Department of Mechanical Engineering

Lab Manual

Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics

Laboratory Location: Ground Floor, Room No-001 & 004

Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of

Mines) Dhanbad-826004
 INDEX

Sl .No. Particulars Page

1 Safety in the lab 3
2 Lab report format 4
3 List of Experiments of Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics 5
4 Instruction Manual of Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics 6 - 75

2
 Safety in the Lab

• You are only allowed in the laboratory when there is a 'responsible person' present such as
a demonstrator or the laboratory staff.
• Do not touch any equipment or machines kept in the lab unless you are asked to do so.
• A tidy laboratory is generally safer than an untidy one, so make sure that you do not have a
confused tangle of electrical cables. Electrical equipment is legally required to be regularly
checked, which means it should be safe and reasonably reliable: do not tamper or attempt to
repair any electrical equipment (in particular, do not rewire a mains plug or change a fuse -
ask one of the laboratory staff to do it). Never switch off the mains using the master switches
mounted on the walls. Please make yourself aware of the fire exits when you first come into
the lab. When the alarm sounds please leave whatever you are doing and make your way
quickly, calmly and quietly out of the lab. You must always follow instructions from your
demonstrators and the laboratory staff.
• You must keep walkways clear at all times and in particular coats and bags must be stowed
away safely and must not pose a trip hazard.
• It is important that you make a point of reading the "Risk Assessment" sheet included in the
manuscript of each experiment before you start work on the experiment.
• Please take notice of any safety information given in your scripts. If an experiment or project
requires you to wear PPE (personal protective equipment) such as gloves and safety glasses,
then wear them.
• Always enter the lab wearing your shoes. It is strictly prohibited to enter the lab without
shoes.
• There must be NO smoking, eating, drinking, use of mobile phones or using personal
headphones in the laboratory. This last point is not because we dislike your choice of music
but because you must remain aware of all activity around you and be able to hear people
trying to warn you of problems.
• Keep the lab neat and clean.

3
 Lab Report Format
Title:
➢ Provide a title that is a description of your lab followed by a lab number.
➢ The title should clearly identify the experiment’s variables (independent & dependent)
Objective/Purpose/Problem:
➢ This is the place to explain what you are trying to find out or what you are going to do
in the lab.
➢ Include information about the variables involved.
Hypothesis: “If………then………because………”
➢ This is a cause/effect statement.
➢ This is a prediction of what the expected outcome of the lab will be.
➢ Relate the hypothesis to the purpose/problem of the lab.
➢ Try to focus your hypothesis on the information/research you collected.

Materials:
➢ List all items in a column.
➢ Make sure to record the exact size and amount of each item required.

Procedures:
➢ List and number each step.
➢ Use complete sentences (begin with a capital letter and use end punctuation).
➢ Should be clear enough for someone else to use as instructions for repeating your
experiment.

Observations/Data:
➢ Be sure to accurately record your observations/data in a chart or table.
➢ Create a graph to provide a visual of your data.
➢ Provide a verbal description of your data.
➢ List all quantitative (numbers) and qualitative (words) data.
➢ List all variables and explain what your control was.

Conclusion: “When…………….then… ........................ ”

➢ Match your conclusion to the purpose or the problem.
➢ Base your conclusion on your analysis of your observations and any data that has been
collected.
➢ Explain: (The following are just suggestions and DO require elaboration.)
▪ What you did in the experiment
▪ What you observed (trends/patterns in your data that supported or did not
support your hypothesis)
▪ What you learned from the lab
▪ If you think it was a fair test (i.e. – was there anything that may have impacted
the accuracy of your results)
▪ Questions for further research and investigation
➢ Application: Can you think of an analogous situation that applies to real life?
4
 List of Experiments
Sl. No. Name of the Experiment Page
Experiments in Fluid Mechanics Lab
1 Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem 6
2 Determination of Hydraulic coefficient Cd, Cv & Cc of an orifice 12
3 Determination of Darcy’s friction coefficient 19
4 Determination of discharge coefficient (Cd) of a Venturimeter 26
5 Determination of discharge coefficient (Cd) of a V-notch 31

5
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Title: Verification of Bernoulli’s Theorem
1. Objective: To verify Bernoulli’s Theorem
2. Introduction:
Bernoulli’s theorem, in fluid dynamics, is a relation among the pressure, velocity, and elevation
in a moving fluid. First derived (1738) by the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli, the
theorem states, in effect, that the total mechanical energy of the flowing fluid, comprising the
energy associated with fluid pressure, the kinetic energy of fluid motion, and the gravitational
potential energy of elevation, remains constant under the following assumptions
a. Steady flow: Steady-state flow refers to the condition where the fluid properties at any
single point in the system do not change with respect to time.
b. Incompressible flow
c. Frictionless flow or inviscid flow
d. Irrotational flow
e. Flow along a single streamline: different streamlines may have different Bernoulli
p v2
constants ( + + z ) but this is rare. In most cases, a frictionless flow region is
 g 2g
irrotational; that is, ∇ × 𝑉⃗ = 0. For irrotational flow, the Bernoulli constant is the same
everywhere.
f. No heat addition, no external work addition
The Bernoulli’s principle also states that the sum of pressure energy and the kinetic energy and
the potential energy of a fluid per unit weight flowing through a duct is constant
𝑷 𝑽𝟐
+ + 𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈
Where P is static pressure, ρ is fluid density, V is fluid speed, Z is height above some datum,
and g is the acceleration of gravity. The three terms in Bernoulli's equation represent energy
𝑷 𝑽𝟐
per unit weight is also called head. Here, is pressure head or static head, is kinetic head
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈

or velocity heat and Z is gravitational head or potential head.

3. Experimental setup and apparatus:

The following equipment is required to complete the demonstration of the Bernoulli equation
experiment:
• Hydraulics bench,
• Bernoulli’s apparatus test equipment,
• A stopwatch for timing the flow measurement
• Scale for measuring the height of the water level.
The photograph and schematic diagram of the experimental setup are shown in Fig.1 (a) and
Fig 1(b). The dynamic apparatus consists of a converging and diverging circular duct as shown
in Fig.1 (c). Flow area at the inlet is maximum and it goes on reducing towards the throat and

6
again increases in the diverging section. Water is fed to duct via inlet tank with the help of a
centrifugal pump and then water is collected in measuring tank through outlet port. 7
piezometers are attached to the duct at various location to measure the piezometric heads.
(a) Experimental setup

Fig.1a Photo of the Bernoulli apparatus

7
Fig.1b Schematic of the Bernoulli apparatus

8
 (b) Test section

Fig .1c: Schematic diagram of test section

4. Procedure:
1. Open the inlet valve slowly and allow the water to flow from the supply tank (sump).
2. Now adjust the flow to get a constant head in the supply tank to make flow in and out
flow equal.
3. Under this condition the pressure head will become constant in the piezometer tubes.
4. Measure the height of water level (above the arbitrarily selected plane or datum) in 14
different piezometric tubes.
5. Note down the quantity of water collected in the measuring tank for a given interval
of time.
6. Change the inlet and outlet supply and note the reading.
7. Take at least three reading for three different volumetric flow rate.

5. Observations and calculations:

Area of measuring tank, A : 0.08 m2
Height of water level in measuring tank, ∆ℎ : ……… mm
Time to rise water level ∆ℎ, t : ………..sec
𝐴 ×∆h
Discharge, Q : mm3/sec
𝑡
𝑄
Velocity of water : mm/sec
𝑎

9
Where a is the cross section area under each piezometer and given in table 3.

𝑉2
Velocity Head : mm
2𝑔
𝑃
Piezometric Head : + 𝑧 mm
𝜌𝑔

Table 1: Observations Table

Piezometric head in mm
Height of 𝑷
+𝒛
water 𝝆𝒈
Sl. No. level in t (sec)
measuring
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
tank, ∆ℎ
(cm)
1.

2.

3.

Table 2: Given Data

10
 Table 3. Calculation Table
Tapping Piezometric Velocity of flow under Velocity head, Total head
No. head, each piezometer 𝑽𝟐 (mm)
𝑷
in mm
(mm/sec) 𝟐𝒈
( 𝝆𝒈 + 𝒛) 𝒊𝒏 mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

6. Conclusions:
• According to the Bernoulli principle, total energy per unit weight along the length of
the duct should be remains constant but based on the results (Table 3) of this
experiment, total energy per unit weight along the duct is decreasing due to various
losses such as friction, leakage etc but these losses are negligible.
• Negligible change in total energy is observed along the length of duct.
• As velocity of flow increases, pressure head drops.
• Hence, Bernoulli equation is verified.
7. Questions:
1. What is the statement of Bernoulli's theorem?
2. Explain the various terms involved in Bernoulli’s equation?
3. What are the different assumption made to get Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s
equation?
4. What are the differences between Bernoulli equation and total energy equation?
5. Why are incompressible fluid and frictionless flow taken in the Bernoulli equation?
6. What is piezometer tube?
7. What is the function of inlet and outlet tank?
8. Why is Bernoulli's equation valid along a streamline for rotational flow?
9. Is there Bernoulli's equation for rotational flow?
10. Can we use Bernoulli equation between any point before the pump and any point after
the pump regardless the height, velocity and pressure in such points?
Reference
F. M. White, “Fluid Mechanics,” 7th Edition, McGraw- Hill, New York, 2011.
David E. Alexander, in Nature's Machines, 2017

https://www.britannica.com/science/Bernoullis-theorem

11
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Title: Determination of hydraulic coefficients Cv, Cd and Cc for an Orifice

Objective: To determine the hydraulic coefficients Cv , Cd and Cc for a circular edged orifice.

THEORY:

Orifice is an opening on the side wall or bottom wall of a tank used for discharging fluid out
of the tank or an opening on a plate which may be fitted in a pipe such that the plate is normal
to the axis of the pipe. The flow is into and out of the tank is to be adjusted such that the rate
of flow into the tank is equal to the rate of flow out of the tank, thus, establishing a steady flow
condition so that the Bernoulli’s equation is valid. The discharging fluid from the tank comes
out through the orifice into the atmosphere in the form of a free jet. In the process, the total
energy of the fluid in the tank is converted to kinetic energy as the fluid issues out into the
atmosphere. The cross-sectional area of the jet after coming out from the orifice contracts to a
minimum partly due to the viscous resistance offered by the surrounding atmosphere and partly
due to the inertia of the fluid particles. The cross-section with the minimum area is known as
the vena-contracta and this location is assumed to be around 0.5D downstream of the orifice
where D is the diameter of the orifice. Due to this sudden contraction and expansion of the jet,
loss of energy takes place. Further losses like the frictional losses occurring at the orifice edges
cause the actual velocity of the water jet to be less than the theoretical velocity at the orifice.
The ratio between the actual velocity and the theoretical velocity is known as the Coefficient
of velocity Cv. The value of Cv also depends on the size and shape of the orifice.

The actual velocity of the jet is determined experimentally by measuring the horizontal
and vertical coordinates of the issuing jet. The water flows through the orifice at a constant H.
Let V be the actual velocity (which is horizontal) of the jet. Consider a liquid particle in the jet
which is at vena-contracta at any instant in time and in time t, it is carried along the jet. Let x
and y are respectively the horizontal and vertical distance of the final point from the vena-
contracta. X is the horizontal distance and Y is the vertical distance covered under the influence
of gravity. If air resistance is negligible, the horizontal component of velocity remains
unchanged and the horizontal distance covered by particle is

𝑋 = 𝑉𝑡 …(i)

12
In the vertical direction, since there is uniform downward acceleration g, and the vertical
component of velocity is initially zero for horizontal discharge, the vertical distance travelled
by particle in time t is

1
𝑌 = 2 𝑔𝑡 2 …(ii)

By eliminating ‘t’ in the equations (i) and (ii), we have

𝑔𝑋 2
𝑉=√
2𝑌

But the theoretical velocity is given by 𝑉 = √2𝑔𝐻

The coefficient of velocity is the ratio of actual velocity from the orifice to the theoretical
velocity at at the orifice.Thus, the coefficient of velocity is given by

𝑔𝑋 2 𝑋2
𝐶𝑉 = √ =√
2𝑌. 2𝑔𝐻 4𝑌𝐻

Since, the actual velocity of the jet at the vena-contracta is less than the theoretical velocity,
the actual discharge will also be less than the theoretical discharge. The ratio between the actual
discharge and theoretical discharge is called Coefficient of discharge Cd.

𝑄𝑎
𝐶𝑑 =
𝑎√2𝑔𝐻

Where

𝑎√2𝑔𝐻= theoretical discharge

a = orifice area

Qa = actual discharge

The Coefficient of contraction Cc is defined as the ratio of the cross-sectional area at the vena-
contracta to the cross-sectional area at the orifice.

avena
𝐶𝑐 =
aorifice

13
Since,

The actual discharge passing through orifice = Actual velocity at vena-contracta

× Area of jet at vena-contracta.

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑉 √2𝑔𝐻𝐶𝑐 𝑎

Thus,

𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑎 = 𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑐
𝑎 √2𝑔𝐻

𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑐

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of experimental setup.

14
 Fig 4.2 Experiment setup

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Supply tank fitted with circular orifice,

2. Piezometer tubes and scales,
3. Sliding arrangement (hook gauge),
4. Discharge measuring tank,
5. Sump tank,
6. Pump for supply to inlet tank.

PROCEDURE:

1. Control the flow rate into the inlet tank through by-pass valve till the steady state
condition is achieved. Steady state condition is achieved when the flow rate through
orifice is equal to the inlet flow of the water into the tank. The steady state condition
gives the effective head ‘H’ which is measured by the piezometric tube.

15
 2. Using the hook gauge, measure the x and y coordinates at two different points. First
point just near the outlet of orifice and second point at a significant distance from orifice
outlet by just touching the hook tip to the circumference of water jet.
3. The difference of these two points gives the displacement of liquid particle 𝑋 = 𝑥2 −
𝑥1 and 𝑌 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 in the horizontal and vertical direction respectively. Thus, the
coefficient of velocity Cv calculate from the formula.

𝑋2
𝐶𝑉 = √
4𝑌𝐻

4. To measure the actual discharge from the orifice, first measure the initial level of the
discharge tank. After that, divert the flow into the discharge measuring tank. Note down
the time taken to raise the water level by 2 cm by stopwatch. Thus, the actual discharge
is given by

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 ×𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙

Actual discharge 𝑄𝑎 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

5. The coefficient of discharge Cd is measured by the following formula

𝑄𝑎
𝐶𝑑 =
𝑎√2𝑔𝐻
6. Finally, the coefficient of contraction Cc is calculated by

𝐶𝑑
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐶𝑉
Repeat the above steps for five different head ‘H’.

16
OBSERVATION:

S. Head X= Y= Cv Rise in Time to Qa. Qth. Cd Cc

N ‘H’ (x2-x1) (y2-y1) Discharge Rise in
o. Horizontal Vertical measuring Discharge
Gauge Gauge tank measuring
reading reading ‘h’ tank
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (s) (cm3/s) (cm3/s)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

CALCULATION:

Diameter of circular orifice = D = 1 cm

𝜋𝐷 2
Area circular orifice = 𝑎 = cm2
4

Area of discharge measuring tank = 40cm ×50cm

𝑋2
𝐶𝑉 = √
4𝑌𝐻

𝑄𝑎
𝐶𝑑 =
𝑎√2𝑔𝐻

𝐶𝑑
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐶𝑉

Range of values
Cd = 0.60 – 0.65
Cv = 0.90 - 0.98
RESULTS:

CONCLUSION:

17
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Head should always be constant during taking the readings.

2. Hook tip should always just touch the circumference of water jet.
3. Maintain the sufficient amount of water in sump.

QUESTIONS

1. What is a Vernier coincidence?

2. How to control constant pressure head?
3. When will we achieve constant pressure head?
4. What is the problem if pressure head not constant?
5. What is a free jet?
6. Why hook tip should just touch the water jet?
7. Why vena-contracta forms downstream from orifice?
8. Difference between Orificemeter and Venturimeter.
9. Why is the coefficient of discharge of venturimeter greater than that of orificemeter?
10. What is the purpose of finding out the hydraulic coefficients and what do they
signify?

18
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

Title: Determination of losses due to friction for flow through pipes

Objective: To determine and compare the value of Darcy friction factor, f, with Moody chart.
Introduction
Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and cooling
applications and fluid distribution networks. It is observed that when a fluid is flowing through
a pipe, it is subjected to resistance. This resistance depends upon the velocity of flow, the area
of the surface in contact and also the type of flow, i.e. laminar or turbulent. The fluid in given
applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through a flow section. This experiment
pays particular attention to friction, a major factor contributing to the energy loss directly
related to the pressure drop and head loss during flow through pipes. The pressure drop is then
used to determine the pumping power requirement.

Total head loss, hlT

|

Major Minor
(hl) (hlm)
Losses Losses

• Due to frictional effects in fully • Due to entrances, fittings, area

developed flow in constant-area changes.
pipes (horizontal). • Local losses.
• Distributed losses.

Total head loss (hlT) is regarded as the sum of major losses (hl) and minor losses (hlm).
The present experimental setup will demonstrate the major losses only. From the engineering
point of view, our sole purpose is to estimate and overcome the frictional losses to maintain
the constant pressure gradient. The head loss represents the additional height that the fluid
needs to be raised by a pump in order to overcome the losses in the pipe. The designing of the
pipes for the long distance transportation is mainly depends upon the friction factor.

Experimental setup and apparatus

A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The apparatus
consists of six pipes of four different materials and diameters so that loss of head can be
compared for different diameters and different materials.
• Mild Steel Pipe : 15.0 mm
• Copper pipe : 15.5 mm
• Aluminium pipe : 15.0 mm All of them are internal diameters ID
• G.I. pipe : 16.0 mm of pipe. The length of 1st, 2nd and 3rd
• G.I. pipe : 22.0 mm pipe is 1.2 m and 4th, 5th, and 6th pipe
• G.I. pipe : 28.0 mm is 1.5 m.

A flow control valve is provided at the pipe's outlet, enabling experiments to be conducted at
different flow rates, i.e. at different velocities. Tappings are provided along the length of pipes,

19
so that drop of head can be measured and visualized along the length of pipe. Each pipe is
provided with a valve at the outlet, which enables the head to be controlled.

1
2

3 Flow
Controlling
4 Valves
5

6
h

Piezometer Pump
Piezometer
1- Mild steel pipe
2- Copper pipe Measuring Tank
3- Aluminium pipe
4- Galvanised Iron pipe 1 Sump
Sump
5- Galvanised Iron pipe 2
6- Galvanised Iron pipe 3

Fig. 2.1 Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.

Fig. 2.2 Experimental setup of pipe friction.

20
 Experimental procedure
1. Fill up clean water in the sump up to the mark.
(This water should be free of any oil content)
2. Open the priming bolt (near the delivery pipe) by using the screwdriver. Fill the water
and remove all the air. Then tighten the priming bolt.
3. Open bypass valve approximately half.
4. Open all the pipe outlet valves and connect the electric supply (1-ph. A.C.). Start the
pump.
5. Check for leakage by closing outlet valves for each pipe and correct leaks, if any.
6. Select the first pipe and open its outlet valve. Keep other three pipes outlet valve in
close position.
7. Removed all the air bubbles from manometer by small closing of outlet valve.
8. Adjust outlet valve so that water head in piezometer tubes are to the readable height.
(Do not consider water head in piezometers of other pipes). Note down water head
difference.
9. Close the discharge valve of the measuring tank so that water collects in the measuring
tank. Start the stopwatch and measure the time required to fill the tank for the given
volume in litres.
10. Open the drain valve of the measuring tank.
11. For subsequent readings, change bypass valve position (i.e. change flow rate) so that
the head difference in the piezometers changes. Note the manometer difference and
measure the time required for the given volume in litres.
12. Repeat the same procedure for other pipes.
13. After completion of the experiment, drain all the water. (Drain plug is fitted at the
bottom of the sump tank).
Note: While measuring the heads, slight variation may occur due to voltages etc. in such
cases, average readings may be taken.

Observation Table
Sr. Pipe material Head drop 𝒉𝒍 Time (t) for fill
No. in (mm) 2 Lit. volume in
(sec)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

21
Calculation Steps

1. Area of a pipe, Ap = D2 (m2)
4

where D is the internal diameter of the pipe.

VT
2. Discharge of a pipe, Q= (m3/s)
t

where VT is the volume of the measuring tank.

Q
3. Average flow velocity of a pipe, Vavg = (m/s)
Ap

4. Type of flow,
Reynolds Number is the
ratio of inertia forces to viscous
Re ≤ 2300 Laminar flow
forces in the fluid.
2300 ≤ Re ≤ 4000 Transitional flow
Re ≥ 4000 Turbulent flow
Vavg Dc
Re =

4 Ac
where, Dc is the characteristics length of the geometry (m) Dc = .
P
Ac is the cross-sectional area of the pipe (m2).
P is its wetted perimeter (m).
ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3).
µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid = 8.9 × 10-4 (Pa-s).

5. Head Loss, hl,

According to Darcy-Weisbach equation, the head loss, valid for both laminar
and turbulent flows in both circular and noncircular pipes is given as:
2
fLVavg
hl =
2 gD
where, f – Darcy friction factor
L– Effective length of the pipe, here 1 m
g – Gravitational acceleration = 9.81 (m/s2)

22
 hl 2 gD
Then, f = 2
LVavg


For Laminar Flow, f =  (Re) For Turbulent Flow, f =  (Re, )
D
64 
• f = • Relative Roughness =
Re D
• Given formula is valid only for • ε – Absolute Roughness
circular pipes

Note down the value of friction factor obtained from the experiment and compare it with the
value of Moody chart (Fig. 2) by using the values of relative Roughness (can be obtained by
using the Absolute roughness Table) and Reynolds number. The value of Darcy friction factor,
f, is not constant and depends upon inside surface roughness of the pipe and Reynolds number.
Any oil content in water also affects the value of f.

[Repeat the same procedure for other pipes]

Results Data
Sr. Pipe material Type of Flow Darcy friction Darcy friction
No. (Re) factor obtained factor from
experimentally, Moody chart,
f fM
1.

2.

3.

4.

Conclusions

• Loss of head due to friction is directly proportional to length of pipe and square of
velocity.
• Loss of head is inversely proportional to inside diameter of pipe.

Remarks (if any)

23
Questions
1. What is head loss? What are the types?
2. What is a major loss? Is major loss greater or lesser than minor losses?
3. What is a piezometer?
4. What is the difference between pipe, duct, tube and conduit?
5. What are laminar flow and turbulent flow?
6. What is Reynolds number? What are inertial force and viscous force? Characteristics
length of geometry?
7. Moody chart
8. Many more…. Keep asking yourself.

References
[1] Fox, R., and A. McDonald. Introduction to fluid dynamics, vol. I. 1982.
[2] Yunus, A. Cengel. Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications (SI Units). Tata
McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 2010.

Absolute Roughness Table

Sr. No. Type of Pipe Absolute Roughness, ε

(mm)
1. Copper Pipe 0.0015
2. Aluminium Pipe 0.002
3. Galvanized Iron 0.15

24
25
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Title: Determination of coefficient of discharge (Cd) for venturimeter

Objective: The objective of this experiment is to obtain the coefficient of discharge (Cd) from
experimental data by utilizing venturimeter and to find the relationship between Reynolds
number and the coefficient of discharge.

Theory:
A venturimeter is a device used to measure the volumetric flow rate of fluid through a pipe.
Venturimeter consists of a converging section, throat, and a gradually diverging section. The
inlet section of the venturimeter is of the same diameter as that of the pipe. At the inlet and at
the throat of the venturimeter are provided to connect a differential manometer. In the
converging section, acceleration of the flowing fluid is allowed to take place under the
favourable pressure gradient in a relatively small length, without appreciable loss of energy.
However, in the diverging section, retardation of flow is allowed to take place and to prevent
the boundary layer separation and consequently the formation of the eddies that result in
excessive loss of energy, the divergent section is made longer with a divergence angle of 60
(approx). The convergent section of a venturimeter has a convergent angle of 210 (approx). The
throat portion of the venturimeter acts as a bridge between the convergent and divergent
section. The diameter of the throat (D2) is reduced considerably for greater accuracy in the
pressure measurement, but it has to be limited to avoid cavitation. In general, the diameter of
the throat may vary from 1/3 to 3/4 of the pipe diameter and more commonly the diameter of
the throat is kept equal to 1⁄2 of the pipe diameter.

Principle of venturimeter:
Venturimeter is based on Bernoulli’s theorem that is the conservation of the mechanical
energy between two points. The assumptions of the Bernoulli principle are:
1: Flow is steady and irrotational.
2: Flow is incompressible.
3: Fluid is the ideal fluid. (ie, viscous effects are negligible).
4: Flow along the streamline.

26
Figure 3.1 Schematic diagram of the venturimeter connected with a differential U-tube
manometer at pipe (1) and throat (2).

Figure 3.2 Experiment setup of the venturimeter connected with a differential U-tube
manometer
Let the velocity and pressure at the inlet (Sec. 1) are v1 and p1, respectively, while those at the
throat (Sec. 2) are v2 and p2. Now, applying the Bernoulli equation between 1 and 2, we get

𝑝1 𝑣2 𝑝 𝑣2
ρ𝑔
+ 2𝑔1 + 𝑔𝑧1 = ρ𝑔2 + 2𝑔2 + 𝑔𝑧2 (i)
Neglecting change in the energy due to potential head between 1 and 2, so

27
 𝑝1 𝑣2 𝑝 𝑣2
ρ𝑔
+ 2𝑔1 = ρ𝑔2 + 2𝑔2 (ii)
𝑝1 𝑝 𝑣2 𝑣2
ρ𝑔
− ρ𝑔2 = 2𝑔2 − 2𝑔1 (iii)

It is observed that the change in pressure head corresponds to the gain in the kinetic head
between the inlet main and the throat of the venturimeter. But the velocities v1 and v2 are
unknown. The unknown velocities can find out by conservation of the mass flow rate i.e.

ρ1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = ρ2 𝐴2 𝑣2 (For 1-D compressible flow) (iv)

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 (For 1-D For incompressible flow) (v)

𝐴2 𝑣2
𝑣1 =
𝐴1
(vi)

By substituting the equation (vi) in the (iii). The velocity of the throat (v2) is given by:
𝐴1 √2𝑔∆ℎ𝑤
𝑣2 = (vii)
√𝐴1 2 −𝐴2 2

Now, theoretical discharge (Qt) can be given by:

𝐴1 𝐴2 √2𝑔∆ℎ𝑤
𝑄𝑡 = (viii)
√𝐴1 2 −𝐴2 2

Equipment:
1: Venturimeter with a differential U-tube manometer connected to the pipe.
2: Measuring tank
3: Storage tank and pump to maintain the continuous supply of the flow.

Experimental procedure:
1: Adjust the flow rate of the water in the main pipe by controlling the flow in the secondary
pipe using the bypass valve.
2: Take the reading of manometric deflection in the differential U-tube manometer caused by
the flow rate in the main pipe, which is connected to the venturimeter.
3: Note the initial reading of the water level in the measuring tank. Now collect the water in
the measuring tank for giving time (20 seconds). Again, note the reading of the water level.
The difference between the two readings gives the rise in the water level during the given time.
Knowing the area of the measuring, calculate the actual discharge (Qa), ie. Discussed in the
next section.
4: Now, Cd can be calculated as
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄𝑎
𝐶𝑑 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐶𝑑 = 𝑄𝑡
(ix)

28
5: Repeat the above steps for four different flow rates in the pipe by controlling the flow in the
main pipe by the bypass valve.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
SI Manome Venturi head Rise of the water column Actual Theoreti Coefficie Reyno
No ter (cm) in the measuring tank(cm) discharge cal nt of lds no
reading (cm3/s) discharg discharg
(cm) e e
(cm3/s)
Δhm Δhw h1 h2 Δhw=h1-h2 Qa Qt Cd Re
=12.6xΔhm
1
2
3
4

GIVEN DATA AND SAMPLE CALCULATION:

1: Diameter of pipe (D1) =2.5cm
π𝐷12
2: Area of the pipe (A1) = 4
= 4.9cm2
3: Diameter at throat (D2) = 1.25cm
π𝐷22
4: Area at throat (A2) = 4
= 1.22cm2

5: Manometer deflection (Δhm) = ..............cm

6: Venturi head (Δhw) =12.6 x Δhm = ..................cm
7: Area of Collecting Tank A = L x B =40cm x 50cm = 2000cm2
8: Rise of the water level (x) in the t sec =
9: Actual discharge (Qa) = Area of Coll. Tank x Rise of the water level (x) in the t sec
ρ𝑤 𝑣1 𝐷1
10: Reynolds number (Re)= μ
(based on pipe velocity and pipe dia)

Note: 1: Dynamic viscosity of water at 25 0C = 8.9 x 10 -4 Pa-sec

2: We are measuring the pressure head in terms of the manometric head. So, we have to convert
manometric head in terms of the water head to calculate velocity at the throat and this can be
given by following equation:
ρ
Δℎ𝑤 = Δℎ𝑚 [ ρ𝑚 − 1] (x)
𝑤

CONCLUSIONS:

29
Experimental value of coefficient of discharge (Cd) of the venturimeter is ........................... .

QUESTIONS:
1: What is a venturimeter?
2: Define the coefficient of discharge (Cd) and why the actual discharge is less than the
theoretical discharge?
3: Why the throat diameter is limited to a specific diameter in the venturimeter?
4: What is the effect of the flow rate on the coefficient of discharge?
5: Why is the cone angle at the diverging section significantly less than at the converging
section?
6: Define the manometric principle?
7: Which fluid has been used in the manometer for the present setup and why?
8: What is the Bernoulli principle? and state its assumptions.
9: Explain the term p/ρg.

REFERENCES:
[1] F. M. White, “Fluid Mechanics,” 7th Edition, McGraw- Hill, New York, 2011.
[2] Yunus, A. Cengel. “Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications (SI Units)”. Tata
McGraw- Hill Education Private Limited, 2010.
[3] S. K. Som, G. Biswas,” Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines”Tata
McGraw-Hill Limited, 2011.

30
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Title: Calibration of V-notch
Objective: To determine the coefficient of discharge of a V-notch
Apparatus Required: - A Channel with V- Notch, hook gauge, collecting tank, stopwatch
etc.

Theory:
Notches (as shown in Fig.1) are the opening cut in metallic plates, whereas weirs are concrete
or masonry structures. Both notches and weirs are used to measure the discharge of open
channel flow by placing or constructing them across the stream.

Fig 1: Photo of Notch and weir

Open channels are conduits for the flows with a free surface or a boundary exposed to
the atmosphere. Open-channel flow refers to a liquid flow whose surface is exposed to the
atmosphere. Flow in a pipe conduit that is not flowing full and having a free surface is also an
open channel flow. The motion of flowing liquid in an open channel is usually caused by
gravitational effects, with a pressure distribution generally hydrostatic in the vertical direction.
Notches are generally used for measuring discharge in small open channels or laboratory
flumes. Weirs are generally used for measuring the discharge of large streams such as canals,
rivers etc.
A notch may be defined as a sharp-edged obstruction over which the flow of a liquid occurs.
As the depth of the flow above the base of the notch is related to the discharge, the notch forms
a useful measuring device. It is formed in a smooth, plane vertical plate, and its edges are
bevelled on the downstream side to give minimum contact with the fluid. The area of the flow
is most commonly rectangular or V-shaped. A large rectangular notch is more often termed as
a sharp-crested weir. The bottom of the notch over which the water flows is known as the crest
or sill (shown in Fig.2), and the sheet of liquid escaping over the notch or weir is known as the
nappe or vein (shown in Fig.2). If the pressure underneath it is atmospheric, the nappe (except
at a very low flow rate) springs clearly from the notch plate. For a notch extending across the
entire width of a channel, atmospheric air may not be able to get under the nappe, and liquid
then clings to the downstream side of the notch plate, and the discharge is unpredictable. So,

31
to obtain a flow of a predictable and consistent nature, the space underneath the nappe must be
ventilated, if necessary, by providing an air vent, as shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2

Analysis:

Fig.3a Fig.3b

Consider a sharp-edged V- notch, as shown in Fig 3. The classical analysis, usually ascribed to
the German engineer Julius Weisbach (1806-71), requires the following assumptions.

1. Upstream of the notch, the velocities of particles in the stream are uniform and parallel;
thus, the pressure there varies according to the hydrostatic equation p =  gh (In
practice, it is often necessary to install baffles to achieve reasonably steady and uniform
conditions.)
2. The free surface remains horizontal as far as the plane of the notch, and all particles
passing through the notch move horizontally and perpendicular to its plane.
3. The pressure throughout the nappe is atmospheric.
4. The effects of viscosity and surface tension are negligible.
These assumptions give the idealized pattern of flow, as shown in Fig.3a. At section 1,
p1
+ z = H (i.e., the height of the free surface). So, a typical streamline Bernoulli’s
g 1
equation gives
u12 u22
H+ = 0+ + z2
2g 2g
12

  u 2 

 u2 =  2 g  H − z 2 + 1  
 
 
2 g 

32
This shows that u2 varies with z2 .

For a V notch, the cross-sectional area of the approach channel is usually so much greater than
u2
that of the notch that 1 may be neglected. The idealized discharge through the element of
2g
notch (as shown in figure 3b) is therefore b z2 2 g ( H − z2 )
1/ 2
and if the side makes an angle

of with the vertical, b = 2 z2 tan( 2) . The total idealized discharge is, therefore
2
 H
Qideal / the = 2 tan 2 g  z2 ( H − z2 )
1/ 2
dz2
2 0

 H
= 2 tan 2 g  z2 ( H − h ) h1/ 2 dh where h = H − z2
2 0

8 
= tan 2 g H 5/ 2
15 2

An experimentally determined coefficient of discharge now has to be inserted to account for

the simplifying assumptions used in the mathematical model. The contraction of nappe as it
passes through the notch is a significant factor and the coefficient is considerably less than
unity. Its value depends primarily on H and H/Z where Z is the height of the crest above the
bed of the approach channel. The effects of viscosity and surface tension are appreciable only
when H is small.
The actual discharge Qact is therefore

8  
Qact = Cd tan   (2 g ) H 5/ 2
15 2
Experimental Set-up:

The set-up consists of a shallow open channel on top of a hydraulic bench. A sharp-edged V-
notch is fitted at the downstream end of the channel. Water is supplied to the channel through
an inlet valve provided in the supply pipeline. A honeycomb wall is placed at the entrance to
stabilize the flow and to reduce the velocity of approach. A pointer gauge is provided for
measuring the head over the notch.

33
 Fig.4. Experimental Set-up

Procedure:

1. Open the supply valve. When the water level just touches the crest, note its level using
the pointer gauge.
2. Increase the discharge by regulating the supply valve. When the flow becomes steady,
measure the level of free water surface upstream of the notch using the same pointer
gauge.
3. Measure the discharge using the discharge measuring tank.
4. Repeat steps (2) and (3) for more discharges by regulating the flow using the supply
valve.

Observations and Calculation:

Angle of the V-notch,  = 60o
Plan area of the measuring tank, Am=
Initial pointer gauge reading at the crest of notch, yi =

Head measurement:

Run No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
y f = Final pointer gauge
reading at the free water
surface
Head= H = ( y f − yi )

34
Discharge measurement:

Run No. Initial level Final level Rise, h Time, t Qact = Am  h / t

1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculation:
The theoretical discharge Qthe over the triangular notch is given by the following expression:

8
Qthe = 2 g tan( 2) H 5 2
15
Then the coefficient of discharge is estimated using the expression:
Qact
Cd =
Qthe
Conclusion:

Precautions:

1. As water approaches the notch, its surface becomes curved. Therefore, head over the
notch is to be measured at a distance upstream of the notch, where the effect of
curvature is minimum. Also, it should be sufficiently close to the notch so that the
energy loss between the head measuring section and the notch is negligible. For
practical purposes, the head measuring section is generally taken at a distance of 3 to 4
times the maximum head upstream from the notch.
2. The hook tip should just touch the water surface
3. Maintain sufficient amount of water in the sump.
Questions:

1. What is an open channel flow?

2. The motion of the fluid in case of open channel flow is usually caused by which force?
3. What is the requirement of an air vent in the context of notches?
4. What is the practical range of angles  for a V-notch?
5. What is the use of a honeycomb wall in the upstream of the flow channel?

35