Principles Of Site Planning

UNIT 2
SURVEYING AND SITE ANALYSIS

Reconnaissance and need for surveying – chain survey, compass survey, plane
table & theodolite surveys. Contouring: contour interval, characteristics, uses of
contours. Study of site climate – elements of climate. Importance of site analysis
systemic process of site analysis- site suitability analysis- locality plans -
Analysis of natural, cultural, aesthetic factors and visual characteristics- Site
analysis diagram - Preparation of maps - matrix analysis, composite analysis

SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT, SATHYABAMA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY KAVIYA GOPALAKRISHNAN
Surveying
Surveying is the science and technique of determining the positions of points on the
Earth's surface and the distances and angles between them. It involves measuring and
mapping land, structures, and features to establish property boundaries, design and
construct buildings and infrastructure, and create maps

Surveyors use various tools and technologies, such as theodolites, total stations, GPS,
drones, and laser scanners, to collect accurate data. This data is then used to create
maps, plans, and other documents essential for construction, land management, and
various other applications.

The principles of surveying are foundational guidelines that ensure accurate and
reliable measurements in any surveying task. Here are the key principles:

1. Working from Whole to Part

•Description: This principle emphasizes starting with a broad overview and then
moving to detailed measurements. Surveyors first establish a network of control
points over the entire area to be surveyed. These control points are then used as
reference points for more detailed surveys.
•Purpose: It minimizes the risk of errors propagating throughout the survey and
ensures consistency.
2. Location by Measurement from Two Points
•Description: A point's location is best determined by measuring from two known
points. This can be done using various methods, such as triangulation or
trilateration.
•Purpose: This principle ensures greater accuracy in determining the position of an
unknown point.
Introduction to Reconnaissance
and Surveying
Reconnaissance and surveying are essential practices in architecture,
engineering, and construction. Reconnaissance involves examining a site to
gather information about its physical characteristics, potential obstacles, and
suitability for a proposed project.

Surveying is the process of measuring, mapping, and documenting the precise

features of a land area, including its topography, boundaries, and
infrastructure. These preliminary steps are crucial for successful project
planning, design, and execution.

• Reconnaissance is checking out a situation before taking action. It is the

preliminary examination of the general geological features and
characteristics of a region.
• Reconnaissance is grassroots exploration.
Importance of Surveying
The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as
construction of highways, bridges, tunnels, dams etc. are based
upon surveying measurements. Moreover, during execution,
project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points
established by surveying.

Surveying is the technique of determining the relative position of

different features on, above or beneath the surface of the earth by
means of direct or indirect measurements and finally representing
them on a sheet of paper known as plan or map.

Site Evaluation Infrastructure Planning Risk Mitigation

Surveying helps assess the Surveying data is essential for Surveying can identify potential
hazards, such as flood plains or
physical characteristics of a site, designing roads, utilities, and other
unstable soil, allowing for
such as terrain, vegetation, and infrastructure to meet the site's
informed decision-making.
existing structures. needs.
What will a survey include or indicate?

• Site boundary dimensions – shape

-Site topography – by chain survey, Plane table survey, Theodolite survey

• Accessibility from public roads

• All natural elements – trees, water bodies, etc.

• All manmade characteristics

• Service lines

• Present and future land use

• City and town planning - Demography, infrastructure, economy, social and

cultural
WHEN DO WE NEED SURVEY ?

1. When building, Land Surveying often used to determine drainage, setbacks, and proper planning by many.

2. Before land is divided. When a lending institution requires a survey for a mortgage.

3. Before building a fence, building, shed, or anything close to an unknown property line.

4. Before timber is to be cut near a property line.

5. When purchasing title insurance.

6. When applying for a "Torrens Title" to "register" you and your land title.

7. Whenever a boundary line or corner is unknown or in disagreement.

8. To settle a boundary dispute of some type.

9. When you think you might have an encroachment on your land.

10. When clearing or doing construction in "wetland" areas in the jurisdiction of the Corps of Engineers.
 Classification Of Surveying
Divided by considering the curvature of Earth Surface.

PLANE SURVEYING GEODETIC SURVEYING

Earth Surface is considered as a PLAIN Earth Surface is considered as a CURVED
1.
SURFACE. SURFACE.
The curvatureof the earth is taken into account.
2. The curvature of the earth is Ignored.

Line joining any two stations is considered to be Line joining any two stations is considered to be
3.
STRAIGHT. SPHERICAL.
The triangle formed by any three points is The triangle formed by any three points is
4.
considered as PLAIN. considered as SPHERICAL.
The angles of the triangle are considered as The angles of the triangle are considered as
5.
PLAIN Angles. SPHERICAL Angles.
6. Carried out for a small area < 250 sq.km. Carried out for a vast area >250 sq.km.
Carried out by local & state agencies like Irrigation
7. Carried out by the survey of India dept.
dept, Railway dept…..
 Types Of Surveying
Classification based on instruments

Chain Survey Compass Survey Plane Table Survey Theodolite Survey

The is the simplest In compass survey, the It is a graphical method In theodolite survey, the horizontal
method of surveying angles are measured surveying where the angles are measured with a
where the linear with a magnetic field work and plotting, theodolite more precisely than a
measurements are taken compass. both are done compass and linear measurements
with a chain. simultaneously are taken with a chain or tape.
 Chain Survey
Measuring Mapping
Using a chain or tape, the surveyor measures the distances The measured distances and angles are used to create a detailed
between points on the site. map of the site's features.

1 2 3

Angle Determination
Angles between survey lines are measured using a compass or
other angle-measuring device.

Chain surveying is the type of surveying in which only linear measurements are made in the field. The main principle
of chain surveying or chain triangulation is to provide a framework consist of number of well-conditioned triangles
or nearly equilateral triangles.

This is suitable for the survey of small areas with simple details and an area that is fairly flat. It derives its name from
the fact that the principle equipment commonly used is the chain.
Chain Survey: Principles and Techniques
1 Establishing Control Points
The first step in a chain survey is to establish a series of control points, which serve as fixed
reference points for the survey. These points are typically marked with wooden stakes or
metal pins and are used to measure distances and angles.

2 Measuring Distances
Chain surveyors use a standardized, calibrated steel or fiberglass tape to measure the
distances between control points. They carefully align the tape and record the
measurements, ensuring accuracy to within a few millimeters.

3 Calculating Coordinates
By using the measured distances and known control point locations, surveyors can calculate
the coordinates of each point on the site. This information is then used to create a detailed
map of the area.
 Advantages

• Chain surveying is the simplest method of surveying.

• It does not require any costly equipment and tools.

• It is desirable for preparing the plan of small areas with a fair

degree of accuracy.

• Computations and plotting are also simple.

• The equipment are easily portable

Compass Survey
Compass surveying is the branch of surveying in which the position of an
object is located using. angular measurements determined by a compass
and linear measurements using a chain or tape.

Compass surveying is an important branch of surveying which is usually

adopted in determining the position of an object both by angular and linear
measurements. Here angular measurements are taken using a compass and
linear measurements are determined using chain or tape. Surveying is a
significant element for developing the human environment around us. It is
the process or science of measuring and determining the 3D positions of
specific points and distances on the surface and also the angles between
them. When it comes to measuring angles, compass surveying is a must.

Principles Advantages Limitations

Compass surveys use a magnetic Compass surveys are relatively Compass readings can be influenced
compass to determine the bearings simple and inexpensive, making them by local magnetic fields, reducing the
or directions of survey lines. useful for quick site assessments. accuracy of the survey.
Compass Survey: Principles and
Techniques
Establishing a Baseline
In a compass survey, the first step is to establish a baseline, which is a
reference line with a known direction, usually north-south or east-west.

Measuring Bearings
Using a compass, surveyors measure the bearings, or the angular
directions, of various points relative to the baseline. These bearings are
then used to create a map of the site.

Calculating Distances
In addition to bearings, surveyors also measure the distances between
points using a tape measure or other distance-measuring device. These
measurements are combined with the bearing data to produce a
detailed plan of the site.
Plane Table Survey
Plane table surveying is a graphical method of survey in which the field
observations and plotting are done simultaneously. It is mostly suitable for small
scale survey. Plane table surveying is based on the principle, that lines drawn
during plotting always lie parallel to the corresponding lines actually present on
the ground i.e. the principle of plane table surveying is parallelism. The plane
table surveying is the fastest method of surveying. In this type of surveying
plotting of the plan and field observations can be done simultaneously.

Mapping in the Field Immediate Results

The plane table survey allows Plane table surveys provide
the surveyor to create a map instant feedback, as the map
directly on the site, using a is created in real-time during
leveled table and alidade. the survey.

Portability
The compact and lightweight nature of the plane table makes it a
practical choice for remote or difficult-to-access sites.
Plane Table Survey: Principles and Techniques
1 Portable Setup
The plane table is a portable surveying instrument that consists
of a flat table mounted on a tripod, allowing surveyors to work
directly on-site.

2 Alidade and Telescopic Sight

The alidade, a sighting device with a telescopic sight, is used to
measure the direction and distance of various points relative to
the plane table's position.

3 Plotting Points
Surveyors plot the measured points directly on a sheet of paper
mounted on the plane table, creating an on-site map of the site
as they work.

4 Rapid Data Collection Equipment Used in Plane Table Survey

• Plane table • Ranging rods
Plane table surveys are known for their speed and efficiency, as • Alidade for sighting (telescopic or simple) • Tripod
• Plumb bob and plumb fork • Drawing sheet and drawing tools
surveyors can quickly measure and record data without the
• Compass • Paper clips or screws
need for complex calculations or post-processing. • Spirit level
• Chain
Theodolite Survey
Theodolite surveying is that branch of surveying in
which theodolite is used to measure the horizontal and
vertical angles.

A Theodolite is a very precise instrument, mainly used

for determining the horizontal and vertical distances
between two points. It can also be used for prolonging a
line, measuring distances indirectly, as a level, like a
tachometer. Due to its wide range of applications, it is
also termed as “Universal Instrument”.

Angle Measurement
Theodolites accurately measure both horizontal and vertical angles, essential for complex
surveying tasks.

Distance Measurement
Modern theodolites can also measure distances using laser or electronic distance
measurement (EDM) technology.

High Precision
Theodolite surveys offer the highest accuracy and precision among the surveying
techniques discussed.
Theodolite Survey: Principles and
Techniques
Precision Instrument Angle Measurement
The theodolite is a highly accurate Theodolite surveys involve precisely
surveying instrument that measures both measuring the horizontal and vertical
horizontal and vertical angles with great angles of various points on the site, which
precision, making it essential for large- are then used to calculate the coordinates
scale projects and complex terrain. and elevations of those points.

Triangulation High-Accuracy Mapping

By measuring the angles from multiple The data collected from a theodolite
theodolite stations, surveyors can use survey is used to create highly accurate
triangulation to determine the precise maps and models of the site, which are
locations of points on the site, even in essential for complex construction
areas that are difficult to access. projects and infrastructure planning.
Advantages and Limitations of
Different Survey Methods

Speed Accuracy
Plane table surveys are generally the Theodolite surveys offer the highest
fastest method, while theodolite level of precision, while chain surveys
surveys can be more time-consuming. may have slightly lower accuracy.

Portability Cost
Chain and plane table surveys involve Chain surveys tend to be the most
more portable equipment, while cost-effective, while theodolite surveys
theodolites can be bulkier and more often require more expensive
complex. equipment and expertise.
Group Activity (6 minutes):

•Form Groups: Divide the students into four groups, assigning

each group one type of survey: Chain Survey, Compass Survey,
Plane Table Survey, or Theodolite Survey.

•Task: Each group will:

• Describe the basic principles of their assigned survey
technique.
• Identify the primary equipment used in the survey.
• Mention one common application in architectural
practice.

Groups will have 5 minutes to discuss and prepare, followed by

1 minute each to present their findings to the class.
Summary
•Chain Survey:
• Principles: Involves measuring distances between points using a chain or tape. It's based on linear
measurements and is suitable for small, relatively flat areas.
• Equipment: Chain, tape, ranging rods, arrows, and plumb bob.
• Application: Used in measuring small plots of land for property boundaries or layout of building
foundations.
•Compass Survey:
• Principles: Measures angles relative to the magnetic north using a compass and distances using a chain or
tape. It’s useful in areas where linear measurements alone are insufficient.
• Equipment: Surveyor's compass, chain or tape, and ranging rods.
• Application: Used in mapping large areas with uneven terrain, such as hilly or forested regions.
•Plane Table Survey:
• Principles: A method where fieldwork and plotting are done simultaneously using a drawing board mounted
on a tripod. It is ideal for rapid mapping of small to medium areas.
• Equipment: Plane table, alidade (a sighting device), spirit level, plumb bob, and drawing sheet.
• Application: Used in preparing detailed maps for topographic surveys or site plans.
•Theodolite Survey:
• Principles: Involves measuring both horizontal and vertical angles with high precision. It’s suitable for large-
scale and highly accurate surveys.
• Equipment: Theodolite, tripod, leveling staff, and plumb bob.
• Application: Used in large-scale construction projects like roadways, bridges, and high-rise buildings where
precision is crucial.
Conclusion and Key Takeaways
1 Importance of Surveying 2 Variety of Survey Methods
Surveying is a critical step The four main survey
in the architecture and methods - chain, compass,
construction process, plane table, and theodolite
providing essential data - each have their own
for site analysis, feasibility strengths and weaknesses,
assessment, and project and the choice of method
planning. depends on the project's
specific requirements.

3 Continuous Improvement
As technology advances, surveying techniques are also evolving,
with the integration of GPS, drone mapping, and other digital tools
to enhance the accuracy, efficiency, and accessibility of survey
data.
 Contour Mapping:
A Topographic Exploration
Contour mapping is a powerful tool used in cartography and geography to represent the three-dimensional landscape
on a two-dimensional surface. By connecting points aof equal elevation, contour lines create a visual representation of
the terrain, allowing us to interpret and understand the shape and features of the land. This introduction will explore the
key characteristics, uses, and applications of contour mapping, providing a comprehensive understanding of this
essential cartographic technique.
STUDY OF CONTOURS AND SLOPE ANALYSIS

Contour Line
A Contour line is an imaginary outline of the terrain obtained by joining its points of equal elevation.
Contouring: Characteristics
1. All points in a contour line have the same elevation
2. Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely spaced and steep slope
when they run closer
3. A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are uniformly spaced
4. A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced
5. Closed contour lines with higher elevation towards the center indicate hills
6. Closed contour lines with reducing levels towards the center indicate pond or
other depression.
7. Contour lines cross ridge or valley lines at right angles.
• If the higher values are inside the bed or loop then it is a ridge
• If the higher values are outside the bed or loop then it is a valley
8. All contour lines must close either within the map boundary or outside.
9. No two contour lines can meet or cross each other except in the rare case of an
overhanging vertical cliff or wall.
Contouring: Uses of Contours
Earthworks Drainage and Hydrology Landscape Design

Contour maps are essential for Contour data helps identify drainage Contour maps inform the design of
designing and planning earthworks, patterns, floodplains, and other parks, gardens, and other outdoor
such as roads, dams, and building hydrological features crucial for spaces, ensuring they complement
foundations. infrastructure and environmental the site's natural features.
planning.
Interpreting Contour Lines
Elevation
Contour lines represent specific elevations, with each line
connecting points of equal height. The closer the contour lines
are spaced, the steeper the slope.

Slope
The spacing between contour lines indicates the slope of the
terrain. Closely spaced lines represent a steep slope, while
widely spaced lines indicate a gentle slope.

Landforms
The shapes and patterns of contour lines can help identify
different landforms, such as hills, valleys, ridges, and
depressions. Closed contour lines often indicate the presence of
a hill or mountain.
Contour Patterns and Landforms

Hills and Peaks Valleys and Depressions

Closed, concentric contour lines with Contour lines that form a "V" shape, with
decreasing spacing indicate the presence the point of the "V" pointing downhill,
of a hill or mountain peak. The more indicate the presence of a valley or
closely spaced the contours, the steeper depression. The wider the "V," the
the slope. gentler the slope.

Ridges and Saddles Plateaus and Flat Areas

Contour lines that form a "U" shape, with Evenly spaced, horizontal contour lines
the open end of the "U" pointing uphill, indicate a flat or gently sloping area,
indicate the presence of a ridge or such as a plateau or plain. The more
saddle. The closer the contours, the widely spaced the contours, the flatter
steeper the slope. the terrain.
Exercise 01 :
Now a little something to test your skills…
Take a look at the contour maps below left
and see which of the mountain profile
shapes on the right they match up with.

Answers :
Contouring: Contour Interval

Elevation Intervals Terrain Representation Appropriate Selection

The contour interval is the vertical The smaller the contour interval, the The contour interval should be
distance between adjacent contour more detailed the representation of chosen to best suit the project's
lines on a map. the terrain's elevation changes. needs and the site's topography.
Contour Interval (CI)
Contour interval is the difference between the levels of consecutive contour lines on amap.
The contour interval is a constant in a given map. In our example, the contour interval is
1m.

Horizontal Equivalent (HE)

Horizontal equivalent is the horizontal distance between two consecutive contourlines
measured to the scale of themap

USES OF CONTOURS
✓ They can be used to learn about the shape of the land (therelief).
✓ A map with only a few contour lines will be flat (and often low lying)
✓ If a map has lots of contours itis a mountainous or hilly area.
✓ The actual pattern of the lines will tell you more detail about the area too.
• It is important to remember that the closer together the contour lines the steeper the slope.

Steep slopes

Interval is the vertical distance between contours

Area that is
flatter with only
agentle slope

The gradient of the function is always perpendicular to the

contour lines. When the lines are close together the
magnitude of the gradient is large: the variation is steep. A
level set is a generalization of a contour line for functions
of any number of variables.
Spot Elevations
Steepest slope – contour
lines are closest together

Sparrowpoint
227

200

. 76
150

100

50

Sometimes spot heights can be shown as a dot with a note of

the height of that particularplace.
A trigonometrical point (or trig point) shows the highest point in
an area (in meters) and is shown as a blue triangle
 • This is the side view of ahill.
Let’s see where this hill reaches these heights Now let’s
plot thosepoints. Now if we plotted those points on
paper.

300m
250m
200m
150m
100m
Sea level

See how these lines are closer together on the steeper slope
SPOT ELEVATIONS
• Spot elevations – Elevations of point on map/ chart from reference datum
- establish limits of slope
- to locate contour lines, and to provide detail for establishing control points
that cannot be obtained via contour lines.
• elevation of any point on an accurately drawn contour plan may be determined
by interpolation.
• Interpolation is the process of computing intermediate value between two
related value
• Point A lies about 7/10th the distance from contour 53 to contour 54; thus, A has
an approximate elevation of 53 .7 . Interpolation assumes, of course, that
slopes are uniform, which in many cases is not true in reality. Therefore,
interpolated figures are approximations and should not be relied on as much
as surveyed spot elevations for crucial measurements.
UNIFORM, GENTLESLOPE.

Contour lines evenly

spaced and wide apart
indicate a uniform, gentle
slope.
Uniform STEEPSLOPE

➢ Contour lines evenly spaced and

close together indicate a uniform,
steep slope.
➢ The closer the contour lines areto
each other, the steeper the slope
CONCAVESLOPE

➢ Contour lines closely spaced at

the top and widely spaced at the
bottom indicate a concaveslope.
➢ Considering relief only, an
observer at the top ofa concave
slope can observe the entire
slope and the terrain at the
bottom.
CONVEXSLOPE

▪ Contour lines widely spaced at

the top and closely spaced at the
bottom indicate a convex slope.
▪ An observer at the top of a
convex slope would have no
observation of most of the slope
or of the terrain at the bottom.
RIDGE
Normally, aa line of high ground with minor
variations along its crest. ridge is The ridge is
not simply a line of hills; all points of the ridge
crest are appreciably higher than the ground on
both sidesof the ridge.

SPUR
Aspur is a short, continuously sloping line
of higher ground normally jutting out from
the side of aridge.
 Slope
The amount of incline of a surface is known as slope.
GRADIENT PERCENTAGEOF SLOPE

The amount of incline of a

surface is known asslope
Site Grading and Design
1 Site Analysis
The first step in the site grading process is to conduct a thorough analysis of the existing site
conditions, including the topography, drainage patterns, and any existing structures or features.

2 Grading Design
Based on the site analysis, a grading design is developed to establish the desired elevations and
slopes, ensuring proper drainage, accessibility, and integration with the surrounding landscape.

3 Earthwork Operations
The actual earthwork operations, such as cutting, filling, and compacting, are carried out to
transform the site according to the grading design, creating the desired landforms and surfaces.

4 Final Adjustments
After the initial earthwork, final adjustments and fine-tuning may be necessary to address any
issues or to optimize the site layout and functionality.
Exercise 02 :
1. If someone is standing on the highest
elevation on holland hill ( shown by the
asterisk*) what elevation (in feet) might
they be standing at

A. 560
B. 570
C. 551-559
D. 561-569

2. A hiker is hiking from Y to Z, what is

elevation between these two
locations?

Answer : Y = 490, Z= 520

Distance = Z – Y
520 – 490 = 30 feet
SLOPE CRITERIA
Suitable & recommended slope for
each use concerning mobility,
possible cut- fill,maintenance and
drainage ability.
 SLOPE CRITERIA
• Angles of repose for various
types of slope materials.
(Angles are given in degrees.)

What is Angles ofrepose?

• Maximum angle for earth

material that it can be
inclined, and it will fail if
beyond.
STUDY OF GRADING
Grading means reshaping the topography of a site. Grading can add interest to a
landscape site, solve many problems and promote properdrainage.

Grading plans show both existing and proposed contours, so the landscape contractor can see where to
remove soil (cut) and where to add more soil(fill).
GRADING
Grading is the act of remodeling the land form. It is one of the most important items in site
planning, landscape design and construction.
Grading serves three main purposes:

• To create a level to put something on; for a house, car, sport play field, a hotel, etc.
• To create circulation ways; road way, loading ramp, handicapped ramp, bicycle track, etc.

• To create special effect and solve special problem ; make a mound to hide parking lot or reduce
sound, prevent erosion and landslide, aesthetic or psychological purposes.

In grading, SURFACE RUNOFF is the primary method to remove excess water. This is usually in
some form of STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM,which collects, conducts and disposesexcess surface water
caused by runoff fromrainfall.
Grading - making an area level to putsomething on Site grading by the "cutting
• By cutting only only" method is a technique
used in civil engineering and
– the soil isstable construction where the
grading of a site involves only
– require less cost for foundation
the removal of soil or material
construction without adding any new fill.
This method is typically
– be able to do very steepslope employed when the goal is to
lower the elevation of a site
– cost totransport earth from the site
or to create a slope or
– Retaining wall high cost contour by excavating
material rather than filling in
or raising areas

GRADING – Cut only Method

Grading - making an area level to put somethingon

• By filling only
Site grading by the "filling
– easier to make a very levelelevation only" method is a
technique where grading is
– good for low land, flood problem
achieved by adding
area.
material (fill) to raise the
– Unstable earth, needs acompaction. elevation of a site or to
create a specific landform.
– Cost of transporting earth into the This method is typically
site used when the goal is to
build up areas that are too
low, improve drainage, or
achieve other design
objectives by placing
additional material on the
site rather than removing
soil.

GRADING – Fill only Method

GRADING – Cut and Fill Method
• By the combination of cut
and fill
– balance earth in the site,no
transportation cost.
• By the combination of cut and fill:plan of slab
on sloping topography
 Source: LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE,John
• Designing a level plane on steeply slopingsite. Ormsbee Simands

45
GRADING – Process
Grading - when not to grade

Avoid grading on the following conditions

• Grading that results in radical loss ofvegetation and topsoil

• Grading that interrupts the naturaldrainage

• Grading that results in aestheticdegradation

• Grading on difficult slopes (excess of 25%)

• Grading in environmental unique condition; floodplain,bogs,

• Grading in areas effected by natural disaster; mudslides or along

earthquake fault lines.
Grading - for circulation
• Circulation routes should be level as possible.
• Two ways to travel up slope terrain
• (maximum slope for local street is 8%)
Grading - for circulation

• The normal grading method is

something between the two
extremes with roads or paths
climbing and falling gently so as
to allow the quickest trip with
the least effort.
 Grading - for circulation

• Circulation routes crossing level country are relatively easy to grade-- providing uniform
surface and assuring the roadway drains properly.

– A uniform surface means smoothing out the bumps by spacing contours evenly.

– Draining the level road sometimes requires creating artificial high and low points for water
flow direction. These can be shown graphically with contours, spot elevations, or sections.

Section through road with CROWN Road sloped from side to side
 Grading - for circulation

• Shortest distance but results extensive cutting,

• common design guide is to align the road centerline with or
parallel to the contour lines with minimal grading
Grading - for circulation

• When grading by CUTting , begin

with the lowest contour and work
up, by filling, begin with the top
contour and work down.

• Contours are spaced according to

the gradient of the proposed route
typically expressed in percent. For
10% slope, one meter interval
contours would be spaced 10 m.
apart
 Grading - for circulation

• The most common way if existing topography is NOT too steep.

The procedure is to select the contour in the middle of the road
and cut half the contour above, fill half of the contour below.
 Grading - for circulation

• If cut/fill creates a steep bank, a heavy rainfall can induce mudslides and erosion. Alternatives to
separate the road way (if it is wide enough) should be considered along with the use of retaining wall
on the high side of the slope.
 Grading - for circulation

The portions of driveways that run

perpendicular to natural contours and
serve the purpose of accessing building
lots and parcels shall be as short as
practicable. Driveways that serve more
than one parcel are permitted as a
method of reducing unnecessary
grading, paving and site disturbance. If
lots and parcels will be sharing
driveways, cross use easements shall be
recorded with the subdivision.
 Grading - for circulation

a
• The road crosses a series of contour and causes very steep bank
since the road needs UNIFORM slope design criteria.

• The situation should then avoid or try to compromise the cut and
fill along the centerline
54
e.
 Grading - for circulation

• Road crosses drainage swale, the

problem concerning the intersection
between road and topographical
depression, the use of BOX CULVERT or
BRIDGE would be chosen depend on the
length and depth of the swale and the
image of the design.

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Conclusion and Takeaways
Surveying and site analysis are essential for successful planning, design,
and construction projects. By understanding the various surveying
techniques and the characteristics of contours, professionals can make
informed decisions that optimize the use of the land and minimize
potential risks.
Site Analysis in
Architecture and
Urban Design
Site analysis is a crucial first step in the design process for
architects and urban designers. It involves a systematic examination
of the existing conditions of a site, including its physical,
environmental, and social aspects. This comprehensive
understanding of the site context guides the development of
informed design solutions that are sensitive to the surrounding
environment and the needs of the community.
General

• Geographic location
• Site boundary
• Entrance locations and types
• Site security
• Existing buildings
Neighbouring buildings

• Distances
• Heights
• Uses
• Vernacular
• Site lines
• Rights to light
• Legal restrictions
• Noise levels
Legal Restrictions

• Conservation areas
• Covenants and easements
• Rights of way
• Site of Special Scientific
Interest)
• Listings (Grade II, II*, I)
• TPO’s (Tree preservation orders)
• Previous planning permissions
and applications
Access

• Public routes
• Private routes
• Vehicle access
• Pedestrian access
• Existing circulation routes within
Topography

• Levels
• Gradients
• Key features/restrictions
• Exposure
Views

• Private views out

• Public views in
Sun paths

• Sun paths
• Solar gains
• Shading
Wind patterns

• Prevailing direction
• Shelter
• Exposure
Public Transport Links

• Bus’s
• Train’s
• Taxi’s
Trees and vegetation

• protected species
• Root protection areas
• Items for removal
• Items to maintain
• Ownerships
Ecology

• Protected species
• Protected zones
• Impacts
Site restrictions

• Visibility
• Light
• Views
• Neighbours
• Pollution
• Flooding
• Land slides
Features

• Areas to expose/use
• Areas to improve
• Areas to hide
Hazards

• (Electricity lines, Drainage,

Telephone lines, Sub-stations)
• Derelict Buildings
• Unfinished building works
Importance of site analysis
The success of a project is built on its relationship to its site and surroundings, and therefore by
default should always be bespoke to and based on its location and local characteristics.

Every site has very specific solar orientations, views (good and bad) and often a very explicit
character and atmosphere. Each one of these areas is an opportunity to generate a meaningful
conceptual approach and a way to devise a buildings shape, layout, form and materiality.

Once established, further analyze access, wind direction, site levels, vegetation, local context,
privacy, services (electrical lines, drainage, telephone lines) will help cement any early
conclusions made. This is the purpose of site analysis, and why it more than simply ticking boxes
to meet a criteria, everything needs to relate back to the foundations established early on during
the investigatory period. So that when required it can help provide the answers to future
questions.

“Good design is generated from strong, simple and well-established concepts.”

Site Suitability Analysis: Finding the Perfect Location
Site suitability analysis plays a vital role in determining the best location for various projects, such as hospitals, schools,
stores, and infrastructure developments. This process involves using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to overlay and
analyze multiple layers of data, such as topography, soil type, proximity to utilities, environmental constraints, and
accessibility.

By comparing potential sites based on specific criteria, site suitability analysis helps identify areas that best meet the
project's requirements and minimize potential conflicts. This process ensures that the chosen site is not only feasible but
also environmentally responsible and socially beneficial.

Environmental Factors Infrastructure Factors Social Factors

Soil type, slope, drainage, Road network, utilities (water, Population density, demographics,
vegetation, wildlife habitats, water electricity, gas), public community needs, existing land
bodies, air quality, noise levels, transportation, uses, cultural heritage, safety and
light pollution. telecommunications, proximity to security.
existing infrastructure.
Locality Plan: Navigating the Built Environment
A locality plan provides a clear visual representation of a project's location within its broader context. Typically
included on the front sheet of construction drawings, this small-scale map shows the immediate surroundings
of the site, including key landmarks, roads, and existing buildings.

This plan serves as a valuable reference for contractors, engineers, and other stakeholders involved in the
construction process. It helps them understand the site's relationship to the surrounding environment, identify
potential access points, and navigate the built environment effectively.

1 Site Boundaries 2 Adjacent Properties

Precise delineation of the project site's perimeter. Identification of neighboring buildings and their uses.

3 Major Roads and Streets 4 Key Landmarks

Clear indication of access routes and traffic flow Highlighting notable features that provide context
patterns. to the project's location.
Analysis of Natural Factors

1 Topography 2 Hydrology
Examine the site's terrain, Identify water features,
including slopes, hills, and such as streams, wetlands,
valleys, to understand the and drainage patterns, and
natural flow of the land. their impact on the site.

3 Vegetation 4 Climate
Assess the types of plants, Analyze factors like sun
trees, and habitats exposure, wind, and
present, and how they can precipitation to determine
be integrated into the how they influence the
design. site's microclimate.
Analysis of Cultural Factors
Historical Significance Community Needs Accessibility

Uncover the site's past, from Engage with stakeholders to Ensure the site is welcoming and
important events to local traditions, understand the site's current use and inclusive for all users, regardless of
to honor the community's heritage. future aspirations for the space. age, ability, or background.
Analysis of Aesthetic Factors
Architectural Style Visual Landmarks
Examine the design aesthetic Identify significant visual
of surrounding buildings and features, such as buildings,
structures to ensure monuments, or natural
compatibility. elements, that contribute to
the site's character.

Materials and Textures Scale and Proportion

Analyze the local materials Understand the scale and
and textures to seamlessly proportions of existing
integrate the design into the
existing environment. structures and how the new
design can harmonize with
them.
Visual Characteristics of the Site
Vistas and Viewpoints Focal Points
Identify key vantage points Recognize prominent natural
that offer breathtaking views or man-made features that
of the site and the draw the eye and create a
surrounding landscape. sense of place.

Scale and Proportion

Understand the site's spatial relationships and how they can be
leveraged to enhance the user experience.
Site Analysis Diagram: Visualizing the Site Context
A site analysis diagram is a powerful tool that visually summarizes the key environmental, geographical, historical, legal,
and infrastructural aspects of a site. By integrating these layers of information, the diagram provides a comprehensive
understanding of the site's potential and constraints.

Architects and urban designers use this diagram to develop design strategies that respond to the unique characteristics of
the site. They can identify opportunities for maximizing natural light, optimizing views, minimizing environmental impact,
and creating a harmonious relationship between the built environment and the surrounding landscape.

Climate Analysis 1
Sun path, wind patterns, prevailing breezes,
temperature variations, humidity,
precipitation. 2 Topographic Analysis
Elevation changes, slopes, drainage patterns,
natural features (hills, valleys, streams).
Historical Analysis 3
Historical landmarks, archaeological sites,
cultural heritage, significant events.
4 Legal Analysis
Zoning regulations, building codes,
environmental regulations, easements,
Infrastructure Analysis 5 restrictions.
Utilities, transportation systems, public
services, communication networks.
Site Analysis Diagram
Site Analysis Diagram

Topography Vegetation
Illustrate the site's physical Highlight the existing plant life
features and terrain. and natural habitats.

Climate Cultural
Depict the site's environmental Showcase the site's historical and
conditions and patterns. community-based elements.
Preparation of Maps
Base Map
Establish the site's geographical boundaries and key features.

Overlay Maps
Incorporate data layers to visualize natural, cultural, and
aesthetic factors.

Composite Map
Synthesize all the collected information into a
comprehensive site analysis map.

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Matrix Analysis
Natural Factors Cultural Factors Aesthetic Factors

Topography, Historical Architectural

Vegetation, Significance, Styles, Materials
Climate Community and Textures,
Needs, Visual Rhythms
Accessibility
Evaluate the interplay between these factors to identify opportunities,
constraints, and design priorities.

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Uses of Contours
1 Topographic Mapping 2 Engineering and Construction
Contour lines are the foundation of Contour maps are used in the planning
topographic maps, which provide and design of infrastructure projects,
detailed information about the shape, such as roads, bridges, and buildings.
elevation, and features of the land They help engineers and architects
surface. These maps are essential for determine the most suitable locations
navigation, land-use planning, and and minimize the impact on the
environmental analysis. landscape.

3 Hydrological Studies 4 Geological Exploration

Contour maps are used to analyze Contour maps are essential for geologists
drainage patterns, identify watersheds, and mining engineers, who use them to
and plan for flood control and water study the structure and composition of
resource management. They provide the Earth's surface, identify potential
valuable insights into the movement and resource deposits, and plan exploratory
distribution of water across the activities.
landscape.
Topographic Maps and Contours

Comprehensive Landscape Representation Map Elements and Interpretation

Topographic maps utilize contour lines to provide a detailed and Understanding the various elements of a topographic map, such as the
comprehensive representation of the landscape, including elevation, contour interval, scale, and legend, is crucial for accurately interpreting
terrain features, and the location of natural and man-made structures. the information presented. These elements allow users to determine
These maps are essential for a wide range of applications, from the elevation, slope, and other characteristics of the terrain, which is
navigation and land-use planning to environmental analysis and vital for making informed decisions and navigating the landscape
disaster management. effectively.
Characteristics of Contours
Elevation Representation Spacing and Density Closed Loops

Contour lines are used to represent The spacing and density of contour Contour lines can form closed loops,
the elevation of the land surface, with lines provide valuable information which represent hills, mountains, or
each line connecting points of equal about the slope and steepness of the other elevated landforms. The shape
height. The vertical distance between terrain. Closely spaced contours and arrangement of these closed
adjacent contour lines is known as indicate a steep slope, while widely loops help identify the specific
the contour interval, which can vary spaced contours indicate a gentle features of the terrain.
depending on the scale and purpose slope.
of the map.