrifugal switch opens, motor runs
• Characteristics of the Capacitor Start Motor
only on the main winding (like a normal single-
• The capacitor starts motor develops a much higher starting torque of phase motor).
about 3 to 4.5 times the full load torque. To obtain a high starting torque,
the two conditions are essential. They are as follows:-
• The Starting capacitor value must be large. Graph:
• The valve of the starting winding resistance must be low.
•Starts with very high torque.
•Smooth increase in speed.
• The electrolytic capacitors of the order of the 250 µF are used because of
the high Var rating of the capacitor requirement. •Maximum torque is well before synchronous
speed.
• The Torque Speed Characteristic of the motor is shown below:
•Smooth running after auxiliary winding
disconnected
Conditions for High Starting Torque:
•Large starting capacitor value (up to 250 μF or more).
•Low resistance of starting winding (to allow large current).

That’s why electrolytic capacitors are used — they provide large capacitance and high starting VArs (Volt-Amperes
reactive).
The characteristic shows that the starting torque is high. The cost of this motor is
more as compared to the split-phase motor because of the additional cost of the
capacitor. The Capacitor start motor can be reversed by first bringing the motor to
rest condition and then reversing the connections of one of the windings.

Applications of the Capacitor Start Motor A Capacitor Start Induction Motor uses a capacitor in series
The various applications of the motor are as follows: with the auxiliary winding to produce a large phase difference
(~90°), creating a strong rotating magnetic field at starting. It
These motors are used for the loads of higher inertia where frequent starting is
develops starting torque 3 to 4.5 times the full-load torque.
required.
Used in pumps and compressors After reaching ~75–80% of rated speed, a centrifugal switch
Used in the refrigerator and air conditioner compressors. disconnects the capacitor and starting winding. These motors
They are also used for conveyors and machine tools. are used in applications requiring high starting torque like air
compressors, refrigerators, and pumps.
Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor
• The Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor has a Basic Concept:
cage rotor, and its stator has two windings
known as Main and Auxiliary Windings. The two Construction:
•Cage rotor (like usual).
windings are displaced 90 degrees in space. •Two stator windings:
There are two capacitors in this method one is •Main winding (low resistance, high reactance).
used at the time of the starting and is known as •Auxiliary (Starting) winding (high resistance, low
starting capacitor. The other one is used for reactance).
continuous running of the motor and is known •Two capacitors:
as RUN capacitor. •Starting Capacitor (C_s)
•Connected only during starting.
•Electrolytic type, short-time rated, large
capacitance.
•Run Capacitor (C_r)
•Connected permanently during running.
•Oil-filled paper type, long-time rated, smaller
capacitance.

•Use big starting torque (because of

C_s + C_r) during start.
•Maintain good efficiency, power
factor, and smooth operation with C_r
during running.
• There are two capacitors in this motor represented by CS and CR. In
the starting, the two capacitors are connected in parallel. The
capacitor Cs is the Starting capacitor is short time rated. It is almost
electrolytic. A large amount of current is required to obtain the
starting torque. Therefore, the value of the capacitive reactance X
should be low in the starting winding. Since, XA = 1/2πfCA, the value
of the starting capacitor should be large.
• The rated line current is smaller than the starting current at the
normal operating condition of the motor. Hence, the value of the
capacitive reactance should be large. Since, XR = 1/2πfCR, the value
of the run capacitor should be small.
As the motor reaches the synchronous speed, the starting capacitor
Cs is disconnected from the circuit by a centrifugal switch Sc. The
capacitor CR is connected permanently in the circuit and thus it is
known as RUN Capacitor. The run capacitor is long time rated and
is made of oil-filled paper.
• The figure below shows the Phasor Diagram of the Capacitor
Start Capacitor Run Motor.

At Starting:
•Main and auxiliary winding currents are almost 90° apart.
•Strong rotating magnetic field ➔ Strong starting torque.

During Running:
•Auxiliary winding remains energized through run capacitor.
•Produces continuous rotating magnetic field, improving power factor
and efficiency.
• The torque-speed characteristic of a two-value capacitor motor is
shown below:

This type of motor is quiet and smooth

running. They have higher efficiency than the
motors that run on the main windings only.
A Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor uses two capacitors: a large
They are used for loads of higher inertia electrolytic starting capacitor for high starting torque and a smaller
requiring frequent starts where the maximum oil-filled run capacitor for smooth, efficient running. After reaching
pull-out torque and efficiency required are ~75–80% of synchronous speed, the starting capacitor is
disconnected, and the motor runs with only the run capacitor. It
higher. The two value capacitor motors are offers high starting torque, good efficiency, quiet operation, and is
used in pumping equipment, refrigeration, air used in pumps, compressors, refrigeration units, and heavy-duty
fans.
compressors, etc.
Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Motor
single-phase induction motor that uses only one
• The Permanent Split Capacitor motor also has a cage rotor capacitor connected permanently in series with
and the two windings named as main and auxiliary windings the auxiliary (starting) winding.
similar to that of a Capacitor Start and Capacitor Start
Capacitor Run Motor. It has only one capacitor connected in Key Points:
series with the starting winding. The capacitor C is •No centrifugal switch needed.
permanently connected in the circuit both at the starting and •Same capacitor is used during both starting and
the running conditions. running.
•Auxiliary winding stays connected permanently.

•Paper or Oil-filled Capacitors are used (not

electrolytic) because electrolytic capacitors
can’t withstand continuous operation.

At Starting:
•The capacitor creates a phase shift between main and
auxiliary winding currents.
•Starting torque is generated.
During Running:
•Auxiliary winding stays energized through the same
capacitor.
•The motor behaves like a balanced two-phase motor.
•Runs smoothly and quietly.
• It is also called a Single Value Capacitor Motor. As the
capacitor is always in the circuit and thus this type of motor
does not contain any starting switch. The auxiliary winding is
always there in the circuit. Therefore, the motor operates as
the balanced two-phase motor. The motor produces a
uniform torque and has a noise-free operation.
• Advantages of Permanent Split Capacitor Motor
• The single value capacitor motor has the following
advantages:
• No centrifugal switch is required.
• Efficiency is high.
• As the capacitor is connected permanently in the circuit, the
power factor is high.
• It has a higher pullout torque.
• Limitations of Permanent Split Capacitor Motor
• The limitations of the motor are as follows:
• The paper capacitor is used in the motor as an Electrolytic
capacitor cannot be used for continuous running. The cost of
the paper capacitor is higher, and the size is also large as
compared to the electrolytic capacitor of the same ratings.
• It has low starting torque, less than full load torque.
• Applications of Permanent Split Capacitor Motor
• The various applications of the split motor are as follows:
• Used in fans and blowers in heaters and air conditioners.
 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC)
Feature Split Phase Motor Capacitor Start Motor
Motor Motor

Rotor Type Cage rotor Cage rotor Cage rotor Cage rotor

Main and Auxiliary Windings Yes, both 90° apart Yes, both 90° apart Yes, both 90° apart Yes, both 90° apart

Only for starting (electrolytic

Capacitor Used? No capacitor Two capacitors (start and run) One capacitor (run capacitor)
capacitor)

Centrifugal switch for starting Centrifugal switch to Centrifugal switch to

Switch Required? No switch required
winding disconnect capacitor disconnect starting capacitor

Starting Torque Moderate (1.5–2× FLT) High (3–4.5× FLT) Very High (4–4.5× FLT) Low (less than FLT)

Starting Current High (6–8× full load current) Moderate to High Moderate Low to Moderate

Running Efficiency Moderate Good Very High Very High

Running Noise Somewhat noisy Smooth Very smooth Very smooth
Power Factor Low to moderate Good Very good Very good

Complexity Simple Medium More complex (two capacitors) Simple

Cost Low Medium High Medium

Air compressors, pumps, Heavy pumps, compressors,

Applications Fans, blowers, washing machines Fans, blowers, light-duty pumps
refrigeration conveyors

Small to medium (~1/20 HP to 1.5

Motor Size Range Small to medium (up to ~1 HP) Medium (up to 5 HP) Medium to large (up to 10 HP)
HP)

High starting and running

Main Advantage Cheap and simple High starting torque No switch, smooth running
efficiency

Main Limitation Low starting torque, noisy Needs switch; capacitor short-life Costly; larger size Low starting torque
Braking of Single Phase Induction Motor:
These motors can be braked by dc 1. DC Dynamic Braking
dynamic and plugging. The Braking of Basic Idea:
Single Phase Induction Motor are DC •During braking, the motor is disconnected from AC supply and connected to a DC supply
Dynamic Braking:
How it works:
•A stationary DC magnetic field is created in the stator.
• It is commonly used for braking of •The rotor continues moving inside this stationary field.
single phase induction motors. With •Due to motion through the magnetic field:
the help of a double pole double •Currents are induced in the rotor.
throw (dpdt) switch or tripple pole •These currents produce braking torque.
•Motor slows down and stops.
double throw (tpdt) switch, motor Important:
connection is shifted from ac •Braking torque is proportional to speed — as speed reduces, braking torque reduces.
(motoring) to dc source for braking. •At zero speed, no braking torque remains.
For various single-phase induction Circuit Connection:
motors these connections are •A DPDT (Double Pole Double Throw) or TPDT switch is used.
shown in Fig. 6.65. •During braking:
•AC supply is disconnected.
•DC supply (typically from a diode rectifier) is connected to the stator winding.
Different Winding Connection Options:
•Split Phase, Capacitor Run, and Capacitor Start-Capacitor Run Motors:
•Main winding alone connected to DC (Fig. 6.65(b)).
•OR main and auxiliary windings connected in series or parallel (Fig. 6.65(c) or (d)).
Two main braking methods: After stopping:
1.DC Dynamic Braking •Winding must be disconnected from DC supply to avoid heating.
2.Plugging and Reversal
• In case of split-phase, capacitor run,
and capacitor start and capacitor run
motors, either main winding alone can
be connected across the dc source (Fig.
6.65(b)) or main and auxiliary winding
connected in series or parallel (Figs. 2. Plugging and Reversal
6.65(c) and (d)). When in braking
connection, dc current through the
stator winding (or windings) produces a
stationary field through which squirrel
cage rotor moves. What is Plugging?
•Suddenly reversing the direction of rotation while the motor is running.
• Currents induced in rotor bars interact
with dc field to produce braking torque, •It acts like an emergency brake.
as in three-phase induction motor.
Motor decelerates and stops. As
induced rotor currents are zero at zero
speed, the braking torque is also zero. How it’s done:
For braking, the supply is obtained by a
diode rectifier connected to ac mains. •By reversing the phase connection of one winding (either main or auxiliary
Motor winding can be connected winding).
directly across diode rectifier to obtain
fast braking. After the motor stops, •Except shaded pole motors (which cannot be easily reversed).
winding is disconnected from dc supply.
• Plugging and Reversal:
• Except in case of shaded pole motor, Effect:
plugging and speed reversal is obtained •Motor immediately develops braking torque in the opposite direction.
by changing phase sequence by
reversing polarity of one of the windings. •It slows down rapidly and can start rotating in reverse.

Important Warning:
•Plugging causes very high current, so it must be carefully controlled.
 Speed Control of Single Phase Induction
Motors
• Speed of a single-phase induction
motor is generally controlled by
controlling its stator voltage which can
be controlled by connecting a variable
resistance in series with the stator.
Because of poor efficiency the
resistance control is now rarely used.
Stator voltage can, also be controlled by
the use of ac voltage controllers we
know already. The speed of the motor
can also be controlled by variable
frequency control. However, it is rarely
used because for most of the variable
speed applications of single-phase
motors, the stotor voltage control is
good enough.