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Sociology_SS Class 01
SOCIOLOGY PAPER II:

Why, What, and How?

Historical context of Sociology.
Emerged in 19th century.
WEST.
Emerged in the backdrop of intellectual forces, social forces, political forces, and economic forces.
Renaissance.
Scientific revolution.
Ideas- thinkers- Descartes, Hume.
Social factor- religious reforms- PC, secularisation, work, AO.
Political forces- French Revolution- liberty, equality, fraternity.
Economic forces- Industrial revolution- utilitarianism and Profit accumulation.
Modernity+ Rapid social change- Discipline- Sociology.
Eurocentric -
Industrialised.
Modernised.
Secularised.
Homogenised.
Freedom/ Rights (individuals).
Class-based society.
Relevance of Indian society in Sociology (05:34 PM)
Western sociology originated to study Industrialised, urbanized, secularised societies in the context of post- French
Revolution and Industrial Revolution.
For example-
The rapid industrialization in Europe led to urbanization, class struggle, and the emergence of new social dynamics.
Early sociologists like Karl Marx focused on the conflict between proletariat and bourgeoisie offering frameworks
such as class struggle, and historical materialism.
Similarly French Revolution dismantled the feudal system and brought about the ideas of liberty, equality, and
fraternity.
These values shaped sociological inquiries into the nature of society, governance, and individual rights.
Hence sociology emerged to study modernized, secularised, urbanized, industrialized, and class-based society.
Contrast in Indian Context-
Predominantly we are an agrarian society, where 65% of the population depends upon agriculture for their
livelihood.
The rural society deeply tied to land and nature is in contrast to the industrial and urban focus of Western sociology.
Diversity in social structures-
Indian societies' religious, linguistic, and cultural diversity results in heterogenous social structures.
For example caste dominates the rural areas, whereas in urban areas we witness dilution of caste distinction.
According to Michael Young "soil makes caste whereas machine grows class".
With respect to the family system, the traditional joint family is a characteristic feature of Indian society that is in stark
contrast to the nuclear family system prevalent in the West Enlightenment.
Matrimonial alliances in India follow caste endogamy and gotra exogamy, whereas in the West it is based on
individual choice and compatibility.
As in contrast to the secularised West there exists a strong religious orientation in the context of India.
Urbanisation in India versus the West-
According to the theory of Urbanisation by Louis Wirth cities are the center of individualism and rationality, whereas,
in the Indian context, it still has ghettoization based on caste.
 With respect to movements social reform movements in India emphasized on religious reforms along with
modernisation.
Whereas Western movements like the Enlightenment focused on rationality and secularisation.
The above examples reflect a unique trajectory of Indian society which differs significantly from the Industrialised and
homogenised societies studied by western sociologists.

DIVERSITY IN INDIA (05:58 PM)

Religions-
Hinduism (79.8%), Islam (14.2%), Christianity (2.3%) Sikhism(1.7 %).
Even within the religion, there exists internal pluralism.
For example in Christianity Catholics, Protestants and the Syrian Christian community co-exist in states like Kerala
and Goa.
The diversity is aggravated due to the blend of various traditions.
For example in Goan Catholics there is a blend of Portuguese tradition with local Indian customs.
Linguistic-
Census 2011- 121 major languages, and approximately 1600 dialects.
However there exists extremeness in the linguistic landscape.
For example on one hand Hindustani is the third most spoken language globally.
Whereas Saimar is severely endangered.
Caste-
Varna hierarchy is the macrostructural framework within which there exist caste sub-divisions known as Jatis.
Regional diversity-
No two regions are the same and it may overlap with states or sometimes not.
For example in the context of Nagaland it is home to 17 major tribes, each having its own language which is an
important component of the region that displays the diversity.
Cultural diversity-
For example the regional customs.
In the context of Manipur, the classical Manipuri dance is celebrated for its association with stories of Radha and
Krishna.
Festivals for example Hornbill festival of Nagaland, etc.
Geographical influence on diversity (06:20 PM)
Rajesthan thar desert influences traditional sandstone architecture and water conservation practices like step wells.
In the Himalayan region, people rely on terrace farming to grow crops like rice, barley, millet, etc.
Similarly Kerala backwater region relies on houseboats for both transport and tourism.
Examples-
Invaders and settlers left cultural imprints.
For example Mughals introduced Persian-inspired art forms and Mughlai cuisine.
Similarly ancient trade with China introduced silk and porcelain.
The British colonial era introduced Victorian architectural styles which are evident in structures like the gateway in
India, and the Victorian memorial in Calcutta.
Cultural unity amidst diversity-
Institution of pilgrimage like the Chardham yatra- it attracts people from across India.
Family values such as collectivism, delayed gratification, familial obedience, etc bind people together.
Celebration of festivals.
Modern-day unifiers for example-
The constitution- it acts as the unifier for diverse communities enshrining the principles of equality, secularism, and
justice.
National symbols- they evoke a sense of pride and shared belongings.
Sports- it cuts across both region and religion.
Limitation of Western Theories-
Marx's theory which emphasizes class struggle as the primary driver of social change does not adequately account
for the deeply entrenched caste system.
 According to Modernisation theory there exists a linear progression from traditional to modern societies predicting
that economic development will lead to secularisation and rationalisation.
However in the Indian context traditional structures like caste still persist and adapt.

WHAT (06:45 PM)

Syllabus-
PAPER–II INDIAN SOCIETY: STRUCTURE AND CHANGE
A. Introducing Indian Society:
(i) Perspectives on the Study of Indian Society :
(a) Indology (G.S. Ghure).
(b) Structural functionalism (M. N. Srinivas).
(c) Marxist sociology (A. R. Desai).
(ii) Impact of colonial rule on Indian society :
(a) Social background of Indian nationalism.
(b) Modernization of Indian tradition.
(c) Protests and movements during the colonial period.
(d) Social reforms.
B. Social Structure:
(i) Rural and Agrarian Social Structure:
(a) The idea of Indian village and village studies.
(b) Agrarian social structure—
Evolution of land tenure system, land reforms.
(ii) Caste System:
(a) Perspectives on the study of caste systems: G. S. Ghurye, M. N. Srinivas, Louis Dumont, Andre Beteille.
(b) Features of caste system.
(c) Untouchability forms and perspectives
(iii) Tribal Communities in India:
(a) Definitional problems.
(b) Geographical spread.
(c) Colonial policies and tribes.
(d) Issues of integration and autonomy.
(iv) Social Classes in India:
(a) Agrarian class structure.
(b) Industrial class structure.
(c) Middle classes in India.
(v) Systems of Kinship in India:
(a) Lineage and descent in India.
(b) Types of kinship systems.
(c) Family and marriage in India.
(d) Household dimensions of the family.
(e) Patriarchy, entitlements, and sexual division of labor.
(vi) Religion and Society :
(a) Religious communities in India.
(b) Problems of religious minorities.
C. Social Changes in India:
(i) Visions of Social Change in India:
(a) Idea of development planning and mixed economy.
(b) Constitution, law and social change.
(c) Education and social change.
(ii) Rural and Agrarian Transformation in India:
(a) Programmes of rural development, Community Development Programmes, cooperatives, and
poverty alleviation schemes.
 (b) Green revolution and social change.
(c) Changing modes of production in Indian agriculture.
(d) Problems of rural labor, bondage, and migration.
(iii) Industrialization and Urbanisation in India:
(a) Evolution of modern industry in India.
(b) Growth of urban settlements in India.
(c) Working class: structure, growth, class mobilization.
(d) Informal sector, child labor.
(e) Slums and deprivation in urban areas.
(iv) Politics and Society :
(a) Nation, democracy, and citizenship.
(b) Political parties, pressure groups, social and political elite.
(c) Regionalism and decentralization of power.
(d) Secularization.
(v) Social Movements in Modern India :
(a) Peasants and farmers movements.
(b) Women’s movement.
(c) Backward classes & Dalit movements.
(d) Environmental movements.
(e) Ethnicity and Identity movements.
(vi) Population Dynamics :
(a) Population size, growth, composition, and distribution.
(b) Components of population growth: birth, death, migration.
(c) Population Policy and family planning.
(d) Emerging issues: ageing, sex ratios, child and infant mortality, reproductive health.
(vii) Challenges of Social Transformation :
(a) Crisis of development: displacement, environmental problems, and sustainability.
(b) Poverty, deprivation, and inequalities.
(c) Violence against women.
(d) Caste conflicts.
(e) Ethnic conflicts, communalism, religious revivalism.
(f) Illiteracy and disparities in education.

The Sociology Paper 2 Orientation Lecture is completed.

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Sociology_SmSh Class 02
CASTE SYSTEM:

Caste versus Caste system.

Features of the Caste system-
(Jajmani system, endogamy (anuloma marriage, pratiloma), varna versus jati (gotra)).
Approaches-
Attributional and Interactional Approach- perspectives of Caste system- Theories of origin of Caste.
Transformation of Caste system-
Caste versus Class.
Role of Caste in Politics.
Caste mobility.
Untouchability-
Forms.
Perspectives.
Contemporary reality.
Caste System- Caste among non-Hindu.
Caste outside India.

CASTE VERSUS CASTE SYSTEM (05:20 PM)

Caste System is a system of social stratification consisting of hierarchically arranged closed endogamous strata
where membership is ascriptive, contact is restricted, and mobility is theoretically impossible.
Caste-
Endogamous group.
Specific occupation.
Hereditary membership.
Rules governing feeding patterns and social engagements.
* Caste fits Weber's concept of status group because-
Each caste has a distinct social status in the hierarchy.
It practices endogamy to preserve the status.
It enforces distinct lifestyle rules (diet, dress, occupation).
Caste system-
Refers to a framework of social stratification that governs how different castes will interact with each other in the
ritual and secular sphere.
The origin of the word Caste is from a Portuguese word Casta which means lineage.
The word Casta is borrowed from the Latin word Castus, which means pure.
That is Purity of lineage.
There is no unanimous definition of caste.
Different scholars have different perspectives-

Scholar Perspective
Caste is a social group
with hereditary
Andre Beteille membership,
endogamy, and a
specific way of life.
 Caste is a system of
graded inequality where
castes are arranged
Dr B.R Ambedkar
hierarchically based on
social and religious
status.
When class becomes
C H Cooley strictly hereditary, it can
be called a caste.

FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM (05:42 PM)

Social Segmentation.
Occupational DoL.
Commensality.
Hierarchy.
Endogamy.
Ascriptive.
Civil and Religious disabilitties.
Caste Councils/ Panchayats.
Ascriptive-
The caste of an individual is determined at birth.
According to GS Ghurye, caste status is ascriptive and fixed for life.
According to Louis Dumont, an individual's caste is inherited and immutable.
For example, Dr. BR Ambedkar, despite being educated, faced untouchability and discrimination.
Endogamy-
In order to maintain the purity of lineage, marriage outside the caste is restricted.
According to Louis Dumont, endogamy reinforces the purity pollution hierarchy.
Endogamy-
Anuloma (hypergamy)- UC (Man) +LC (Woman).
According to Ghurye, it finds mention in ancient text but is only tolerated and not considered ideal.
Pratiloma (hypogamy)- UC (Woman) +LC (Man).
According to Dumont, it threatens the purity-pollution hierarchy, for example, honour killing.
Hierarchy-
Castes are ranked in a hierarchical order, with Brahimins constituting the top strata.
According to Louis Dumont, hierarchy is the core principle of the caste system, with ritual purity determining rank.
Similarly, Dr BR Ambedkar's caste hierarchy is not only social but also religious.
For example, in 2022, in Rajasthans Jalor district, a Dalit boy was beaten to death for drinking water from an upper
caste pot.
Occupational DoL (06:06 PM)
Each caste is traditionally linked with a specific occupation.
According to Ghurye, there exist occupational hereditary.
According to MN Srinivas, occupational mobility has increased.
However, caste based occupational clustering still persists.
According to the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, of 66696 manual scavengers, 97.25 % belong to the
SC community.
Commensality-
There are strict rules to regulate inter caste interaction.
According to Louis Dumont, purity- pollution dichotomy governs caste relations
For example, serving food and water in separate utensils (Satish Deshpande).
Separate school sitting arrangement in school mid day meal.
Social segmentation-
 Caste operates like closed groups with strong group loyalty.
Ghurye- The caste system is defined as a segmented division of society, with each segment functioning
autonomously.
According to André Beteille, they are closed status groups with clear boundaries, internal solidarity, and strong
collective identity.
For example, the Patidar community in Gujarat has strong internal cohesion and mobilization for political
reservations and economic benefits.
Caste Panchayats or Caste Councils-
According to Ghurye, caste panchayat acts as a local self-governing body ensuring endogamy, occupational purity,
and internal dispute resolution
According to Rajni Kothari, caste panchayats act both as traditional and political institutions regulating social and
political behaviour, for example, Khap Panchayat.
Civil and Religious disabilities-
According to Ghurye, lower caste suffers from multiple disabilities in both civil and religious sphere.
For example, denial of access to public wells, roads, and schools and restriction on wearing certain clothes and
riding horses.
For example, exclusion from temple entry, participation in religious rituals, or denying reading or learning of ancient
texts.

JAJMANI SYSTEM (06:44 PM)

Concept.
Features.
Perspective.
Disintegration.
Criticism.
Jajman- hereditary exchange of services- Kamin.
Services- Ritual, Personal, occupational.
Pay to kamin- grains, cloths, protection.
Traditional socio-economic arrangement that involved hereditary exchange of services.
It is a client- patron relationship.
Features of the Jajmani system-
Functional interchangeability-
Under this system, flexibility ensures continuity of the services even when a particular caste is absent.
For example, Madhopur village studies by Bernard Cohn show that traditional water carriers also performed
sweeping duties.
According to Joan Menchel, caste based roles were not always rigid and were dependent on demography.
Temporal continuity-
Jajmani relations lasted across generations.
According to William Wiser, this continuity reduced competition and ensured economic security and social stability.
Role reversal possibility-
It allows some castes to be Jajmans in one relation and Kamins in another.
A study by FG Bailey in Bisipara village found a blacksmith who served brahmins but hired sweepers to clean his
house.
Economic and Ritual Integration-
According to Louis Dumont, the jajmani system is an economic manifestation of ritual hierarchy where ritual purity
and pollution dictate service relations.
That is, certain tasks were reserved for ritualy impure castes.
Re-distributive exchange system-
According to Louis Dumont, it constitutes a redistributive economy.
For example, the wealth, grains, and resources accumulated by Jajmans were redistributed to Kamins through gifts,
rewards, payment in kind, etc.
Caste specific occupational rigidity-
 According to GS Ghurye, this hereditary DoL (division of labor) ensures both economic stability and ritual order.
Moral and social obligation-
Jajmans were expected to provide protection during conflicts, medical help during illness, gifts and special
payments during marriage, funeral, festival, etc (Pauline Kolenda).
Gendered aspect of Jajmani-
According to Leela Dube, women kamins faced double exploitation as labourers and women within patriarchal
households.
(Midwifery performed by Dalit women was part of the jajmani package).

PERSPECTIVES (07:25 PM)

Functional perspective-
According to William Wiser, the Jajmani system was mutually beneficial as each caste group was dependent on
others for economic and ritual functions
He conducted a study of the washermen community in Karimpur village.
Observations-
Reciprocity and stability.
Economic security.
Social integration.
He was criticized for romatising mutual benefits.
Conflict perspective (Joan Mencher)
Conducted extensive field work in Tamil Nadu and introduced a bottoms-up approach.
That is, jajmani was not a system of reciprocal benefits but a system of economic exploitation and political control.
It was observed that Kamins were economically exploited, socially subordinate, and politically marginalized.
However, this viewpoint was criticised as it understated the agency of lower caste.
According to André Beteille, sometimes lower castes negotiated better terms.
According to Xaxa, many migrated to cities for better opportunities.
Question-
Critically evaluate the significance of the Jajmani system in traditional Indian society.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Continuation of Caste System.

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Sociology_SmSh Class 03
JAJMANI SYSTEM:

H- Heriditary exploitation (lack of opportunity for social mobility)

E- Exchange of services (unequal).
R- Religious justification (L. Dumont: JS is an economic manifestation of ritual hierarchy).
O- Oppression through social control J- land, water, grains.
Kamins provide services throughout their life but may not be adequately compensated.
P- Population subordination (Joan Mencher- lack of negotiation power spatial segregation)
G- Gender exploitation.
(Gail Omvedt- women are subjected to sexual abuse).
Disintegration of Jajmani System-
Economic factor-
Introduction of cash crops.
Commercialisation of agriculture.
Monetization of the rural economy.
Emergence of capitalist agriculture.
Market-based relations.
Transport and technology lead to the weakening of caste- occupational linkages.
Land reforms-
Abolition of the zamindari system.
The economic base of jajmans (upper caste landlords) was dismantled.
Land redistribution programs.
For example, the Bhoodan movement.
Caste in politics-
Lower castes have numerical strength and can mobilize for land rights, reservations, and dignity.
For example, the Dalit Panther movement.
Challenged the traditional jajmani system and raised demand for dignified employment opportunities.
Workers from Punjab, T.N., shifted to cities for better wages (Surinder Jodhka).
Dalit youth from Bihar and up migrating to cities like Delhi to work in factories or gig workers completely breaking
away from hereditary roles.
Education and Reservation (05:37 PM)
Post-independence, education opportunities and affirmative action policies enabled lower caste youth to enter
modern occupations.
For example, Nandu Ram's study on mobile scheduled caste highlights how education and reservation created a
Dalit middle class reducing jajmani-type dependence.
Legal and Social reforms-
Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability.
Bonded Labour Abolition Act.
SC ST Prevention of Atrocities Act.
Minimum Wage Act.
MGNREGA.
Case studies-
Mirchpur Dalit Boycott 2010- Dalits refused to work under traditional jajmani obligations after caste violence.
In Bundelkhand, dalit agricultural workers refused unpaid service obligations post-MGNREGA
Overall Criticism and limitations-
Scholar Louis Dumont overemphasizes mutual benefits.
Joan Mencher- ignored economic Exploitation and caste subjugation
Gail Omvedt did not account for caste based violence and coercion.
 M N Srinivas overlooked the role of external markets in undermining the jajmani system.
McKim Marriott- assumption of homogeneity across the regions.
Class assigment and PYQ-
Discuss the role of the Jajmani system in perpetuating caste inequalities in rural India. (2020/ 10 Marks)
How far has economic development in rural India undermined traditional Jajmani relations (2016/ 10 Marks)
Examine the changing nature of the Jajmani system in the context of rural transformation.
Although it has disintegrated but-
According to Surinder Jodhka, even in commercial agriculture, hiring patterns reflect the caste system.
According to a Survey ActionAid NGO, in 25% of surveyed villages, Dalit laborers were not allowed to work on the
land as casual laborers.

CASTE SYSTEM (06:12 PM)

Varna and Jati are two separate concepts.

Senart, for the first time, brought out the conceptual difference b/w the two.
SS.
H- closed- EARM (varna and jati)-
Varna-
Varna view-
Book view.
Single pan.
Indian hierarchy.
Fixed immutable.
4 in number.
Ritual aspect and hence does not reflect economic and political aspect.
MN Srinivas.
Jati-
Field view.
Regional/ localised.
Region to region.
Thousands of Jati.
Occupational specialisation and endogamy.
MN Srinivas, Dipankar Gupta, and Surinder Jodhka argue that the varna has distorted the reality as it is an
oversimplified Brahminical idealisation that does not account for complex jati-based social order.
For example-
Not all Brahmins are the same.
The Shudra community is also very wide.
On the one hand, it has a land-owning dominant caste, whereas on the other hand...
It does not account for untouchables, which is integral to the actual caste system.
The varna scheme only refers to the broad categories of the society, which does not account for the lived reality
For example, in Rampura, Brahmins had ritual superiority, but Okkaliga controlled local politics and the economy.
Question-
'The varna scheme has distorted the picture of caste' Comment. (10 Marks)

GOTRA (06:35 PM)

Aspects-
Meaning- Gotra refers to the clan/lineage from where the family traces its origin.
Inheritance- Gotra is inherited from the father's side.
Marriage rules- Gotra exogamy.
Purpose- genetic diversity, wider social network.
Religious roles- often spoken during marriage, religious rituals, and funerals.
Current and controversial- Gotra rules have weekends in cities but persist in villages.
Honour killing and khap panchayat.
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF CASTE (06:45 PM)

According to DN Majumdar, there exist as many theories as perspectives on the subject.

However, the Census of India in 1931 referred to 5 theories w.r.t origin of caste.
Divine Origin Theory.
Karma and Transmigration Theory
Occupational Theory.
Tribes and Religious Theory.
Senart Exogamy Theory.
Divine Origin Theory-
As per the Purusukta hymn of the Rigveda, the caste system emerged when Brahma ji self destructed himself.
Brahmins came from the mouth.
Kshatriyas from mouth.
Vaishya from thighs.
Shudra from feet.
According to Manusmriti, different castes emerged due to inter caste unions and non-observation of sacred rituals.
Criticism- Louis Dumont dismissed this as mythological justification rather than historical fact.
Karma and Transmigration Theory-
According to this belief, individuals are born into lower or higher caste depending upon their past karma, that is
good karma- higher caste, sinful act- lower caste.
Dr BR Ambedkar argued that this theory was invented to maintain upper caste dominance.
Occupational Theory-
By Nesfield.
He proposed that occupation was the primary factor in the development of the caste system.
Priesthood was not exclusive to Brahmins, but as rituals became complex, a specialised group emerged as
Brahmins.
This theory highlights economic specialisation as the key driver of caste formation.
Criticism- Fails to explain caste hierarchy (Dipankar Gupta).
Tribes and Religious Theory-
According to Risley, four key processes were responsible for the integration of tribals into the Hindu caste system-
Social mobility through land and power.
For example, the Gonds of central India and the Bhuiyas of Odisha.
Religious conversion and adoption of Hindu identity.
For example, Halbas of CG converted to Vaishnavism and acquired a Hindu identity (Kshatriya status).
Formation of new caste within the Hindu society, for example, Rajbhansis claiming Kshatriya lineage.
Gradual assimilation, for example, Santhals.
They retained their name but gradually adopted Hindu customs.
Exogamy theory-
By Senart.
Senart argued that exogamy was the main factor in caste formation.
Risley supported this view, stating that Aryans avoided intermarriage but could not entirely prevent it, leading to
gradual caste divisions.
Racial Theory of the Caste System (07:12 PM)
Racial theory was proposed by H. Risley in the book The People of India.
According to this theory, racial differences and endogamous marriages played a crucial role in the origin and
evolution of the caste system in India.
The Indo-Aryans migrated from Persia and brought a 4-class social structure-
Priesthood (Brahmins)
Warrior (Kshatriyas)
Cultivator (Vaishyas)
Artisans (Shudras)
To maintain their superior status, they practice endogamy.
 However, Hypergamy was encouraged, but Patriloma marriages were forbidden.
In order to justify the theory, he argued that varna means color, which shows racial classification.
However, this was criticized by Irawati Karve, who believed varna meant class rather than color.
Risley also claimed that the higher caste has a narrow nose and the lower caste has a broad nose.
G S Ghurye describes the caste system as a Brahminical system and believes that non-aryan races became
shudras who were not allowed to participate in the religious and social activities of Aryans.
Similarly, Majumdar believed the clash of culture and contact of races led to the social groupings with three superior
classes maintaining their superior status and occupation and debaring other people from practising such
occupation.
These are a few theories that consider race as the basis of the caste system.
Question-
Write a short note on the Racial Theory of the caste system in India. (10 Marks).

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: GS Ghurye and MN Srinivas's perspective on caste.

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Sociology_SmSh Class 04
RACIAL THEORY OF CASTE:

Proposed by Herbert Risley.

Premise- Herbert Riseley racial difference + endogamous marriages= origin and evolution of CS.
Explanation- 4 fold social structure.
Racial differences+ preserve their superiority= Endogamy.
Evidence: racial traits of different castes are different.
UC- Aryan traits.
LC- Non- Aryan traits.
Support scholars-
GS Ghurye.
Majumdar.
AL Kroeber- race can be one of the basis of caste evolution but is not the only the criteria (Religious, cultural, and
occupation factors also influence caste formation).
Question- Is caste a form of Racism?
For-
Both are birth-based.
Both are fixed and intergenerational.
Both are socially stigmatized.
Restricted mobility in both the social and economic spheres.
Scholarly perspective-
Gail Omvedt- Dalit struggle has global parallel of racial struggle.
Christopher Jeffrelot- Caste discrimination in India is similar to racial discrimination in the US and South Africa.
Against-
According to Romila Thapar in the work The Past before Us in 2013, it was mentioned that he caste is a social and
economic system rather than racial.
Deepankar Gupta-
Deepankar Gupta says caste is a social construct and not a racial reality.
The caste system is fluid.
It is endogamy that is responsible for caste.
Caste adapts to social and economic change.
For example, a certain caste with better access to economic opportunity gains higher status, which contradicts the
racial theory.
André Beteille-
Within the caste, their exist racial differences; hence, no uniform racial type for any caste in India.
There exist regional differences.
The caste system is not the same across India.
Caste position is determined by the social hierarchy, which in turn depends upon ritual practices and economic
functions.
Dr BR Ambedkar-
Caste is not about race but about enforcing hierarchy.
The caste system was created by Brahmins to establish domination over other groups.
Endogamy is the real basis of caste.
Social and religious discrimination created untouchability and not race.
Question-
Critically examine the interrelationship between caste and race.

RISLEY ON CASTE (05:50 PM)

 Risley identified 6 processes through which caste may have formed over time-
Integration of tribes into the Hindu society-
For example, the Gonds of central India adopted the Rajput identity and claimed Kshatriya status.
Based on occupation-
For example, the Teli caste emerged due to their traditional occupation of oil extraction.
Subdivision due to occupation change-
For example, Vaishyas, the traditional trading caste, split into groups due to trade specialization.
Agarwals into grains and banking business.
Oswals in the jewellery business.
Neglect of ceremonial practices-
For example, some Kshatriyas of Bengal who didn't follow the Vedic rituals were reclassified as Shudras.
Preservation of old traditions-
For example, the Namboodiris Brahmins of Kerala strictly followed orthodox customs, maintaining their unique
identity.
Religious and Sectarian movements-
For example, the Ravidassia community, a devotional sect, developed endogamous caste structures.

PERSPECTIVE (06:00 PM)

Religious explanation of caste-

Divine Origin Theory.
Guna Theory.
Sociological explanation-
Karl Marx.
Weber.
Celestine Bougle.
Karl Marx (KM)-
According to KM, caste is rooted in land ownership and economic roles.
There are two two-fold divisions in the society-
Land-owning class and artisan and service caste.
There exist exchange based relationships between castes, and hence, it promotes harmony.
Therefore, he defined this system as Village Republic.
Weber- Caste is a status-based hierarchy where there exists a particular social status, distinct lifestyle, endogamy,
and restriction to preserve the status.
For example- endogamy.
Celestine Bougle- Caste is viewed from the perspective of hierarchy and separation.
Three features: hierarchy, Occupation division of labour, and separation of contact.
Attributional Approach (06:14 PM)
It discusses the features of the caste system and what makes it different from other forms of social stratification.
Scholars-
GS Ghurye.
JH Hutton.
MN Srinivas.
Subject matter- it focuses on the inherent and inalienable features of caste, for example, purity, endogamy,
occupation, etc.
Aim to preserve the caste identities through the maintenance of caste attributes.
Interactional Perspective (06:26 PM)
Approach- It takes into account how castes are ranked w.r.t one another in a local empirical context.
Scholars-
Louis Dumont.
F.G Bailey.
Mckim Marriott.
Subject matter- It explores caste relationships within a specific context.
 For example, commensality, food habits, etc.
Aim- The approach highlights the role of rituals and religious values in shaping the caste rankings.
Question-
Analyse the differences between the Attributional and Interactional approach in studying the caste
system.

GS GHURYE (06:32 PM)

Background-
His academic reputation was built on his doctoral dissertation at Cambridge, which was later published as Caste
and Race in India (1932).
His work drew attention as it addressed the major concerns of Indian Anthropology, that is critiques of dominant
theories that were established b/w race and caste.
Premise-
Ghurye initially entertained Risley's perspective that human beings can be divided into different racial groups based
on distinct physical traits, for example-
Circumference of skull.
Length of nose.
Volume of skull.
According to Risley, caste is based on racial differences, that is UC- Aryan traits, LC- Non Aryan traits.
Based on differences in average measurements of physical features, Risley suggested that racial differences were
the basis of the caste system.
However, Ghurye found his argument to be partially correct.
Ghurye pointed out the flaw in using averages without considering the variation within a given community.
Risleys thesis of UC being Aryan and LC being non-Aryan was applicable only in northern India.
In other regions, the differences in measurements b/w the groups were not very significant.
According to him, endogamy helped preserve racial purity in north India.
In other parts, caste groups were already racially mixed before adopting endogamy.
For example, in Maharashtra, the Mahar community had overlapping physical features with the upper caste, making
it difficult to draw racial distinctions (Dr BR Ambedkar).
Theory- Ghurye gave 6 features of caste-
Segmental division.
Hierarchy.
Occupational restrictions.
Restriction on Marriage.
Differential rights and duties.
Restriction on social interaction.
Segemental Division- Caste is divided into several closed and mutually exclusive segments.
Each caste functions as a separate social compartment.
Caste membership is ascriptive by birth and cannot be changed.
Hierarchy- every caste is strictly unequal to others, and the caste system is structured in a ranked hierarchy.
Restrictions on social interaction- Food sharing is regulated by purity and pollution rules.
Even the concept of Untouchability enforces these restrictions.
Differential rights and duties- Castes have different rights and duties that apply in both religious and secular
contexts.
For example, in some villages, lower caste individuals had to remove their footwear in front of upper caste
individuals as a sign of respect.
Occupational restriction- occupations are hereditary and caste based, and caste functions as a rigid form of
division of labour.
Restriction on marriage- endogamy rules ensure reproduction of the caste system.
Ghurye has extensively analyzed the caste system in India, highlighting both its integrative role and the potential to
cause disharmony.
Caste as a mechanism of social integration (07:07 PM)
 According to Ghurye, the caste system effectively integrated diverse groups into the unified social structure.
The pivotal role was played by Brahmins due to their authorship and interpretation of religious scriptures.
The religious framework provided the guidelines for assimilating different communities into a cohesive entity.
Caste as a source of conflict-
Emergence of caste based associations often led to intercaste conflict as these associations work to protect their
specific interests causing competition and disharmony.
Criticism-
SC Dube-
Criticised Ghuryues' approach for presenting the Brahminical view of India.
He also criticized reliance on textual sources, which led to a static and oversimplified portrayal of Indian society.
Sujata Patel- Brahmans were not ritually superior in all parts of India.
Coral Upadhaya- Ghurye was not an empirical sociologist.
MN Srinivas- he criticised the static view of caste and introduced concepts like sanskritisation to explain the fluidity.

CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE OF GHURYE'S VIEW ON CASTE (07:32 PM)

According to the India Human Development Survey, intercaste marriage is below 5% despite incentives.
Occupational segregation still exists- 2019 study by Azim Premji University found that less than 5% of Dalits hold
senior positions in India's corporate sector.
Restrictions on social interactions, especially in rural India- A study by Surinder Jodhka has shown how jati-based
settlement patterns still persist in rural areas.
The Oxfam report India 2021 found that SC/ST communities face discrimination in health care, with doctors less
likely to attend to Dalit patients in rural areas.
2018 study by D. Kartikeyan, dalit capitalism is on the rise, however, caste based discrimination still hinders
business opportunities.
Question-
Write a short note on Ghuryes' conception of caste in India. (10 Mark/ 150 Word).

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: MN Srinivas's view on Caste.

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Sociology_SmSh Class 05
MN SRINIVAS:

Background-
Stalwart of Sociology and Anthropology.
Significant contribution to the discipline of Sociology-
Study of caste.
Social change.
Power structure.
Credited with initiating structural functionalism in sociology and social anthropology.
Also credited with introducing macro-sociological generalization on micro-anthropological insight through fieldwork.
Social structure- Functions- Societal Stability.
He was in favor of studying the social phenomenon from a contextual perspective rather than a theoretical one.
He was critical of the book view and textual analysis.
Perspective on caste-
According to him caste is interdependent in nature.
He used an attributional approach to the study of caste.
Based on this, there are certain caste features.
For example hierarchy, occupational division of labor (DoL), purity and pollution, restrictions on dress,
commensality, customs, caste panchayats, and Endogamy.
He also talked about how the Jajmani system act as a vertical unity of the caste.
Caste is a complex phenomenon-
Criticised L. Dumont.
Critical of Marxist perspective.
Caste is a complex phenomenon that cannot be reduced to a single variable.
Criticism of L. Dumont (LD)-
LD primarily focussed on the ideological aspect of caste emphasizing the opposition between pure and impure.
He treated ritual status as the sole determinant of the caste hierarchy ignoring the role of power and economic
factors.
Criticism of Marxist analysis-
Marxist scholars tend to reduce caste to class dynamics and see caste oppression as economic exploitation.
Conclusion-
According to Srinivas caste is a complex interplay of ritual and secular hierarchies (dual hierarchy).

SANSKRITISATION (S)(05:39 PM)

Concept.
Features.
Condition for S- examples of S.
Limitation of S.
Criticism of concept.
S vis-a-vis westernisation.
Sanskritisation (S) is a process by which a lower caste, tribe, or any group changes its customs, rituals, ideology,
and lifestyle in the direction of the higher that is twice-born caste.
Features of S-
Immitation of higher caste customs.
For example, the Lingayat community in South India moved towards vegetarianism to align with Brahminical norms.
Shift in religious practices, for example wearing sacred threads and adopting wedding rituals of Brahmins.
Use of sanskritic names and titles to claim higher status for example using titles like sharma to associate with
Brahmin status.
Adoption of purity norms, for example, Dalit communities of Rajasthan abandoned leather work occupations to
reduce stigma and claim higher status.
Conditions for S-
A caste is more likely to Sanskritise when it acquires economic and political power.
A caste can claim a higher ritual status depending upon the recognition by other castes.
For example Raj Gonds in central India ( a tribal group that adopted Kshatriya practices claimed descent from
Rajput rulers and integrated into the caste system).
The Kurmi caste traditionally agricultural started using Kshatriya titles, following vegetarian diets to claim an
elevated status.
Limitation of S-
S only brings a shift in individual caste ranking (positional change) but leaves the caste structure intact (that is it
does not bring about structural change).
Overall-
S does not weaken the caste system but rather reinforces it.
According to Gail Omvedt, the higher caste often resists or rejects the claims of the Sanskritising caste.
It is often manifested in the form of increased violence against Dalits.
Criticism-
Social mobility is exaggerated.
Endorsing the culture/ custom of the upper caste.
Exclusion of lower caste.
Reinforcing regressive practices.
Erosion of Dalit culture and identity.
S vis-a-vis Westernization (06:13 PM)

Aspect Sanskritisation Westernization

By emulating
By emulating the Western ideas,
Process of
practices of values,
Mobility
upper caste technology,
institutions, etc
It has a ritual It has a secular
Outlook
outlook outlook
Mobility within Mobility outside
Wrt Caste
the caste the caste
framework
framework framework
Encourage
freedom w.r.t
Cultural Pure
food choices
practices vegetarianism
example Non-
veg.
Westernization (W) and S seem contradictory, however, W also facilitates S-
Media such as TV and online platforms are promoting religious rituals and texts reinforcing Sanskritic values.
W values like equality and secularism embedded in the Indian constitution have opened religious shrines to all
castes.
Hence increasing participation in rituals.
Expansion of railways and modern transport has made religious pilgrimages more accessible aiding
Sanskritisation.
Cultural vacuum is created by W, hence lower caste faces less resistance in practicing S.
Alternative Views (06:28 PM)
De-Sanskritisation (D N Majumdar)- DN Majumdar argues that upper caste are giving up their traditions due to
 Western influence, a phenomenon he termed as de-Sanskritisation.
Dalitization (Kancha Iliah)- its popular adoption of Dalit cultural practices and is a counter-force to Sanskritisation.
For example- dalit assertion movements, celebration of Dalit icons, rejection of upper caste rituals.
Defiance (Harold Gould)- argues that S is not just simply an imitation of upper caste culture but a form of defiance
that challenges caste monopolies.
Question-
How far Sanskritisation is a modernizing force or traditionalising force in understanding the caste
system (2015, 10 Mark).

DOMINANT CASTE (06:37 PM)

Concept.
Features.
Function.
Criticism.
Concept-
Irrespective of position in the traditional caste hierarchy, it came to dominate the society/ region due to numerical
strength, political domination, and economic influence.
Features-
Wealth and land ownership.
Numerical strength.
Political power.
Education and Adm.
Ritual status.
Dominant caste according to Srinivias was found at a regional level and not confined to one village.
For example- Marathas in Maharashtra, Yadavs in UP, Patidars in Gujarat, Jats in Haryana, Vokkaligas in
Karnataka, Kammas and the Reddy in Andhra.
According to Adrian C. Mayer's study of Ramkhedi village in central India he found that the Jats dominate the
economic structure, Rajputs dominate political stricture and the Brahmins dominate the ritual structure.
Oscar Lewis- Rampur village found Rajput dominates in the secular sphere and often looked down upon Brahmins.
Hence rise in secular hierarchy questions Brahminical supremacy.
Functions of Dominant caste-
Control over resources.
Representation in state administration.
Overseing dispute settlements.
Watchdog of culture.
Nodal point of development projects.
Facilitate Sanskritisation by acting as the reference group.
Criticism-
According to Pauline Kolenda, Srinivas borrowed the term dominant from Evans Pritchard from 'Study of Nuer tribe
in Sudan'.
Similarly Pocock argued that Srinivas borrowed the idea from African anthropological studies on dominant tribes
and simply replaced tribe with caste.
According to DN Majumdar and Deepankar Gupta, Srinivas was criticized for overemphasizing numerical strength
as a criterion for dominance.
SC Dube advocates there are no dominant castes but dominant individuals.
Land reforms and social-political changes have diluted the dominance of single caste in many villages.
* Please refer to the whiteboard for the diagram.
(Upper caste- Dominant Caste (DC) believes, it can't compete with UC in private jobs due to lack of education.
Dominant caste- a feeling of relative deprivation.
Lower caste- Dominant Caste, they can't compete with LC in govt. jobs due to lack of reservation).
Traditional-
Agrarian community.
 Emerged due to the abolition of the zamindari system.
Consolidated position due to GRs.
Did not reap many benefits of educational opportunities.
Contemporary reality-
Agr. in distress.
Lack of alternative employment opportunities.
(Globalisation- obsession with city life).
Skewed sex ratio.
Expensive private education.
Shrinking public sector jobs.
Marxist sociologists like Ghanshyam Shah call this dominant caste, a class for mobilization as they are driven by
common economic and political interest.
Question:
What are the features of MN Srinivas's concept of Dominant caste? How effective it is in understanding
today's reality.

SRINIVAS: CONTEMPORARY STATUS OF CASTE (07:12 PM)

Wrote "An obituary of Caste as a system"

D- Decline in ritual hierarchy and Sanskritisation.
R- Rise in caste-based identity and vote bank politics.
I- Interdependence ends (disintegration of the Jajmani system).
P- Persistence due to secularisation and adaptation.
S- Shift from ascriptive to Instrumental.
Question-
Why Dominant caste is demanding reservation. Critically Discuss. (10 Marks)

NEXT CLASS TOPICS: Louis Dumont and André Beteille .

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Sociology_SmSh Class 06
LOUIS DUMONT:

Background-
French Sociologist.
Significant contribution to the study of caste in his seminal work- "Homo Hierarchicus".
Presented structuralist and Indologist approaches to the study of castes as an Ideological system rather than just a
system of social stratification.
Indologist- as he referred to text, scriptures, literature, etc.
Structuralist- society as a system, in which the elements (caste, religion, power) are connected in a specific
structure.
For example-
Village: wedding-
Brahmin priest- rituals.
Vegetarian guests will not sit and eat with the meat-eating guest.
The lower caste will not cook food for the upper caste.
If a rich Dalit is present, still the status is lower than that of a Brahmin.
Hence caste system can be referred to as a structured ideology based on purity and pollution which maintains social
hierarchy.
Caste is not about economic or political power but a belief that helps in organizing people into a hierarchy.
Theoretical Framework-
Levis Strauss- the idea of binary opposite of pure and impure.
Celestin Bougle-Dumont was influenced by the cultural explanation of the caste by Bougle.
According to which, caste has the following features-
Hierarchy.
Separation of Contact.
Occupational Division of Labour (DoL).
Perspective on caste-
According to Dumont caste is defined as a system of ideas and values.
It is a formal comprehensible and rational system.
According to him caste is unique to Indian society which has no other historical parallel.
Caste is based on ideology whose core essence is the hierarchy and this hierarchy is based on purity and pollution.
Hierarchy refers to-
Subordination- lower caste are placed below the higher caste in the social order.
Transcendence- the higher caste is seen as superior not just socially but ritually and morally.
Interdependence- even though castes are ranked, they depend on each other for different functions.
Hierarchy is a ladder of command where the caste groups are arranged as comparatively superior or inferior to one
another.
For example Brahman status has no meaning unless compared to Kshatriyas.

PURITY AND POLLUTION (05:31 PM)

Manifested-
Separation, for example, endogamy, residential separation, dietary restrictions/ commensality, and civil and
religious disabilities.
Absorption, for example, Manual Scavenging, Midwife, Washerman, Nai.
Types of Impurity-
Permanent- those born into an untouchable caste are considered permanently impure.
Their occupation are considered ritually polluting.
Temporary- higher caste can also become temporarily impure due to-
Contact with lower caste.
Birth or death in the family.
Menstruation, etc.
However this impurity can be removed through ritual purification.
Transmission-
Impurity is contagious and is considered to spread through-
Physical touch.
Sharing of food and water.
According to Dumont ritual status is superior vis-a-vis secular power.
According to him ritual purity is independent of wealth and power.
For example a King may hold political power and wealth but is ritually subordinated to Brahmin.
Even the lower caste accepts the caste hierarchy because they also believe in purity and pollution.
According to him ranking is religious in nature where power is subordinated to status.
Hence ritual hierarchy is the pure hierarchy.
Criticism (05:48 PM)
Western scholars- criticized Dumont's perspective on caste for being irrational and exploitative.
Dumont's reply- Western societies are different from Indian society.

Homo
Aspect Homo Equalis
Hierarchicus
Equality/ Hierarchy/
Values
/Individualism Collectivism
Merit/
Status Birth/ ascriptive
achievement
Open system- Closed system-
Mobility
high low
Open mkt/skill- Hereditary
Economic
based occupation
Exist outside the Influence caste-
Religious role
social order based order
Open across all
Marriage Endogamy
class
* Very Smart Mind Evaluate Rank and Modernity.
Substantialisation of Caste-
Dumont acknowledges that modernization has changed caste but argues that caste ideologies remain intact.
Earlier castes were interdependent for services, however now they are acting as self-sufficient groups competing for
jobs, political power, resources, etc.
For example Jats, Marathas, and Patels are demanding reservations and competing with Dalits, OBCs, etc.
Political parties giving tickets based on caste numbers (Politicisation of Caste)
Many castes form their own caste associations to lobby for benefits
Criticism (06:05 PM)
André Beteille-Dumont's ideas are too idealistic and they ignore real caste dynamics.
Gerald Berreman- Caste is about domination, not purity and pollution.
Deepankar Gupta- criticized Dumont's assumption that Brahmins are universally respected.
His study of Jats in north India showed that they considered Brahmins as lazy and greedy.
Yogendra Singh- he criticizes Dumont as focusing too much on caste for integration and ignoring caste conflict.
Hira Singh-Dumont is too focused on religion and neglects economic realities.
Overall concluding remark- despite criticism, TN Madan says Indian sociology must have been poorer without
Dumont's contribution.
Questions-
 Critically evaluate Louis Dumont Homo Hierarchicus (20 Marks).
Louis Dumont's perspective on the Indian Caste system (10 Marks).
How do you justify Dumont's deliberate stress on the ideology?
How relevant is Dumont's theory in understanding caste in contemporary India?

ANDRE BETEILLE (06:21 PM)

Concept of Caste-
Small, named group characterized by-
Endogamy.
Hereditary occupation.
Distinct lifestyle.
Ascriptive membership.
Critical of earlier theories-
Ghurye (Historical and Textual analysis).
Dumont (Brahminical superiority).
Srinivas (Sanskritisation).
Seminal work-
Caste, Class and Power.
Caste old and new.
Backward class and new social order.
Caste, Class and Power-
Refuted Ghurye.
Caste is an objective reality.
Need to be studied empirically.
Focus on real-life Interaction rather than textual tradition.
He conducted field research in Sripuram village (TN, Tanjore district).
He found three major caste groups-
Brahmins.
Non- Brahmins.
Adi- Dravidians.
The relationship b/w them is not harmonious but characterized by competition and power struggle.
Refute Dumont.
These caste groups are not homogenous, hence intra-caste relations also need to be studied, for example,
Brahmins- Sri Vaishnav and Smartha.
Ritual and social boundaries- Endogamy.
There existed a peasant caste (Mudaliars) which after gaining economic wealth- house renovation, education of
children, and political representation.
But had no intention of Sanskritizing.
Refute Srinivas.
He also observed 3 processes of forming social structure-
Unequal access to wealth (class), power (power), and status (caste).
Hence, caste dynamics need to be extended to incorporate class and power to understand the stratification in Indian
society.
A. Beteille suggested India should be studied from a stratification perspective considering caste class and power
rather than caste alone.
He challenged the Brahminical superiority model of Dumont, criticized the Sanskritisation of Srinivas, he highlighted
how land ownership, education, and political participation shape social ranking more than ritual purity
Advocated for a multidimensional approach to social inequality.
Harmonic and Disharmonic system-
Sync- Ideology, Reality- Not in sync.
Caste has been a deeply embedded feature of Indian society.
Andre Beteille has offered an alternative classification of society into harmonic and disharmonic systems.
 In his book "Harmonic and Disharmonic Social Systems", he criticized L. Dumont for categorizing societies as
egalitarian or hierarchical.
Harmoic Social System-
A harmonic society is one where ideology alliance with actual social structure.
That is no contradiction b/w normative and existential order.
For example- traditional Indian society-
Normative order- hierarchy, Inequality.
Existential order- caste-based discrimination.
For example Primitive tribal societies.
Disharmonic social system-
It is where the ideology contradicts the actual social structure.
Societal instability due to contradiction b/w ideals and reality, for example western society.
Normative order- promotes egalitarian principle.
Existential order- economic and social hierarchy exists.
Beteille framework can be applied to caste showing how the caste system creates harmonic social structures but is
challenged by disharmonic influences.
For example- democracy, constitutional rights introduced the ideals of equality in modern India.
Reservation policies, education, and urbanization challenged the caste system but discrimination still persists.
Hence- Ideals of equality vs realities of caste discrimination- disharmonic system.
Question-
In the context of the changing Indian society, how do you view Andre Beteille's conceptions of harmonic
and disharmonic social structures? (2022)

CASTE CLASS AND POWER (07:03 PM)

A. Beteille's view on cumulative inequality-

He highlighted how class caste and power were cumulative in pre-modern society, that is higher caste meant wealth
and political dominance, while lower caste meant poverty and subjugation.
This cumulative inequality reinforced a rigid social hierarchy.
For example- the Zamindari system, Varna system, etc.
With industrialization, urbanization, modernization, and political democratization cumulative inequality has now been
replaced by dispersed inequality, that is a higher caste person can be poor and a lower caste person can be
wealthy and politically powerful.
For example Dalit entrepreneurs, Dalit political leaders, and economically distressed among forward caste.
Question-
Discuss Andre Beteille's account of the relationship between Caste, Class, and Power as a change from
a symmetrical to asymmetrical one (20 Marks)

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Continuation of Caste System.

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Sociology_SmSh Class 07
ANDRE BETEILLE:

Concept of Caste-
Small, named group characterized by-
Endogamy.
Hereditary occupation.
Distinct lifestyle.
Ascriptive membership.
Critical of earlier theories-
Ghurye (Historical and Textual analysis).
Dumont (Brahminical superiority).
Srinivas (Sanskritisation).
Seminal work-
Caste, Class, and Power.
Caste old and new.
Backward class and new social order.

CASTE OLD AND NEW:

Traditionally caste system was rigid and the caste hierarchy was fixed.
The status of occupation was predetermined by birth.
However, with industrialization, urbanization, and modernization, the notion of purity and pollution was questioned.
Hence, Indian society should be studied from the following perspectives-
System of hierarchical gradation.
Interdependence and mobility.
Hierarchical gradation of values.
Traditional caste hierarchy- (some groups are ranked higher due to ritual beliefs(Brahmans versus Shudras)).
Interdependence and mobility- Dalit Entrepreneurs or politicians gaining power show social mobility, whereas
traditional occupations like barbers and potters still depend on each other, showing interdependence.
Hierarchical gradation of values- economic success now competes with caste in deciding social status, for
example, different values like education, wealth, and political power are now being used to redefine status.
André Beteille argued that India has never fully embraced modernity as described by Yogendra Singh, nor remained
confined to absolute tradition as suggested by Louis Dumont.
Hence he believed caste has transformed rather than completely being replaced by class.

BACKWARD CLASS AND NEW SOCIAL ORDER (05:38 PM)

Andre Betielle critically analyzed the extension of the reservation policy to OBCs.
According to him the class consists of people sharing the same market position.
However, in India, OBCs do not share uniform economic or occupational backgrounds, and hence, clubbing them
under a single category is empirically incorrect.
For example, treating dominant OBCs as par to marginalised OBCs causes an imbalance in affirmative action
policies.
He argued that present-day reservation policy is driven by vote bank politics rather than social justice concerns.
Reservations are deepening caste-based divisions and are fostering new social polarization.
Reservations were originally introduced to-
To correct historical injustice.
Equality of opportunity.
Redistributive agenda of the state.
 However, he questions the current beneficiaries of the reservation.
He considers this approach as anti-democratic, anti-egalitarian, and anti-meritocratic.
Therefore, he advocates for a modern merit-based democracy.
(Access to quality schools, universal health care, job security, and a shift from caste-based identity politics to
citizenship-based equality).

INDIA'S DESTINY NOT CASTE IN STONE (05:55 PM)

Caste vis-à-vis economic mobility.

Caste in daily affairs.
Caste vis-à-vis structured violence.
Andre Beteille in the article argued that due to modernization and economic change influence of caste in
commensality, marriage, and occupation is declining.
Caste and electoral politics-
According to him, caste has been dislodged from the ritual domain and has entered the psyche of people during
electoral politics, which is also hyped due to the media.
Scholars like Christophe Jeffrelot argued that caste-based political mobilization has also led to the empowerment
and representation of marginalised groups.
Hence rise of Dalit and OBC leaders reflects a shift in power dynamics rather than political opportunism
Erosion of caste practices in everyday life-
The rigid norms related to purity and pollution and interdining have declined.
Counterargument- matrimonial advertisement based on caste, separate utensils for Dalits (Satish Deshpande),
over-representation of Dalits in manual scavenging.
Caste and economic mobility-
Industrialisation and globalization have created diverse job opportunities and have loosened the historical link b/w
caste and occupation.
Counterargument- According to Amit Throat, STs and SCs continue to have lower income and land ownership
compared to the upper caste.
A study by Aswini Deshpande reveals that the Dalit face wage discrimination and under-representation in high-
paying private jobs.
Structural violence and caste discrimination-
A. Beteille- The media exaggerates caste conflict.
However, the counter says that violence against Dalits is on the rise (* update with the recent NCRB data).
Conclusion- According to Satish Deshpande, there are no signs of the death of caste in the near future.
"Jati kabhi nahi Jati ".
Questions-
Is the caste system changing, weakening, or disintegrating in India? (20 Mark)
Discuss the interrelationship between caste, class, and power.
Write a short note on the following-
a) Dumont's concept of Homohierarchicus.
b) Andre Beteille's definition of caste.
c) Positional change and Structural change.
d) Features of the caste system.
e) Dumont's perspective of the caste system.
Perspective on the study of caste by MN Srinivas and Andre Beteille (10 Marks)

TRANSFORMATION OF CASTE SYSTEM (06:24 PM)

Traditional-
Based on purity and pollution.
Hierarchy.
Occupational Division of Labour.
Separation of Contact.
 Forces of Change-
Industrialisation- diverse job opportunities are driven by skill set rather than caste- caste-neutral jobs.
Urbanisation- associated ideology or urbanism- heterogeneity and anonymity- secular pattern of living.
Modernisation- rationality, logic, scientific temper- questions/ challenges hierarchy based on purity and pollution.
Role of state-
Constitutional provision- for example, articles 14 to 16, 17, and article 23 to address caste-based discrimination.
BR Ambedkar- legal reforms are not sufficient, hence the need for social, cultural, and economic changes.
Affirmative actions- irrespective of status in the caste hierarchy.
Access to higher education, govt. Jobs.
Post mobility on secular hierarchy one can improve their ritual status through the process of Sanskritisation.
However, it is only a positional change and not a structural change.
The benefits of affirmative action were not equally reaped by all, and hence led to the emergence of class within
caste.
Land reforms- with land reforms, there was the emergence of a section that dominated in the local regional context
irrespective of their status in the traditional caste hierarchy known as the dominant caste.
Mandal Commission.
Contemporary reality-
With the implementation of the Mandal Commission report, there was the emergence of a modern avatar of caste,
where instead of vertical arrangement based on purity and pollution, there was horizontal competition for
backwardness without any stigma to have better access to resources and opportunities.
Questions-
Examine the influence of industrialization on caste.
Explain the concept of dominant caste and vote banks by giving examples.
What are the cultural and structural changes in the caste system since Independence?

CASTE IN POLITICS (06:58 PM)

Pre-Independence-
Christian missionaries spreading the message of Christianity as a reformative movement against dogmatic
practices.
English language and secular education- emergence of educated elite, who wanted to reform society against
regressive practices (caste system).
Threaten the hegemony of the Upper Caste.
Entrenched Caste (EC)-
UC was able to reap the benefits of early opportunities offered by the British.
They were not only ritually dominant but also dominating in the secular sphere
Post Independence-
Phase I (1950-60)-
Land reforms- abolition of zamindars.
Dominant caste- Ascendant caste- struggle for power b/w EC and AC.
Phase II (1960-1970)-
It was characterized by the politicisation of caste, which is the mobilization of people on caste lines to strengthen the
vote bank.
For example, the distribution of tickets and portfolio distribution supporting a particular caste group.
Formation of Multi-caste alliances.
Phase III (1980)-
It was assumed that with secular education, caste-neutral jobs, with the formation of multicaste alliances, caste
would cease to exist.
With politicisation, what actually happened was the Castesiation of Politics, which is a caste-based political party-
BSP, SP, etc.
Question-
What is caste politics and comment on the increasing influence of caste on Politics?
Rajni Kothari's views on caste in Politics (07:18 PM)
 He highlighted that caste and politics do not exist in isolation.
Caste is dynamic and is constantly adapting to economic, political, and social changes.
Caste provided readymade networks for political mobilization.
Leaders could tap existing caste loyalties, turning them into political support.
Hence, we have moved from ritual hierarchy to political bargaining.
" Democracy has broken the monopoly of the upper caste, but it has increased caste consciousness in the
process".
" Caste has emerged as the single most important instrument of social mobilization and political participation in
contemporary India.

CASTE AS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD IN INDIAN DEMOCRACY (07:24 PM)

Positives-
Enhancing political participation (Christophe Jaffrelot and MN Srinivas' concept of dominant caste).
Political awareness and assertion (rise of DMK, Dalit Panther movement in Maharashtra, Surinder Jodhka's caste-
based mobilisation has shifted from ritual hierarchy to social and economic justice).
Subaltern empowerment and social mobility-
Perspective of Joya Hassan- caste-based politics created the demand for inclusive development.
Negatives-
Fragmentation of society-
Rajni Kothari- a shift from issue-based politics to primordial identity politics.
Caste conflicts-
Gail Omvedt; backward caste assertion triggers upper caste backlash.
Casteism- caste-based mobilization reduces politics to an identity number game where representation is valued
over competence and merit is sidelined by caste loyalty.
G. Aloysius: caste-based parties are vehicles for patronage rather than agents for transformation.
Question-
How caste system hinder democracy in India? Give examples (10 Marks)

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Continuation of Caste System (Caste Mobility, Untouchability, etc).
Ripped by @KingMaker836

Sociology_SmSh Class 08
TRANSFORMATION OF CASTE SYSTEM:

Caste neutral jobs.

Secular pattern of living (anonymity, heterogeneity).
Secular hierarchy (social, political, and economic).
Mobility (cumulative-dispersed).
Class within caste.
Emergence of the Dominant caste (Srinivas) (threatening Brahmanical Supremacy).
Substantialisation of caste (L. Dumont).
Politicisation and Casteization of politics.
Caste endogamy-
For example, IHDS- 95% of marriages within the subcaste.
Role of Caste w.r.t Identity-
For example, Pew Research centre- 98% of Indians associate with their caste.
Caste based Residential segregation-
Ghanshyam Shah (Bhuj) EPW (Caste in earthquake Rehabilitation)- 'UC' refused to stay in the colony with the dalit
community.
Bhalarwa (Delhi)- Delhi Slum demolition Report- from central Delhi, were evicted and sent to the city landfill area.
Rina Ramdev (2011) (City, Caste and Politics of Space)- In an Urban planning document, categorically areas were
marked on the map for dalit habitation.
For example, Dalit basti.
Caste vis-à-vis in Education-
According to the IIT Phd Enrollment Paper 2020, which covered the top 5 IITs, only 10 % SC community and 2% ST
community.
Midday Meal Scheme based on caste- discrimination based on caste.
Sukhdeo Thorat (AIIMS, Delhi)- how faculty members have discriminated against students from the marginalised
community.
Caste w.r.t Jobs/ economic opportunities-
There exists caste clustering in the Informal sector (example- 97.25% of manual scavengers= SC).
ILO report 2023- over-representation of SC/ST community in low-paying jobs and informal sector.
Emergence of caste based associations-

BSP,SP, Bheem Sena,

Political
Maratha kranti Morcha
Brahmin matrimony,
Social- Marriage
Rajput matrimony
NSFDC, DICCI,
Economic Marwari business
network
Dalit Sahitya, Vaishya
Education
Education Society

* Please refer to the diagram as drawn over the whiteboard-

Rural - Urban.
Core- upper caste.
Outside- inhabited by the lower caste-
Limited access to education, skills, and jobs.
Lower caste migrated to urban areas- limited education- limited skills- limited job opportunities- informal sector-
 lack of wages- confined to slums- Urban areas.
Caste- Class.
Globalisation- industrialisation, urbanisation- secular pattern of living + caste neutral jobs.
Casteism-
Loyalty to one's caste.
Supremacy of one's own caste.
Discrimination on the basis of caste against the lower caste.
Question-
Casteism is the modern edition of the caste system. Do you agree with the statement? Discuss with the arguments.
Reification of Caste-
It refers to the process where something abstract becomes concrete or real, that is, caste has now become a natural
aspect of society rather than man made system.

CASTE MOBILITY (05:53 PM)

According to MN Srinivas, one of the avenues of mobility was emulating the cultural practices of the upper caste,
which he referred to as - Sanskritization.
However he believed it is not the only way to ensure mobility.
There exist other avenues.
For example, gaining political power.
Such as in the context of Reddys (Andhra Pradesh), after they became powerful landlords with the support of
Brahmins, they claimed a higher status.
Similarly, economic wealth (land ownership), for example Vellalar community in TN, after acquiring huge tracts of
land they claimed higher status.
Kings Patronage- for example Chamars from Cochin, some of them were elevated to status of Nayars by the king.
Kings' patronage- gain the support- reward- used to grant them higher status in the caste hierarchy.
Education- for example Kayastha community, their status improved under the British period.
Westernisation- ideas, institutionalisation, tech., values of the West.
In the post-independence period-
Reservation- NanduRam- 'Mobile Scheduled Caste' (emergence of Dalit middle class).
Land reforms- Srinivas' concept of the Dominant Caste.
Electoral politics- Rajni Kothari.
Contemporary times-
Neo-mobility and Identity assertion.
Neo-mobility- a new way of attaining mobility.
Education, Private Jobs, Media, Technology, Business, Market.
Identity assertion-
When we take pride in our caste identity and assert it to gain respect, representation, and dignity.
Dalit Panther, Jat agitation, Patidar movement, Maratha agitation, etc.

UNTOUCHABILITY (UT) (06:10 PM)

Concept-
Defined as a social process of exclusion, discrimination based on ritual impurity, rooted in the caste system.
Dimensions-
According to T.K. Oommens' typology, 3 dimensions of UT-
Exclusion (social ostracization)
Humiliation (denial of dignity in a public place)
Exploitation (example bonded labor, landlessness).
Forms of UT.
B.R Ambedkar's view on Caste.
Broken Men Theory of B.R Ambedkar-
According to B.R Ambedkar, the primitive society was tribal in nature.
With the passage of time some settled with agriculture and a few remained nomadic.
 Soon, the battle took place between settled and Nomadic tribes.
Nomadic were in need of food and shelter, whereas settled people were in need of protection.
A bargain was struck between the two, where broken men agreed to do the work of watch and ward, and settled
tribes agreed to give them food and shelter.
Nomadic tribes were settled outside the village.
They embraced Buddhism, whereas settled people accepted the supremacy of Brahmins.
Despite conversion to Buddhism, nomadic tribes continued beef eating, which further pushed them outside society.
Manus Mixed Caste Theory-
As per Manusmriti, the untouchables originated from the union between different varnas.
For example- Chandals born from Brahmin women and Shudra Men.
These offspring were assigned ritually impure tasks and denied entry to temples and public spaces.
Racial Theory by Risley-
According to it, Aryan subjugated the Dasas, who were pushed to the margins and treated as untouchables.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar called this theory pseudo-historical.
Religious perspective (Jotibha Phule in Gulamgiri)-
According to it, Shudras were the original inhabitants, while the Brahmins were the outsiders who manipulated
religion to dominate the native population.
This theory explains UT as a functional system where occupations are inherited and competition is reduced.
Since each group had a role, it created stability.
However, this was criticized for normalising discrimination.
Marxist perspective-
According to Ghanshaym Shah, UT is not about caste or religion; it is connected to the economy.
It functioned to control the surplus labour with lower caste forced into ritually impure tasks.
The upper caste used religion to normalise this discrimination, and people were told it was their dharma to follow the
caste rules.
Louis Dumont Cultural Theory-
UT are at the lowest level b/c of their association with impurity.
Question-
Define untouchability. Elaborate on different perspectives on untouchability.

FORMS OF UNTOUCHABILITY (06:47 PM)

Robert Merton's concept of latent and manifest helps to identify the layers of caste based discrimination.
Manifest form of UT-
Denial of temple entry.
Separate well or water resources in the village.
Segregated dining utensils.
Physical violence and atrocities.
Caste based occupation division of labour.
Denial of entry in households.
Educational discrimination.
Latent form of UT-
Token representation that is the inclusion of dalits in institutions without giving them meaningful roles.
Urban housing discrimination.
Ritual based on purity and pollution practiced in the garb of tradition.
Use of a casteist slur in private conversation or digital space.
Opposition to reservation using the idea of merit hides the caste privilege.
Segregation in common spaces- for example, elite club membership, school groups, etc.
Stereotyping and cultural exclusion, for example, Dalit culture, literature, and heroes are marginalised in the school
curriculum and media.
Institutional biases, for example, Dalits facing discrimination in private sector jobs despite qualifications.
Scholarly Perspective-
Dr Ambedkar described UT as the most inhumane practice sustained by societal norms.
 According to Gail Omvedt, urbanization and capitalism have masked the caste system rather than eliminating it.
Anand Teltumbde emphasized the institutional and class-based dimensions of caste exclusion.
Question-
Explain different forms of untouchability in India.

DR BR AMBEDKAR'S PERSPECTIVE ON CASTE (07:06 PM)

Features of the Caste System-

Caste is not just inequality but a graded system of inequality (hierarchy).
Caste assigns profession by birth, not aptitude (occupation DoL).
Ambedkar saw endogamy as the essence of caste.
Restriction on social interaction.
Lack of vertical mobility.
Religious sanction- the caste system is upheld by the religious text, like the Manusmriti.
Scholarly perspectives-
Gail Omvedt- Dr Ambedkar was the first modern sociologist of the caste.
Christophe Jaffrelot describes Dr Ambedkar's thoughts as a moral sociology of caste.
Andre Beteilley- agreed with his observation on caste as graded inequality.

(07:13 PM)

Other
Ambedkar's
Aspects Mainstream
Perspective
Perspective
division of
Function division of labor
laborers
Social construct
Purusukta hymn to enforce
Origin
of Rig Veda inequality
(graded)
Anhilation of
Within the caste and
Reform
religion discrediting of
religious text
Some mobility is
fixed, rigid, inate
Mobility possible, eg,
nature
sanskritization
Stability, Inequality,
Moral values
harmony discrimination
Solution to abolish the caste system (07:21 PM)
Inter caste marriage- he stated that the real remedy for breaking the caste is intermarriage.
Gail Omvedt argues that Dr Ambedkar promoted marriage reform as a radical challenge to end caste endogamy.
Destroying the authority of Manusmriti-
He argued that the scriptural basis of caste has to be attacked as it legitimises caste hierarchy.
Rejecting the varna system.
Conversion to Buddhism-
Eleanor Zelliot calls this the most successful religious protest against caste
Promoting education and rationality.
"Educate, Agitate and Organise".
Gopal Guru saw this emphasis on education as a collective weapon against caste.
Political empowerment of Dalits-
Rajni Kothari called Dr Ambedkar the architect of political assertion among dalits.
 Constitutional safeguards-
Marc Galanter termed these provisions as an attempt to undo historical injustices.
Questions-
How has Dr Ambedkar defined the features of the caste system? How is it different from mainstream treatment of
caste?
Main features of Dr B.R Ambedkar on Annihilation of Caste.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Tribals.

Ripped by @KingMaker836

Society_SmSh Class 09
TRIBALS:

Definitional problem.
Geographical spread.
Colonial Policy.
Issue of integration and autonomy.
Tribals-
Who are the tribes?
What makes tribes different from others?
Tribe versus Caste.
Class element within Tribes.
Problems associated with tribals-
Definition problem.
PVTG
Tribal Identity.
Problem vis-à-vis geographical spread.
Policies wrt Tribals-
Isolation.
Assimilation.
Integration.
Issues wrt Integration and Autonomy.

WHO ARE TRIBES (05:25 PM)

Characteristic features-
Tribes- Adivasis- original inhabitants.
Geographically isolated- living in inaccessible stretches, for example, hills, forests, deserts.
Pre-Agricultural level of technology/ tools- hunting, gathering, collection of MFP.
Subsistence economy- lack/ absence of surplus generation.
Lack of hierarchy- egalitarian community.
Distinct culture- language, dressing style, food habits.
Strong kinship bonds- extended families where everyone is connected through blood relations and marriage.
Religious belief- animism, totemism, nature worship.
Politically autonomous- that is, minimal external interference (Governance structures+ Customary laws).
Distinct Racial features.
What makes Tribals distinct from others?
Social Structure-
Kinship-based.
Egalitarian Society.
Caste based DoL does not exist among tribals.
Toinnes- Gemeinschaft (closed, Informal, cooperation), Gesellschaft (distant, self-interest, formal).
Economic Practices-
According to Mandel Baum, Tribals engage in hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation, pastoralism, and community
land ownership.
According to Karl Polanyi, the economy is driven by reciprocity rather than the market.
According to Watter Fernandes, b/c the penetration of market, money, and state, it is leading to there economic
integration in the mainstream society.
Political organisation-
 According to N.K. Bose, there exists a decentralised structure, where decisions are made by elders, wise people,
and it is made collectively.
Henry Maine's theory-
Status (rigid societies, for example, caste-based) vs. contract theory (modern societies).
Matrilineal structure.
Religious practice-
Animism- a belief that everything in nature has a spirit.
Tribes often pray to these spirits for protection, rain, crops, and good health.
For example, Santhals believe in the Bonga spirit, which according to them lives in hills and forests.
Totemism- every tribe believes they have a spiritual connection to an animal or plant called a totem.
The totem is sacred, for example Munda clan has a tiger as their totem.
Tribes do not have formal scriptures or a priest.
The rituals are conducted by the elders or shamans.
Religion is oral and practice-based, which is passed down through storytelling, songs, traditions, etc.
Language-
According to the People Linguistic Survey of India, many tribal languages are facing extinction as they are often
unwritten.

Aspects Tribes Caste

System of social
Egalitarian, based stratification
Social Structures on strong kinship based on
bonds. principles of purity
and pollution
Absent, but if
present, then it is Ritual Hierarchy
Hierarchy
based on Kinship, (strict)
Age, and Gender.
Hunting,
gathering, shifting DoL ( Jajmani
Economic
cultivation, system- William
Activities
community land Wiser)
ownership
Rigis
stratification,
Mobility Flexible mobility is not
possible as status
is ascriptive
Animism, Institutional
Religious Beliefs Totemism, Nature religion based on
worship, etc scriptures
Movement exists,
Territorial Strong attachment but within the
Significance to the land. caste hierarchy.

Hills, Forest, Cities, plains,

Habitat
Deserts Villages
Stronghold of
Status of women Better status
patriarchy

Scholarly View (06:10 PM)

A tribe is a local group and a caste social group, and when a tribe loses its territorial significance, it behaves like a
 caste.
Andre Beteille- tribes are distinct as they are relatively isolated and have distinct religion and language.
Tribe Caste Continuum-
Pure Tribe-(most of groups belong here)- Pure caste.
Pastoralisation- Gujjar- caste, Gaddis- tribe.
Endogamy- caste, there are a few tribes which practise endogamy (a few clans among the Toda tribe)
Hinduised tribes- there exists the practice of ritual purity and pollution.
Sanskritisation by MN Srinivas.
Surjit Sinha-Tribe Rajput Continuum-
This idea refers to a gradual transition seen among tribal communities where they begin to adopt the lifestyle, rituals,
and identity of Rajputs.
It's a continuum, meaning there is no sudden jump for example, adopting names, dressing style, rituals over a period
of time.
For example- Bhumij Raj, West Bengal.
Kshatriyaisation among Bhils.
Raj Gonds of central India.
This process takes place due to the following factors-
To gain legitimacy from the Hindu population.
To protect land rights by claiming kashaturya status.
To escape tribal stigma and join the mainstream society.
FG Bailey tribe caste continuum-
When a tribal group becomes more integrated with the mainstream society, that is-
Takes up settled agriculture.
Adopts Hindu customs.
Starts interacting with caste communities, and they may resemble the caste.
For example, the Gond tribe in central India.
It was observed that the tribes are oscillating between caste and tribal identity depending on the context.
For example, a group claimed to be tribal to get the government. benefits may present themselves as a caste in
social situations, which gives them higher status and acceptance.
GS Ghurye Assimilation of Tribes (06:29 PM)
According to him, the grand historical process of merger between communities has almost been completed.
The tribes in India have slowly absorbed Hindu values and lifestyle through contact with Hindu social groups.
For example, they gave up liquor drinking.
Received education, improved agriculture.
Some of the Hindu voluntary organizations have also played an important role in the development of tribes, such as
Ramkrishna Mission, Arya Samaj, etc.
Hence, they should be referred to as Backward Hindus.
For example- Hinduised tribe- Meena, Partially hinduised tribe- Mundas, Hill tribes- Garo, Khasi.
However, there are certain factors which have resulted into moving away of tribes from the mainstream fold-
Development-led displacement of tribals has led to a rise in ethnic tensions among tribes.
Hence development of strong tribal identities.
Conversion of many tribals to Christianity has broken the caste-tribe continuum.
Retribalisation to avail the benefits of state-led intervention.
Questions-
Ghurye's analysis of tribes was based on the tribe-caste continuum. Discuss. (10 Marks)
Write a short note on the following (10 Marks each)-
Tribe Caste- Continuum.
Ghurye's Backward Hindus.
Tribe Rajput Continuum.
What makes tribals distinct from others?

CLASS ELEMENT WITHIN TRIBES (06:42 PM)

 Tribes are characterized as having-
Subsistence economy.
Minimal hierarchy.
Egalitarianism.
Community landownership.
However, due to Historical disruption, economic transformation, state intervention, emergence of class.
According to Andre Beteilley, Modernisation, along with state-led development, has led to the breakdown of
traditional tribal structures, which has further brought individualism along with class elements.
Pre-British Period-
Self-sufficient.
Subsistence economy.
Minimal hierarchy.
Engaged in hunting and gathering.
Absence of class differentiation (Mandel Baum).
British Period-
Radical transformation- due to the penetration of moneylenders, revenue farmers, traders, and Dikkus.
Led to debt trap, land alienation, and reduction in status to landless labourers/ sharecroppers.
Rural Proleteriazation (Christoph Von Furer haimendorf).
Migration and occupational shift-
Tribes or tribals were migrated to work on plantation crops- a shift from forest-based occupation to wage labour.
This shift became the basis for occupation-based startification (B.K. Roy Burman).
Conversion to Christianity-
Provided opportunity for better education and a job, which created grounds for upward social mobility.
Hence a divide between converted and non-converted tribals.
Verrier Elwin- This conversion led to both cultural and class bifurcation.
Post Independence-
Reservation- political representation+, democratic participation+ emergence of political elite among tribes.
According to Ghurye, Tribal elites disengaged themselves from others, leading to class formation.
Education and economic mobility- secular hierarchy (MN Srinivas).
State-led intervention in the form of a welfare scheme-
SHGs, Cooperatives, Tribal Development Plan, etc, which led to the emergence of contractors, local leaders among
tribes.
Xaxa, these benefits were reaped by only a few, and hence, class differentiation
Post LPG/ 1990s/ Contemporary-
Economic reforms and corporate expansion in tribal areas have commercialised tribal land and resources.
For example, opposition to Vedanta mining in the Niyamgiri hills.
Andre Beteille argued that integration into modern markets has led to the erosion of tribal collectivism, giving rise to
individualism and class consciousness.
Exposure to cities has created a tribal class that is urban educated, salaried, economically mobile, etc, which is in
stark contrast to a daily wage miner or a farmer.
Access to digital platforms and education has empowered some tribal youth, increasing awareness and aspiration,
leading to the emergence of a new aspirational class.
Xaxa Committee- it emphasised that tribal development must be inclusive and policy interventions must address
internal inequality to prevent further polarisation.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Continuation of Tribe.

Ripped by @KingMaker836

Soc_SmSh Class 10
PVTG's:

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups-

Background-
In 1976, Dhebhar Commission highlighted how they are a socially and economically marginalised community
among tribals requiring special attention called as Primitive Tribal Group (PTG).
2006- renamed as PVTG.
Criteria-
Low level of literacy.
Economic backwardness.
Declining or stagnant population.
Pre-agricultural level of technology.
Relative Isolation.
Statistics-
There are 75 PVTGs, spread across 18 states and 1 UT.
According to Niti Ayog, PVTG < 1% of the population but disproportionately suffer from Poverty, illiteracy, and
Malnutrition.
Reasons for identifying PVTGs separately-
Socio-Economic Backwardness-
Low level of literacy (10%-44%).
High rates of IMR, CMR, MMR, and Malnutrition.
Subsistence economy- persistent poverty.
Marginalisation and Isolation-
Geographically Isolated.
Lack of political representation.
Fear of cultural endangerment due to loss of traditional knowledge and Modernisation.
Risk of extinction- due to epidemic, climate change, and loss of habitat.
Limited access to resources.
Dependent on the depleted forest ( fuel, food, and shelter).
Land alienation.
Displacement.
Problems faced by PVTGs-
H: Health and Malnutrition.
E: Educational Exclusion.
L: Land Alienation.
P: Poor Implementation and Administrative deficit.
E: Erosion of Culture, Communication, and Connectivity Barrier.
D: Displacement.
Health and Malnutrition- high incidence of malaria, TB, and malnutrition.
For example Bonda tribe in Odisha has a high infant and maternal mortality rate.
Lack of access to primary healthcare centers and nutritional schemes.
Educational exclusion- literacy rate among PVTGs is less than 30% (according to the Ministry of Tribal Affairs).
The Birhor and Asur tribes have less than 10 % female literacy in Jharkhand.
Lack of schools in remote areas, along with a language barrier.
Land alienation- PVTGs often lose land to outsiders, for example Kamar tribe of Chhattisgarh has reported cases of
land alienation and bonded labour.
Administrative neglect- due to bureaucratic inefficiency and lack of participatory planning, benefits under the
government schemes often do not reach PVTGs.
 Erosion of Culture- exposure to mainstream culture, religion, and market has diluted their traditional customs.
For example, Chenchus, Telangana are losing forest-based livelihoods due to strict forest laws.
Displacement and loss of habitat- development projects like dams, mining often displace PVTGs.
For example, Dongria Kondh in the Niyamgiri hills resisted bauxite mining by Vedanta.
Communication and connectivity barriers-
For example, the Bultoo experiment.
Way Forward (05:40 PM)
Social - mobile health units, Bike Ambulance (Avaneesh Saran), culturally sensitive education, Mother tongue.
Economic- their rights in the forest and land need to be recognised and protected.
Administrative- context-specific development, Xaxa- tailored approach (cultural and ecological context), livelihood,
education, health.
Real-time monitoring of data.
Political- political empowerment that is increasing their participation in planning and implementation via the Gram
Sabhas' Self Help Groups, etc.
Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf- they have ecological niche-based isolation; therefore, any forced integration will
have a risk of cultural extinction.
According to Arvind Kumar, mainstream policies often assume uniform tribal needs, ignoring the hyper-localized
vulnerability of PVTGs.
Question-
Why have we started using another category of tribes called the PVTGs? Why are they so-called? (10 Mark, 2017).

DEFINITIONAL PROBLEMS (05:52 PM)

Scholarly views-
AR Desai - tribes are at different stages of integration with mainstream society; hence, there is no uniform definition.
* Refer to the diagram as drawn over the whiteboard-
Totally assimilated- Meenas.
Partially assimilated- Mundas, Ho, Santhals, etc.
Completely Isolated- Sentinelese.
GS Ghurye- refer to the tribes 'Backward Hindus'.
DN Majumdar defined a tribe as a social group characterised by common territory, culture, language, and political
structure.
B S Guha- based on racial classification-
Proto-Austroloids.
Mongoloids.
Negrito.
Mandel Baum-
Social bonds and kinship.
Lack of a clearly defined hierarchy.
Absence of formal organisation.
Lack of surplus accumulation.
Segmented society.
Communitarian landholding.
Problems due to definition-
TRIBAL GAP.
Lack of uniform terminology.
Racial classification.
Integration versus Isolation.
Backward vs advanced.
Assimilation in caste.
Inadequate geography and economic criteria.
Administrative issues.
Lack of cultural uniformity.
 Political manipulation of identity.
Terminology-
India lacks a single universally accepted definition of a tribe.
The Constitution uses the term scheduled tribe but doesn't define what a tribe is.
Racial classification by Risley-
In 1901, the term animist was coined.
He separated tribal communities on the basis of religion, as animists are those who worship nature, spirits,and
animals rather than an organised god or religion.
Britishers portrayed them as backward and separate from the rest of Indian society.
Many tribes were also labelled as criminals under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871.
Integration versus Isolation debate-
Verrier Elwin advocated preserving the tribal culture by keeping tribes isolated from mainstream society.
In contrast, Nehru promoted integration while respecting tribal identity.
This policy confusion affects how tribes are classified and understood.
Backward versus Advanced tribes-
Some tribes have progressed socially and economically, whereas others are still marginalised.
For example, Meenas of Rajasthan versus Baigas of MP.
Assimilation in caste-
Scholars like GS Ghurye have argued that tribes are backward Hindus. FG Bailey's tribe caste continuum, Surjit
Sinha's Tribe Rajpoot Continuum, etc, raise confusion between tribes and caste, especially those who have
adopted Hindu rituals.
Lack of cultural uniformity-
India has 705 tribal groups with different languages, customs, and lifestyles.
This diversity makes a single definition difficult.
Geog. and economic criterai not sufficient-
Andre Beteilley criticised the use of outdated criteria for defining tribes based on forest dwelling and a primitive
economy, as, due to integration into urban networks and markets, their distinctiveness is lost.
Administrative issues-
The criteria to define tribes are vague (geographical isolation, distinct culture, shyness of contact, etc).
This vagueness often led to political misuse.
Political Manipulation-
It creates ground for political manipulation of tribal identity.
Concluding remark-
The definition of tribes is not just about identity but also about state policy.
Question-
Explain the definitional problems concerning tribal communities in India (10 Marks/ 2020).

TRIBAL IDENTITY (06:28 PM)

Concept-
It is defined as a sense of belongingness and collective conscience among the people of a tribal group based on
social, cultural, linguistic, and historical attributes.
Key elements of Tribal Identity-
Indigenous customs, rituals, beliefs.
Linguistic uniquness.
Traditional land use and ecological practices.
Community living and Kinship bonds.
* Civil Services Examination Prepares Real Understanding-
Colonial Categorization.
Sanskritization.
Eco. Transformation.
Political Mobilization.
Religious conversion.
 Urbanisation, Globalisation.
Colonial Categorization-
The British census of 1901 categorised tribes as Animist, detaching from religious categories and reinforcing their
separatness (Risley).
Backward Hindus (Ghurye).
Post-Independence ST status for affirmative action under Article 342.
The Sanskritization theory by MN Srinivas which results in cultural assimilation and the erosion of tribal customs.
Economic transformation- the Adani Mining Project in Chhattisgarh caused the displacement of tribals.
A tribal farmer in Jharkhand, who once practiced a subsistence economy, has shifted to a market-based economy,
which has disrupted the traditional livelihood.
A Santhal youth from Jharkhand working in a textile mill in Surat may lose touch with their indigenous customs, and
contractual labour roles will re-shape their identity from forest dweller to poor urban labourer.
Political mobilisation-
Paul Brass's ethnic mobilization theory.
He explained that ethnic identity is not always natural or fixed.
It often becomes stronger when they feel neglected or excluded.
They are mobilised around a shared identity to demand rights, resources, and opportunities, for example, the Bodo
movement in Assam.
* Sanjib Baruah- India Against Itself; Assam and Politics of Nationality (neglect identity insecurity and internal
colonialism).
Religious Conversion- according to Verrier Elwin, conversion often leads to class and cultural bifurcation, which
impacts the identity.
Urbanisation and Globalisation- exposure to formal education and urban employment creates hybrid identities.
For example, a tribal student in Jharkhand starts an Instagram page to promote tribal art and language.
Obsession with the cape-up videos (Homogenisation).
Western dresses + English language + celebrating local tribal festivals ( hybridisation).

ISSUES WITH TRIBAL IDENTITY (07:04 PM)

No uniform tribal identity due to cultural and linguistic diversity.

Social and economic marginalisation-
Land alienation.
Literacy level 59%, school dropout 60%.
Poverty and economic dependence.
Gaps and implementation-
FRA 2006 (denial of Forest rights due to bureaucratic hurdles).
With respect to PESA, it promised autonomy through the gram sabha but delayed implementation.
Emergence of tribal movement with a focus on the revival of rituals, language, and autonomy.
According to the Xaxa Committee, empowerment must go beyond administrative inclusion and include cultural
preservation, political participation, and economic equity.
Questions-
What do you mean by tribal identity, and what are the issues concerning tribal identity?
What are the factors affecting tribal identity?
How has class emergence occurred among tribes, and what factors are responsible for it?

THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD

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Sociology_SmSh Class 11
GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD:

Scholarly View-
According to L.P. Vidyarthi, tribals are classified in the following 5 regions-
(i) Himalayan regions (Pastoralism/ Shifting Cultivation).
(ii) Central India (Settled Agriculture).
(iii) Western India (adapting to an arid/ semi-arid lifestyle).
(iv) Southern India (forest-based livelihood).
(v) Island Region ( primitive lifestyle).
According to BK Roy Burman, there are 5 zones-
(i) North East India (Garo/ Khasi/ Naga).
(ii) Central India (Santhals, Gonds).
(iii) Southern India (Chenchus, Todas).
(iv) Western India (Bhils, Meenas).
(v) Himalayan Region ( Lepchas, Bhotia, Gaddi, etc).
Problems vis-à-vis geographical spread-
Cultural Diversity-
Ideological differences + differences w.r.t requirements related to social infrastructure = Politicization + Lack of
Representation.
Economic Inequality + Resource Conflicts.
Communication Barriers.
Demographic Vulnerability-
Sentinelese-
Population = < 100.
Problem/ risk of extinction.
Gonds ( MP, CG, Odisha, Maharashtra)
Population = 1.2 crore.
Displacement + land alienation.
Threat to the Gondi language.
Health and education deficits.
Bhils-
Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Population = 1.7 crore.
Migration- economic exploitation.
Regional variation, the Bhils of Rajasthan are comparatively poorer than the Bhils of Gujarat.

NORTH EAST REGIONS (05:26 PM)

Northeast (NE) Regions constitute 12 % of India's tribal population.

They are relatively better organized politically, but they still face challenges-
NE is a strategically sensitive region that is forested and hilly, which affects communication, governance, and
service delivery.
It is connected to the rest of India by a narrow stretch, which hinders physical and economic integration.
It shares 99% of its border with other countries, which makes it vulnerable to cross-border migration.
Illegal migration not only impacts livelihood and culture but also the political dynamics.
NE remains isolated as it was governed under the Bengal Frontiers Act of 1873.
Administrative inefficiency, as it puts the entire NE under one umbrella.
Stereotyping and discrimination.
 Paul Brass- Ethnic Mobilization Theory.
Levi Strauss- Cultural Dilution.
Language is part of core Identity.
UNESCO- 100 tribal languages are endangered.
Foucault's 'Biopolitics'.
Politics of life to manage life.
Vaccination, sanitation, and PHC.
Lack of access to PHC, lack of a trained workforce, low level of vaccination, high level of mortality, and malnutrition.

CENTRAL INDIA (05:38 PM)

It is home to 60% of India's tribal population.

CG, Jharkhand, Odisha, MP, and Maharashtra.
It falls under the red corridor.
Problems-
Development-induced displacement.
Walter Fernandes- 40% of all those displaced are tribals.
Land alienation and loss of habitat.
Maoist insurgency and violence-
Many tribals joined the Maoist movement not because of the ideology but the loss of land due to mining, lack of
schools, hospitals, police brutality, and corruption.
Cultural marginalisation and social discrimination- tribes like the Gonds are often seen through the lens of caste,
and their culture is diluted.
Tribes lack access to dominant languages, networks, and credentials necessary for mobility (Bourdieu's Cultural
Capital).
Health and education deficit, for example, in Dantewada, tribal women walked miles for basic maternity care.

WESTERN INDIA (05:47 PM)

(Gujarat, Rajasthan).
Problem-
Environmental stress and water scarcity.
Seasonal migration subjects them to the problem of bonded labour, low wages, and debt cycles.
Identity loss due to Ghurye's notion of the Hinduisation of tribes.
Intersectionality by Kimberley Crenshaw-
Tribal women face double discrimination both as women and as tribals within patriarchal tribal structures.

SOUTHERN INDIA (05:52 PM)

Problem-
Cultural vulnerability, as many tribes have a very small population, makes their language and customs endangered.
Forest Rights Versus Conservation- conflict between tribal rights and environmental protection.
Poor representation in the political field.
Island and Himalayan tribes- Threat of extinction and environmental disruption.
Concluding remark-
According to NK Bose, effective tribal welfare requires-
Region-specific developmental strategies.
Protection of tribal rights over land, forest, and resources.
Strengthening of political representation and cultural identity.
A shift from assimilation to inclusion.

ISSUE OF INTEGRATION AND ASSIMILATION (05:58 PM)

Criteria Isolation Assimilation Integration

Proponents Verrier Elwin G.S. Ghurye Nehru

"Tribals
should
"Leave Tribal Backward
Core Idea progress but
alone policy" Hindus
in their own
way".

Explanation-
Verrier Elwin:
Tribal culture is inherently valuable and spiritually rich; therefore needs to be protected from corruption due to
modernity.
Tribals have their own traditional system of knowledge, laws, and social organisation.
Hence, need protection.
No entry of any religious reformers.
Legal and physical boundaries to prevent the entry of traders, moneylenders, and bureaucrats.
Example- Autonomous Tribals Councils (TAMeMi).
G.S. Ghurye:
Tribals are not separate; they are just backward due to incomplete Hinduization.
Cultural transformation and social integration are required through Sanskritisation to address their cultural issues
(alcoholism, shifting cultivation).
For example, Gonds ( Hinduisation), Tharu, Khasa (Uttarakhand), worship Hindu deities.
Nehru-
Panchsheel Policy- tribals should develop along their own genius.
Reflects rights in the forest and land.
No over-administration.
Tribal assistance w.r.t polity and economy.
The barometer of progress should be Human Resource development.
For example, Self-government through Gram Sabha ( PESA).
Bastar Adivasi Schools (Integration of education with tribal language and culture).
Criticism-
Ghurye-
Isolation is also a form of exploitation.
The national park approach treats the species as a museum species.
Thakar Bapa-
Tribal requires- welfare, education, and integration.
Verrier Elwin-
We don't want to make second-rate Hindus, but first-rate tribals.
Christoph Von Furer Haimendorf-
Forceful assimilation will lead to loss of identity and psychological dislocation.
Xaxa- integration w/o autonomy will make them an ethnic minority.
Christoph Von Furer Haimendorf- Autonomy w/o empowerment will lead to only tokenism.
Walter Fernandes- 40% displacement.
* Autonomy on paper, Exclusion in practice.
Question:
Q1. Verrier Elwin's views on the freedom of tribals ( 10 Marks)
Q2. Analyse different views on the integration and autonomy of tribes in India (20 Marks)
Q3. Write a note on ethnicity and integration in the context of tribes ( 20 Marks)
Q4. How is the tribal question related to issues of integration and autonomy in modern India?
After all, we came up with a policy of Integration-
Integration-
Panchsheel- Constitutional provisions, statutory laws, government schemes.
 Definition- 342, 366.
Education empowerment and economic empowerment- 15, 16, 46, 335.
Political empowerment- 330, 332, 243 P, 243 T.
Cultural uniqueness- 29, 30.
Administrative convenience- 5th and 6th schedule.
Agency- 338 A.
PoA, SC/ST.
PESA.
FRA.
ERMS.
PMVDY.
MSP- MFP.
TSP.

CHALLENGES IN TRIBAL INTEGRATION (06:33 PM)

Political Representation and Tokenism-

According to Christophe Jeffrelot, the tribal representation has been tokenistic, with real political decisions taken by
the dominant caste or political elites.
Steven Lukes (faces of power)-
1st face of power (visible form)- who takes the decisions.
2nd face of power ( Agenda Setting)- they decide which topics to be discussed.
3rd face of power ( Ideology Setting)- shapes the ideas, values, and beliefs.
Economic marginalisation and displacement-
Tribal remains one of the poorest socio-economic groups facing poverty, unemployment, and food insecurity.
Development projects have led to displacement, inadequate compensation, and a lack of rehabilitation, which have
added to their misery.
Cultural erosion and identity threat-
Modernisation, urbanisation, awareness, and globalisation are threatening the unique tribal culture.
Ghurye's perspective of assimilation was criticised for promoting Sanskritisation.
Loss of language, abandonment of forest-based livelihood, and religious conversion.
T K Omen said that Sanskritisation among tribes was either forced or the pursuit of social mobility.
Infrastructural gaps and governance deficit-
The Xaxa committee report highlighted that schemes like MGNREGA, PDS, and ICDS failed to reach the tribal
population.
Reasons-
Lack of awareness, poor last-mile connectivity, and bureaucratic inefficiency.
Security, insurgency, and militarisation-
The state's response to tribal unrest has often been militarised, which, according to Nandni Sunder, has aggravated
alienation and distrust between tribals and the state.
Merton's strain theory can be used to explain that when legitimate needs are denied ( education, land, political
representation, etc), they may resort to illegitimate means.
Questions-
Q1. Elucidate the challenges for integration for tribal communities in India.
Q2. Analyse the perspective of isolation, assimilation, and integration in understanding the trajectory of Indian Tribal
Development (20 Marks).
LP Vidyarthi's 3-tiered approach for Tribal Development-
Macroscope- focuses on broad national Policies for tribal development, such as reservations, constitutional
protections, and budget allocations.
Mesoscopic - focuses on displaced and marginalised tribals, for example, rehabilitation, land, and housing
assistance.
Microscopic- focuses on PVTGs, for example, health, nutrition, education, economic opportunities, habitat
protection, and cultural preservation.
ETHNO-NATIONALISM (07:00 PM)

Ethnic Nationalism-
When the feeling/ Idea of the nation is traced from Ethnic Groups.
Ethnic Group-
It is defined as a social group consisting of people united by common ancestry, history, language, etc.
Ethnic Identity-
Since people are aware they are uniform but distinct from others.
Differential access to resources.
Ethnic stratification.
Ethnic Antagonism.
Subjective Realisation of Objective Reality.
* Home assignment- Apply to the Kuki-Metei Conflict.

WAY FORWARD (07:08 PM)

C.V. F Haimendorf- Self-governance as key to tribal development.

Amita Baviskar- Advocates ecologically sensitive livelihood models aligned with the tribal knowledge system.
Nirmal Sen Gupta- Tribal knowledge is crucial for sustainable development.
Walter Fernandes- Lack of participatory development leads to alienation and radicalization.
Sanjib Barua- recognition of ethnic aspirations within a democratic framework.
Question-
What are the definitional problems involved in identifying tribes in India? Discuss the main obstacles to tribal
development in India. (20 Marks).

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: FAMILY.

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Sociology_SmSh Class 12
SYSTEM OF KINSHIP IN INDIA:

Lineage and descent-

Conceptual questions that are lineage, descent, alliance, etc.
Types of Kinship in India-
Regional variations w.r.t the Kinship system ( Iravati Karve).
Comparison of NI Vs SI.
Family and Marriage-
Change.
Household dimensions of family-
Define Household or Explain.
How is this different from family ( Family vis-a-vis Household)?
Patriarchy-
Women's Issues.

FAMILY (05:10 P.M.)

Background-
Family as an institution.
What is family?
Scholarly perspective.
Different types of Family-
Based on Marriage.
Based on Residence.
Based on Ancestry.
Based on Composition.
Joint Family (JF)-
Background.
Scholarly views.
Define JF.
Features of JF.
What constitutes jointness in the family? (Nuclear Family (NF) versus JF).
Variability and prevalence of the Joint Family.
Analytical aspect-
Functional and dysfunctional aspects of JF.
Lifecycle of JF.
Disintegration and Re-integration.
Changes in JF-
Structure.
Functions.
Interpersonal relationship.
Family as an institution-
Value system.
Life choices + aspirations.
Financial support.
Emotional support.
Social status (Ingroup).
GP Murdock-
Family is defined as a social group, characterised by -
Common residence.
Economic cooperation.
Reproduction.
Family consists of " Adults of both sexes, at least two of them are in a socially approved sexual union and one/ or
more children of their own/ or adopted by sexually cohabiting adults".
Functional-
TP- Primary socialisation and Adult personality stabilisation.
Marxist-
Engels ' purpose is to manage private property and pass it on to the next generation.
Feminist-
Radical Feminist- Patriarchal structure that exerts control over women.
Type of Family-
On the basis of Marriage-
Monogamy (one spouse)
Straight monogamy- one spouse all your life, for example, traditional Indian society.
Serial monogamy- one spouse at a time.
Increase rate of divorce, separation, remarriage, etc.
Nieky Hart- Divorces are now more acceptable.
Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim- individualisation thesis (Greydivorces).
Individualisation thesis- Grey divorces.
According to this perspective, individuals make more personal choices about jobs, marriage, religion, and lifestyle.
Earlier, life was decided by tradition, caste, or family.
Now, individuals create their own path.
Polygamy (05:35 PM)
Polygyny- sisters, sororal polygyny.
Polyandry- brothers- fraternal polyandry, NFP- todas, Nayars, etc.
Sologamy- an act of self-love, individualism, and self-acceptance by marrying one's own self in a public ceremony.
Symbolic, no legal credibility.
Usually done by women, but no gender constraint.
Social explanation- expression of individualism, assertion of autonomy, challenge to the traditional notion of
marriage.
Polygamy.
Sologamy.
On the basis of Residence-
Patrilocal- according to MN Srinivas, it is the most common trait of the traditional Hindu Joint Family.
Matrilocal- according to Iravati Karve, it is commonly found in matrilineal societies.
Husband goes to his wife's place.
Neolocal- according to GP Murdock, this exists in urban, modern industrial society.
Globalisation- diverse job opportunities.
Husband and wife move to a new residence.
Ancestry-
Patrilineal- common in Indian society.
Trace the lineage from the father's side.
Matrilineal (Garo, Khasi)- trace the lineage from the mother's side.
Based on composition-
Conjugal family-
Husband- Wife.
( T. Parsons- ideal form of family for industrial society).
Nuclear family-
Husband-wife,+ unmarried children.
Radcliffe Brown that it is a universal institution as it is result of urbanisation, industrialisation, and individualism.
Nuclear Family-
Grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins- descent, marriage, adoption.
Extended family-
Common residence.
Common Kitchen.
Common property.
Bell+ Vogel: Any grouping broader than the nuclear family, related by descent, marriage, and adoption, is called an
extended family.
Joint Family-
Background-
Caste system- Joint family- villages (building block of Indian society).
Scholarly views-
KM Panikkar- JF is the backbone of Hindu society.
I. Karve- JF is central w.r.t the transmission of culture, property, and social roles.
Andre Beteille- Modernisation- breakdown of JF, at max, they are restructuring within a joint framework.
MN Srinivas- sanskritisation- presence of JF exists across caste groups.
Definition- It is defined as a social group consisting of people united by ties of blood, marriage, or adoption and
containing 3 or more generations ( IP Desai and TN Madan).
Family is defined as a group of people having ( According to I. Karve)
Common residence.
Common kitchen.
Common worship.
Related by Kinship.
Features of JF-
Patrilineal.
Patrilocal.
Patriarchal ( power is wielded by the oldest male member).
Common residence, commensality, coparcenary.
Age and sex are the main ordering principles of family hierarchy.
Filial and Fraternal >> Conjugal (Husband- Wife).
Gendered Division of Labour (DoL).
Shared parenthood.
(MS Gore- above 5 points).
Question-
Write a short note on the difference between a nuclear family and a joint family.
Authority.
Conjugal bonds.
Descent.
Economic ( DoL).
Filial and fraternal relationship.
According to MS Gore, JF is not the mere collection of nuclear family that is JF is not NF1+NF2+NF3, as there are
certain elements which constitute Jointness in a JF.

Scholars Arguments
Common
residence and
Bernard Cohn,
commensality
SC Dube, P.
are the essential
Kolenda
aspects of
Jointness.
 It is
coparcenorship (
FG Bailey, TN joint ownership
Madan of property)=
Jointness.

It is cooperation
and sentiments
of jointness that
contribute to
functional JF, for
example,
emotional
bonds, physical/
IP Desai
financial
obligations,
celebration of
ceremonies/
festivals, shared
sense of identity
(WhatsApp
family group).
MN Srinivas:
Ritual Bonds-
Observing pollution rituals during birth and death.
Propitiation of a dead ancestor.
Worshipping a common deity.
Variability and prevalence of JF (06:25 PM)
Culturally patterned time of breakup-
Demographic profile-
Life expectancy.
Age of marriage.
No. of children.
Age of father at the time of birth of child.
Education, Migration, and Occupational Diversification-
Higher education.
Urban Migration.
Non-agricultural occupation.
All three lead to Nuclearization.
Paulene Kolenda-
Found prevalence of JF depends upon the following factors-
Caste.
Region.
Socio-economic conditions.
Bernard Cohn-
Chamar in Senapur (UP)-
Low life expectancy.
Economic constraints.
Lack of gendered DoL.
Spatial Mobility.

FUNCTIONS AND DYSFUNCTIONS ( 06:39 PM)

 Functions-
Agency of primary socialisation.
Agency of social control.
Agency of Social Insurance.
Economic cooperation-
Prevent fragmentation of assets.
Secures economy of expenditure.
Social and emotional support.
Dysfunctions-
Lack of privacy.
High fertility rate.
Free rider problem.
Low status of women.
RD Laing (Politics of the Family)-
Reciprocal interiorisation- challenges the development of self, psychologically damaging.
Due to nexus- ghettoisation- us versus them.
David Cooper (Death of the Family)-
Family acts as an ideological conditioning device- a reproduction of social labor.
Always obey and submit to the authority.
Beck- Gernsheim (Post-Modernist)-
Individualism.
Competition.
Mobility.
Instant gratification.
Collectivism, cooperation, stability, and delayed gratification.
JF acts as an arena of conflict and contradiction.
Margaret Benston- Unpaid labor performed by women.

LIFE CYCLE OF JOINT FAMILY (07:00 PM)

Disintegration (JF to NF)-

Migration-
Push factor-
Agricultural distress.
Lack of alternative employment opportunities.
Differential access to resources due to caste, religion, gender, etc.
Pull factor-
Globalisation, Industrialisation, urbanisation.
Commercialisation of agriculture.
Good quality of life.
Westernisation-
Change in lifestyle patterns.
Emergence of a live-in relationship.
Individualism.
Modern value system-
Questioning regressive practices such as caste endogamy, patriarchy.
Legal reforms-
Such as the Minimum Wage Act.
Hindu Succession Act.
Reduced financial dependence on family.
Land reforms ( By Laxminarayana)
To evade land ceiling laws- partition took place on paper- sowed the seed for actual partition.
Re-integration (NF to JF)-
 Child rearing in a dual-career family.
Chain migration + higher cost of living.
Feeling of nativism.
Changing nature of work.
WFH culture.
Industrialisation provided the economic base for the sustenance of the joint family.
For example, an industrialist family in Madras stays in a joint setup to share business risk and maintain control.
According to MS Gore's study of the Agarawal family in Delhi, that affluent family prefers joint living for economic and
cultural continuity.
According to MN Srinivas, rather than getting disintegrated, JF has adapted itself to suit the business model
enterprise.
Functional jointness despite structural separation.
IP Desai calls such a family an integrated or functional JF (structurally nuclear but functionally joint).
According to SC Dube, jointness can be emotional, economic, or political.
So there is a disintegration of a joint household but not a joint family.
Eugene Litwak- nuclear and joint families are two theoretical ideals, and in between them exist modified extended
families in which children marry out or migrate from the parental household upon marriage but engage in common
activities with the kin group.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: CONTINUATION OF FAMILY.

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Sociology_SmSh Class 13
FAMILY:

Structure-
Disintegration of the Joint Family ( due to globalisation, urbanisation, industrialisation, migration, etc).
Disintegration of Joint Household ( according to SC Dube, IP Desai, AM Shah, Eugene Litwak, etc).
Emergent forms of Family-
Nuclear family with extended ties-
For example, a family WhatsApp group/ video calls.
E. Leach- technology has altered the Kin relations beyond geography.
Single-parent household-
Divorce and separation are now an accepted reality that is de-stigmatised (Nicky Hart).
Secularisation- social significance of religion has declined- increased acceptance w.r.t adoption, children born out
of wedlock, single motherhood, etc( Patricia Uberoi).
The individualisation thesis focuses on personal fulfilment rather than performing traditional roles ( Elizabeth Beck
Gernsheim).
The concept of 'pure relationship' by Anthony Giddens focuses on emotional fulfilment.
Female-headed household-
Male-specific distress migration.
Government schemes (the main beneficiary is 'women'), 'At least on paper': female-headed households.
Women empowerment- especially post amendment w.r.t succession act- economic independence of women (Bina
Agarwal).
Education + Skill- employment opportunity.
Feminization of old age.
Live in/ cohabitation-
Perceived as a liberating space for women (Flavia Agnes).
Education+ Skill development+ Career opportunity- delay in marriage+ urban migration+ western value system+
economic independence of women.
Urbanism- anonymity.
K.Srinivasan+ KS James.
Live-in Relationship exists on a spectrum.
Deeply committed (Smart and Stevens) Casual.
Lack of legal recognition of homosexual marriages.
Rule of marriage- it is prohibited based on endogamy and exogamy.
Dual career family-
Where both Husband and Wife are working (paid employment).
Aan Oakley- Technology development has liberated women from domesticity.
Conjugal Symmetrical Family-
Wilmott E'Young- Conjugal symmetrical family.
DINK-
Double Income No Kid.
Rising career aspirations.
Secularisation- dilution in traditional reproduction expectations.
Rise in individualism.
Lack of readiness to take responsibility.
Due to a shift in marriage from institution to companionship (Kingsley Davis).

FUNCTIONS (02:58 PM)

 Economic-
Traditionally, the family was both the unit of consumption and production.
However, with the globalisation-industrialisation-factory system of production, hence family is now reduced to a unit
of consumption only.
Educational functions.
Globalisation- diverse job opportunities- specialised institutions of knowledge and skill development- role of family
w.r.t educational socialisation was outsourced.
Spouse selection- this function has also been technologically outsourced, for example, online platforms, websites,
social media, etc.
Child rearing and old age care- this has also been outsourced, for example, caretakers, old age institutions, creche
facilities, and digital parenting (iPad parenting).
Interpersonal relationships-
Democratisation of relationships in the family (participative decision making).
Status of women has improved ( that is, education, skill, economic independence, etc) (Bina Agarwal).
Social Media penetration-
Improved ties with extended kin (E.Leach).
Isolation anxiety, Impersonality in relationship (Zygmunt Bauman- Liquid modernity).
Critically evaluate whether joint families have been completely disintegrated or not.
Perspectives (03:13 PM)
Leela Dube- she highlighted how women's role in the family is evolving in response to education and employment.
TN Madan- the Indian family is a resilient institution constantly adjusting to socio-economic transformation while
retaining the core cultural and emotional elements.
AR Desai explained how rural to urban migration has led to the weakening of the traditional joint family.
Deepankar Gupta- The rise of individual autonomy within families and traditional roles is getting challenged in urban
areas.
MN Srinivas- shift from joint to nuclear family due to social mobility and Sanskritization.
Question-
Give some of the important studies illustrating structural changes in the Indian family system (20 Marks).

HOUSEHOLD DIMENSIONS OF THE FAMILY (03:19 PM)

Context/ premise: Sociologists were finding it difficult to categorise families under nuclear or joint specifically.
Hence, AM Shah introduced the concept of the household, which will provide a dynamic and empirical
understanding of familial arrangements.
It is more suitable to understand/ explain the actual living arrangements.
Concept-
It is defined as a co-residential, commensal group.
It does not incorporate coparcenary and ritual corporateness, both of which are central features of the traditional joint
family.
Question- Is the Joint Family disintegrating, or is it the Joint Household disintegrating?
Features-
Nuclear households are more in number as compared to joint households.
The number of people living in a joint household is more than the number of people living in a nuclear household.
There exists regional variation, for example, according to Paulene Kolenda joint household is stronger in north India
as compared to south India.
Rural Households are larger than urban Households.
In occupational variation in the professional middle class, we will find more of nuclear households.
In business class, we find more joint Households.
In contrast to our assumption, joint Households are increasing instead of declining.
As the population is on the rise.
There exists a housing shortage and land pressure.
Better health infrastructure- life expectancy increased.
However, lack of social security, accumulation of assets, and sanskritization have led to emulation of the joint
 household setup.

COMPARISON BETWEEN FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD (03:37 PM)

Parameters Household Family

Social group
characterised by
Co-residential common
and commensal residence,
Definition
group ( AM economic
Shah) cooperation, and
rehabilitation (
GP Murdock)

Related by ties of
May not be
Relatedness blood, marriage,
related
and adoption.

Minimum Minimum of 1 At least 2

members member members
Demography,
Ritual, emotional,
Interpretative lens spatial, and
and legal
emotional

Does not account

for ritual, legal, or Not apt w.r.t living
Limitation
emotional arrangements.
components.

Reproduction,
Consumption,
socialisation,
housing, and
Key functions ritual
economic
corporateness,
cooperation
Property rights.

Questions:

Analyse household dimensions of family in India (20 Marks).

Bring out the significance of the difference between family and household (20 Marks).
Clarify the distinction between household and family.

MARRIAGE (03:49 PM)

Concept-
Institution.
Legally approved.
Socially sanctioned.
Sexual union among two consenting adults.
Spouses live together.
Sexual rights in each other.
(Westermark).
* Please refer to the Marriage Handout for detailed coverage.
Types of Marriage-
Forms of Marriage-
Prohibition- endogamy, exogamy.
Status hierarchy-
Hypergamy, Hypogamy, anuloma and pratiloma.
Incest taboo-
Cultural prohibition of sexual relations among close kin.
No. of a sexual relationship-
Monogamy, Polygamy- polygyny, polyandry.
Preferential marriages-
Levirate, sororate, parallel cousin, cross cousin.
Changes in the Institution of Marriage-
Purpose-
Purity of lineage (hence caste endogamy) (Ghurye).
Progeny.
However, the emergence of intercaste marriages (Andre Beteille and DINK families).
Forms of Marriage-
Polygamy- monogamous- straight- serial monogamy.
Changes in mate selection- Blumberg and Dwaraki- 3rd ( full consultation) and 4th self-choice with the parental
involvement
Changes wrt age at the time of marriage-
NFHS 5- average age of marriage among urban women is 22 years.
With respect to Marriage rituals-
Because of rationality, logic, emergence of science, there has been secularisation, which means there is re-
ritualisation of marriage, for example, court marriage, the emergence of interfaith and intercaste marriage.
On the contrary, the revival of rituals- affluence led to revival and Sanskritisation.
Emergent forms of Marriage-
Arranged Marriage- love Marriage- confluent Marriage (Anthony Giddens).
Weekend Marriages.
Living apart together.
Empty shell Marriage.
Open Marriage.
Threats to Marriage-
Divorce/ Separation.
Functional alternatives to Marriage.
Live In/ Cohabitation.
Single-parent household.
NRT- IVF, Surrogacy.
Adoption by single people.
Perspective-
According to Nicky Hart, three factors are influencing marital breakdown-
Factors affecting the value attached to Marriage-
According to Talcott Parsons, modern individuals expect more from marriage.
When expectations are not met, marriages fail.
Perspective by Norman Danis-
The family has undergone functional specialisation as a result-
Fewer binding ties make it easier for marriages to break.
Factors increasing spousal conflict-
In a nuclear family, there exists emotional dependency, according to William Goode, leading to more conflicts and
breakups.
There exists a contradiction b/w the economic base and ideological superstructure according to Nicky Hart, that is-
Economic base (female labor force participation) and ideological superstructure (doing household chores).
 Factors increasing exit opportunity for marriage-
Destigmatisation of divorce.
Secularisation.
Legal reforms.
Questions-
Illustrate the importance of rituals such as kanyadan and kulvadhu in changing the institution of marriage and family
(10 marks).
Do you think that family bonds are being affected by changing kinship patterns in India? Comment.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Kinship Patterns and Patriarchy.

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Sociology_SmSh Class 14
KINSHIP SYSTEM IN INDIA:

Kinship- concept, types, approaches.

Lineage- concept, functions of lineage.
Descent- what is descent?, system of descent.
Regional variation wrt kinship system- perspective of Iravati Karve.
Social relationship-
Biological ties- includes blood relations.
Social recognition- marriage and adoption.
Kinship refers to social relationships based on both biological ties and social recognition.
It includes both actual blood relations and socially sanctioned relationships, such as marriage or adoption.
Sociological emphasis is more on social recognition than biological ties.
For example, an adopted child is treated as a kin despite the absence of a biological connection.
Types of Kinship-
Consanguineous kinship - based on blood ties or common ancestry, for example, father-son relations, siblings, etc.
Affinal kinship- based on marital ties, for example husband and wife, in-laws, etc
Fictive kinship- involves treating unrelated individuals as a part of one's kin network by assigning them social roles
similar to those of kin, for example, in North India, due to village exogamy, a daughter-in-law may not have a brother
in the same village.
Fictive kinship helps her assign a brother role to a non-relative.
Approaches to Kinship (05:22 PM)
Indological-
Reference is made to texts, scriptures, and traditions.
Gotra system, varna system, ashram system.
GS Ghurye, AM Shah, MN Srinivas.
For example, GS Ghurye used Sanskrit to explain the caste and kinship system.
Anthropological-
Empirical studies (village study, fieldwork).
Related to marriage alliance and descent is found in the field.
I Karve, Kathleen Gough, M. Marriott, L. Dumont.
Irawati Karve did a detailed kinship study comparing the north and south Indian kinship systems.
M. Marriot studied rural organisation and kinship in North India.
Kathleen Gough studied the Dravidian kinship system, especially matrilineal and cross-cousin marriage practices.

LINEAGE AND DESCENT (05:31 PM)

Lineage-
A group consists of people descended from a common real ancestor.
Functions of lineage-
Exogamous in nature.
Participates in collective rituals.
It acts as a Jural unit.
For example, internally resolving the disputes and concerning external aggression, acting in unity.
Members of the lineage are bound by mutual rights and obligations.
Descent-
(Rules to trace lineage and inheritance).
According to Edmund Leach, descent is defined as the societal mechanism that traces an individual's lineage and
inheritance through either patrilineality or matrilineality.
 I. Karve, in her book 'Kinship Organization in India', has studied the concept of descent and alliance and their role in
kinship organisation.
According to Levi Strauss, an alliance is defined as a social connection and relationship established through
marriage.
For example, among the royal families of Rajasthan, Marital alliances are formed to consolidate power and
establish political stability.
System of Descent-
Unilineal descent- patrilineal, Matrilineal.
Cognatic descent- biltareal, Double descent, ambilineal, parallel descent.
Patrilineal- tracing lineage through the father's side, property and authority are transferred from the father to the son.
For example, the North Indian Hindu joint family.
Matrilineal- tracing the lineage from the mother's side.
Property is passed from mother to daughter.
Authority lies with the mother or the eldest woman.
For example, the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia tribes of Meghalaya.
Bilateral descent- equal recognition to both parents' sides.
Common in modern nuclear families.
It is known as Kindred in sociology.
Kindred is ego-centered, that is formed around a specific person, includes both mother and father's relatives;
however, unlike lineage, Kindred usually doesn't own land or property collectively.
They are flexible and variable.
Double descent-
Recognition of both sides but for different purposes, for example, patrilineal lineage is used for inheritance,
surname, clan identity, etc.
And matrilineal lineage is used for emotional bonding, religious duties, ritual roles, etc.
Ambilineal descent- children may choose either parents' lines to trace their lineage.
Parallel descent- male children follow the father's line and female children follow the mother's line.
Question:
Define the concepts of 'Descent' and 'Alliance'. ( 10 Marks).
(In the context of the Nair community, inheritance is matrilineal, whereas w.r.t ritual roles and clan identity, patrilineal
elements are present).

REGIONAL VARIATION W.R.T KINSHIP SYSTEM: IRAVATI KARVE (06:07 PM)

Key features.
Marriage rules.
Kinship terminology.
Family structure.
Scholarly views.
Kinship in North India-
Key features: patrilineal, patrilocal, village exogamy.
Marriage rules: negative marriage rules, for example, village exogamy, four clan exogamy, gotra exogamy, only
hypergamy allowed (L. Dumont emphasised this hierarchical structuring where girls cannot marry in a lower status).
Kinship terminology: each kin has a unique name, hence descriptive in nature.
There exists a clear distinction between blood relatives and affinal kin.
Family structure: joint family with patriarchal authority dominating.
The status of a bride is determined primarily based on bearing sons (son-meta preference).
Scholarly views:
According to Louis Dumont, caste, hierarchy, and purity underlines North Indian kinship and marriage customs.
Central India-
Presence of both Indo-Aryan and Dravidian traits, along with tribal pockets with unique kinship norms.
Marriage rules- a mix of negative and positive rules, for example-
Jats in Rajasthan- village exogamy.
 Banias- Four clan rule.
Rajputs- Hypergamy.
Tribals- Cross cousins.
Kinship terminologies used by the upper caste follow the descriptive model.
Whereas tribals use the same term for many relatives.
The focus is on group identity rather than individual position; for example, all mother-like figures might be called by
the same term.
Father-like figures may be addressed by the same term.
Family structure- both joint and nuclear family co-exist.
Scholarly views- according to MN Srinivas, Sanskritisation has influenced the kinship in the region.
Kinship in South India-
Patrilneal dominace along with matrilineal pockets ( Nairs, Moplas, Bants, etc).
No village exogamy.
Marriage rules-
Positive rules dominate.
Preference for cross-cousin marriage.
Even if prohibition exhibits it is specific rather than generalised.
Kinship terminology- classificatory system- no clear distinction b/w affinal and consanguine kin.
Family structure- patrilocal joint families are common.
However, there are matrilineal households as well (Tharavaad).
Scholarly view-
Since marriage is often within the known relatives, brides are familiar with the marital households.
According to I. Karve's southern kinship has a dual nature.
Kinship in Eastern India-
Dominated by tribal and matrilineal systems.
Marriage rules- they observe clan exogamy.
Cross-cousin marriage is common among tribal groups.
Among Khasis, strict clan exogamy, no cousin marriage, and children belong to the lineage of a mother.
Kinship terminology-
Totem-based kinship- for example, members of the same totem are considered siblings, and marriage is strictly
prohibited within the same totem.
For example, if the totem is bamboo, then the terminology reflects taboo and respect.
Family structure- mostly nuclear, matrilineal joint family with common property and rituals.
Scholarly - PK Bhomik studied matrilineal and female-centered rituals among Khasis.
Question- Differentiate between North Indian and South Indian kinship systems with examples (10 Marks).
Broadly compare the Kinship system in India.
Types of Kinship system in India (06:48 PM)
* Please refer to the handout(Types of Kinship Systems in India with Scholarly Views).
I. Based on Lineality (Descent).
II. Based on Locality (Post-Marital Residence).
III. Based on Authority Structure.
IV. Based on Kinship Terminology.
V. Based on Marriage Rules.
VI. Regional Kinship Systems (Irawati Karve’s Typology).
VII. Based on Kin Group Types.

PATRIARCHY, ENTITLEMENTS, STATUS OF WOMEN (06:56 PM)

Gender-
Concept.
Manifestation.
Toxic masculinity, Toxic femininity.
Gender stereotype.
 Patriarchy-
Concept.
Manifestation.
Structure-
Family.
Knowledge system.
Symbolism.
Religion.
Caste.
Patriarchy vis-a-vis work-
Statistics.
Public patriarchy.
Challenges-
LFLFP.
Wage gap.
Glass ceiling.
Sexual harassment.
Concentration in the informal sector.
Violence against women-
Statistics.
Causes.
Forms.
Government efforts.
Lacunae.
Gender is defined as a socially constructed category that defines individual roles, behavior, attributes, and activities
which is considered appropriate for men or women ( West and Zimmerman).
According to West and Zimmerman, we are not born with gender; we are born to do gender (Concept of Doing
Gender by West and Zimmerman).
Gender- Individual- identity formation- Male and Female.
Cultural level- socialisation- (values, beliefs, behaviour, and choices are shaped).
Toxic masculinity- harmful cultural norms that force a man to suppress emotions (mental health issue), express
domination (violence), and reject everything that is feminine- misogyny.
Raewyn Connell- concept of "hegemonic masculinity".
Normalisation of male dominance.
Marginalisation of males who are sensitive, emotional, and non-conforming.
Toxic femininity- harmful cultural norms that idealise women as submissive, self-sacrificing, and dependent.
For example, internalisation of misogyny, unrealistic beauty standards, and emotional labor (Hoschild).
Structural- Gendered DoL- Talcott Parsons- Instrumental (Males) and Expressive (females).
Gender stereotyping-
Stereotypes and Impact-
Women are caring and nurturing- emotional labor (Hoschild), Division of Labor (T. Parsons), Undervaluation of care
work (Davis and Moore stratification theory).
Women have soft skills- Pink-collared jobs.
Women are emotional rather than rational- Glass ceiling.
Women are weak, passive, and dependent- violence against women.
According to Deloitte, 4.7% of CEOs are women globally.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: PATRIARCHY.

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Sociology_SmSh Class 15
PATRIARCHY:

According to Sylvia Walby, Patriarchy is defined as "a System of social structure and practices in which men
oppress, exploit, and dominate women".
Structure of Patriarchy-
According to Sylvia Walby, there are 6 structures of Patriarchy.
Household- a woman is considered to be in the domestic sphere and overconcentrated in unpaid work.
Paid work- In the labour market, women confront challenges such as the glass ceiling, wage gap, glass cliff, and
sexual harassment.
Culture- norms, beliefs, media representation, religious teachings, societal narratives, etc, uphold gender roles.
Sexuality- Women's body desires sexual behaviour is controlled.
For example, honour killing, prohibition of pratiloma alliances, and double standards vis-a-vis sexual behaviour.
Violence- violence is perceived as a tool to exert control over women and maintain patriarchal domination.
State- has patriarchal values, and hence many times fails to ensure women's empowerment.
For example lack of criminalisation of marital rape.
According to Sylvia Walby, there are two types of Patriarchy-
Private patriarchy (Household).
Public patriarchy (state, market, legal system).
Although patriarchy refers to domination by men but it is equally perpetuated by women, called as 'Patriarchal
Bargain'( given by Deniz Kandiyoti).
Patriarchal Bargain refers to a bargain/deal struck by women with the patriarchal system in exchange for status,
protection, opportunities, and resources.
For example, victim shaming by some women to dissociate from vulnerability or stigma.
Women politicians siding with the patriarchal party rather than championing women's rights.
Preference for male children by mothers or mothers-in-law.
Patriarchy is not a uniform concept.
Its manifestation varies w.r.t caste, class, religion, ethnicity, etc.
According to Nandini Sundar, gender relations are not static but fluid and depend upon social context.

STRUCTURES OF PATRIARCHY (05:46 PM)

Family-
Primary agency responsible for socialisation.
Largely, the socialisation is w.r.t gender stereotyping.
For example- 'Boys don't cry', 'Girls don't fight'.
According to Aan Oakley family provides different socialisation to boys and girls, leading to unequal gender roles.
Patrilineality and Patrilocality- providing women/ girls a lower status.
According to Amartya Sen- (Son-meta preference)- Unwanted girls.
Missing girls: NFHS-5, at birth CSR= 929/1000.
According to Iravati Karve Kinship system reinforces patriarchy, and this leads to the subordination of women.
Leela Dube (Anthropologist and a feminist)-
Gender and Kinship.
Metaphor- Seed and Earth to discuss the role of male and female in the process of Reproduction.
According to this analogy, man provides the seed for sowing, and woman is the earth in which the seed is sown.
The true meaning is that the nature of the crop (child) depends largely on the seed, while the earth provides only
nutrition to the seed.
Sociologically, it means that the child owes its identity to their father, whereas the mother has no material rights over
the child.
For example, w.r.t surname, property, gotra, access to resources, etc identity of the father is important
This metaphor explains how patriarchal thinking gives men dominance in reproduction and lineage.
Question-
Explain Leela Dubey's concept of Seed and Earth.
According to Sylvia Walby, households are the core site of patriarchal relations where women's labour is unpaid and
their autonomy is limited.
According to Delphy and Leonard, the family is a patriarchal institution where women perform domestic labour that
supports men.
Knowledge System (06:20 PM)
Education-
Content- for example, Krishna Kumar; the school text reinforces domestic roles for women.
Infrastructure- according to NFHS-5, 23% of girls drop out due to a lack of functional toilets.
Attitude of Teachers- school girls wrt dress code in the garb of Morality.
* Pierre Bourdieu- cultural capital.
Louis Althusser- Ideological State Apparatus.
Media-
Objectification and Commodification, for example, Sylvia Walby: Media representation.
Laura Mulvey- Male gaze.
Jean Kilbourne- how women are portrayed as fragile, hyper-sexualised, and dependent.
Movie song often depicts stalking and coercion as romantic.
Influencer culture reinforces femininity linked to appearances.
Hero-centric movies often show women either as the damsel in distress or as glamourised accessories
Symbolisim (06:40 PM)
Subtle expression of patriarchy is through ideological indoctrination vis-a-vis the notion of ideal womanhood, that is,
sacrificing, obedient, nurturing, etc.
For example, ideals propagated through myths, festivals, rituals, TV serials, etc.
According to Simon de Beauvoir (Second Sex), women are not born, they are made through myth and ideologies.
TV shows glorify women who silently suffer (Louis Althusser- Ideological State Apparatus).
Patriarchal construction of social practices draws its legitimacy from religious institutions and practices.
Perspectives (06:47 PM)
Sylvia Walby argues that religious institutions are male-dominated and often interpret scriptures that will reinforce
women's subordination.
For example, polygamy, Nikah Halala, unequal inheritance rights, restrictions on women's entry in religious shrines.
Nevidita Menon- religion often naturalises gender roles, that is, women being confined to family, reproduction, and
purity.
Gerda Lerner traces the root of patriarchy to religious ideologies.
Simon de Beauvoir- Religion is nothing but an instrument of deception.
Devi-Dasi dichotomy by Veena Das.
It is believed that religion institutionalizes patriarchy by creating the myth that justifies male dominance.
Caste (06:54 PM)
Caste and gender are very closely interlinked.
The sexuality of women is associated with the purity of caste.
As we move higher in the caste hierarchy, the hold of patriarchy is further strengthened.
The caste system and caste endogamy is a means to control women's mobility and sexuality.
Caste and gender intersectionality is discussed by Uma Chakraborty through her concept of Brahminical patriarchy,
which means that when notions of purity and pollution are extended beyond caste to intersect with gender.
Questions-
Define Patriarchy. How does it impact the overall entitlement of a girl child in India? (10 Marks)
What is Patriarchy? How does it affect a child's socialisation pattern in India? (20 Marks)
Define Patriarchy? Does it have any impact on women's entitlement in the Indian Family system? Explain (20 Marks)
Discuss the material basis of Patriarchy. (20 Marks)
NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Working Women (Women in Agriculture), etc
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Sociology_SmSh Class 16
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN (VAW)

Concept- It refers to an act of gender based violence which causes physical, mental, or sexual harm either in private
or public life (UN Declaration on Elimination of VAW).
Statistics- According to NCRB;
In 2022, there was a 4% increase in VAW (2021).
31.4% of VAW Cruelity by husbands/ or relatives.
According to NCW, there was a 21% increase in VAW (2021).
UN Women- "Shadow Pandemic".
According to NCW;
86% of victims do not report, and among 14% of those who intend to report, only 7% reach the appropriate authority.
Forms of Violence-
Domestic violence.
Marital Rape.
Dowry.
Sexual Harassment at the workplace.
Prostitution.
Honour Killing.
Causes of violence against Women-
1. Institutionalisation of Patriarchy (Sylvia Walby: structures of patriarchy).
Gerda Lerner- religion that institutionalizes patriarchy.
2. Gender based socialisation-
That is, girls =submissive, docile, passive.
Boys = dominant, aggressive, etc (example Aan Oakley).
3. Economic dependence of women-
For example, according to Naila Kabeer, economic independence is a prerequisite for women's empowerment.
4. Objectification/ commodification of women-
Example: Laura Mulvey (Male Gaze).
5. Traditional Cultural Practices-
Example- female genital mutilation, dowry, child marriage
Sylvia Walby- 6 structures- culture.
6. Structural gaps-
Example- poor implementation, denial of justice.
7. Addiction-
Drugs/ alcoholism, gambling, etc.
8. Nuclear families-
E. Leach- overload the electric circuit.
Margaret Benston- In a patriarchal society, women act as a cushion to vent out frustration.
9. Women's mobility is perceived as a threat to the male hegemony.
So, according to Dipanker Gupta, VAW is not due to a downward slide but due to a forward thrust towards
modernity.

GOVERNMENT EFFORTS (05:35 PM)

Statutory laws-
Domestic Violence Act.
POSH Act.
Dowry Prohibition Act.
 Organised prostitution is illegal, etc.
Initiatives-
Nirbhaya fund.
One-stop center.
Mahila Police Volunteer.
Agency-
National Commission for Women.
Despite legal provisions, VAW is still on the rise; Reasons-
Legal and Structural Gaps-
Non criminlaisation of Marital Rape.
Lack of Infrastructure (for example, All Mahila Police Station).
Poor Implementation of provisions.
Delayed justice ( according to NCRB, 1 out of 10 cases of sexual violence are reported, and the conviction rate is
28%).
Socio-cultural Factors-
Fear of stigma and retaliation.
For example, Uma Chakravarty: Brahminical Patriarchy.
Lack of awarness w.r.t grievaance redresaal mechanism.
Cultural glorification of violence, especially through CINEMA.
Bystander Apathy.
Internalisation of abuse by women.
Deniz Kandiyoti: Patriarchal Bargain.
Political Factors-
Lack of political will.
Inefficient bureaucracy.
Gender- insensitive attitude of law enforcement agency.
(Sylvia Walby- 6 structure of Patriarchy= State).

WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE(05:49 PM)

Short-term efforts-
Fast track courts.
Patrolling at night.
Community Policing.
Training in self-defence.
Installing CCTV cameras.
Awareness workshops.
Educating children on good and bad touch.
Social media campaign.
Use of technology-enabled infrastructures.
Creates safe spaces for dialogue.
Long term efforts-
Moral overhauling of society.
Value-based education.
Gender sensitization of all stakeholders.
Destigmatization.
Behavioural change through Nukad Natak.
Engage men and boys as allies, that is for example He for She campaign.
Reform educational curriculum to include consent, bodily autonomy, and gender sensitivity.
Pierre Bourdieu Cultural Capital.
Support women's organisations and grassroots movements as an agent of change.
Intersectional approach (Kimberley Crenshaw) to include caste, tribe, religion, person with disability, LGBTQ+.
Create a gender-friendly public space.
 Institutionalise support networks for trauma counselling and legal aid.
Concluding remark-
VAW is not just a legal issue but a socio-cultural epidemic that needs collective moral reawakening.
* Symbolic Violence by Pierre Bourdieu-
It means invisible or subtle ways in which power is exercised, that is, through norms, culture, expectation, etc.
For example, girls are appreciated for being quiet, modest, and homely.
Whereas boys are appreciated for being bold and ambitious.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE (06:09 PM)

According to NFHS3, 51% of men and 54% of women believe wife beating is justified under the following
conditions-
Neglecting children.
Going out without permission.
Not cooking properly.
What needs to be done-
Barabara D. Miller- Indian girls are raised with low self-esteem, and they rationalise abuse for failing to fulfill
household duties.
Domestic violence (DV) is rooted in social and cultural factors.
Patriarchal socialisation.
Lack of inheritance rights (Bina Agarwal).
Culture of silence around domestic violence ("Every Dayness of Violence"- Veena Das)
Domestic violence is also the result of patrilocal marriage, where women lack an immediate support system.
Domestic violence is more prevalent among the nuclear family as compared to the Joint family.
Marital Rape-
It refers to non-consensual sex by a husband with his wife forcibly or without her will.
Lack of economic independence (Naila Kabeer).
Women are treated as a safety value or a cushion to vent put frustration (Margaret Benston).
Failure of state to criminalise marital rape (Sylvia Walby).
Addiction.
Cultural aspect-
The cultural aspect of marriage where it is defined as a legally approved and socially sanctioned sexual union.
Hence, women are often denied the right to bodily autonomy and the right to consent.
Argument w.r.t challenges in criminalisation of marital rape-
In legal terms, denial of sex is a ground for divorse, hence it contradicts with the concept of marital rape.
It is difficult is apply in a country where marriage is treated as a sacred institution.
According to Bina Das, there exists cultural enslavement of women that is the concept of Pati Parmeshwar.
Kerala High Court observed that in a patriarchal society, women's right to bodily autonomy and reproductive rights
are considered preposterous.
In a similar way, SC Dube said that in Indian society, restraining and controlling women's sexuality is a prerequisite
to socially sanctioned motherhood.
The Law Commission recommended against criminalization, citing concerns of misuse and societal
unpreparedness
Consent becomes subjective, and hence, fear of false allegation
According to Justice Verma committee, criminalisation of marital rape is the need of the hour.
Concluding remark-
According to Madhu Kishwar- Non-criminalization of marital rape is imcompatable with constitutional provisions
under article 14 and 21.
Questions:
Debate the case of criminalisation of marital rape from sociological perspective. ( 10 Marks)
Write a short note from the sociological perspective on the Domestic Violence Act (10 Marks)
What are the possible causes of increased violence against women in public spaces in the last decade (20 Marks)
What is the POSH Act? ' Identifying tormentor by women at workplace does not come easily even today'. Examine
 the statement with substantive examples from India (20 Marks).

SEXUAL HARRASSMENT AT THE WORKPLACE (06:49 PM)

The act on sexual harassment deals with prevention, protection, and redressal of grievances.
It incorporates quid pro quo and hostile work environment.
According to FICCI, 70% of the women do not report the cases.
36% of Indian companies and 25% of MNCs have not yet established ICC.
Sexual harassment is one of the factors responsible for low female labour force participation.
Challenges-
Lack of understanding of sexual harassment, along with gaslighting.
Lack of faith in the complaint mechanism.
Fear of retaliation, social exclusion, and domestication due to the stigma associated.

PROSTITUTION/ SEX WORK (07:03 PM)

The practice of engaging in sexual relations in exchange for payment.

It is also referred to as commercialised sex.
Perspectives:
Functionalist Perspective (Kingsley Davis)-
Prostitution acts as a safety valve that helps preserve the institution of marriage.
It provides an outlet for sexually frustrated men and prevents the exploitation of respectable women.
It ensures financial independence for women, especially in societies with limited resources.
There exists an empowerment paradigm that focuses on how sex work qualifies as work.
According to Shruti Nambiars Indian Express Survey, around 70% of sex workers enter the profession voluntarily.
According to Pickering and Wilkins, sex workers earn three times more per day as compared to women in the
informal sector.
Feminist Perspective-
Prostitution objectifies women; it is an expression of patriarchal gender relations.
Social conflcit perspective-
Prostitution reflects the unequal distribution of resources based on class, caste, ethnicity, and gender.
Social Psychological theory-
Prostitution is explained through three factors-
Pre-disposing factors (childhood trauma, abuse, or neglect).
Attracting factors (illusion of quick money, glamorous life, peer influence).
Precipitating factors (sudden job loss, homelessness, addiction, peer pressure).

HONOUR KILLING (07:18 PM)

Crimes of honour typically occur when a woman is perceived to have violated a family or community's sexual or
cultural code.
For example, intercaste or interfaith marriage, dressing or behaving in ways not approved by the conservative
families.
Conservative families-
These codes derive their legitimacy from tribal customs, khap panchayat, or caste councils.
Sociological analysis of Honour killing-
Uma Chakravarti's Brahminical patriarchy argues that honour is deeply tied to women's sexuality.
Hence, violence is a tool to preserve caste purity and lineage.
Prem Chowdhry highlighted the role of the khap panchayat in enforcing social codes, which include honor killing.
Women have internalised and support honour-based restrictions as a part of a survival strategy (Patriarchal
Bargain- Deniz Kandiyoti).
Despite modernisation, caste norms still persist; hence, law is a necessary condition for social change, not sufficient
(Andre Beteille).
Questions:
 Write from a social perspective, law as an instrument of women's empowerment. (10 Marks)
Explain the linkages between 'Patriarchy' and 'Honour killing' in India. (10 Marks)
Discuss the problems of working women in India. (10 Marks)

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Social Class in India (Agrarian Class, Industrial Class, and Middle Class).
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Sociology_SmSh Class 17
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT:

Concept-
According to the UN, it has the following dimensions-
Sense of self-worth.
Access to resources- education/ health, economic opportunities, and political.
Autonomy in decision making.
Control of reproductive life.
Ability to lead the direction of social change.
Status of women in India concerning empowerment-
Patriarchal bargain.
According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey, female labour force participation has increased to 41.7%.
According to NHFS-5:
Institutional birth has increased to 88.6%.
Contraceptive prevalence rate among the married women (15-49) is 66.7%
Total Fertility Rate is 2, which reflects better reproductive autonomy.
With respect to Political Representation, women comprise 14.7% of Lok Sabha members.
As per the 2023 Deloitte report, women hold 18% of board members' seats in NSE-listed companies.
As of 2024, the Supreme Court of India has 4 women sitting judges, which is the highest ever.
Challenges-
Social, Political, and Economic challenges.
Patriarchy- deprivation- Limited access to education.
Limited access to skill development.
Limited access to formal jobs.
Informal jobs-
Lack of social security.
Lack of minimum wage and working conditions.
Lack of prospects for career growth.
Government initiatives-
Mission Shakti- integrated approach for women's safety, protection, and empowerment.
Subhadra Yojna, Odisha- financial support to women to promote economic independence.
Ujjwala Yojna.
Namo Drone Didi - training women to operate drones in the agricultural sector.
Budgetary support (3 trillion budget allocation- women-centric initiative).

AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE (05:32 PM)

Agrarian Society-
It is referred to as a society where agriculture is the main source of livelihood.
Social organisation is centered around control over land.
Key components of Agrarian Society-
Social structure.
Power structure.
Agrarian classes.
Social change.
Development Initiatives such as the Green Revolution.
What is a class?
Marx refers to a group of people who have similar relations with the means of production.
 According to this perspective, class hierarchies emerge due to economic disparities and control over resources.
With respect to Agrarian society, M.P.- Land is the most central M.P.- Ownership and control over land.
People with large tracts of land assume top position in the hierarchy.
People who are landless assume the bottom spot in the hierarchy.
Regional variation-
Western UP, Haryana, Punjab (highly fertile).
Northeast India, Telangana (not very fertile).
Hence, tracts of land are an insufficient criterion to determine the position.
It is the productivity and Income- determine the class position in the hierarchy.
Bottomore- class concept is more relevant to Industrial societies.
Michael Young- " Soil grows caste and machine makes classes".

EVOLUTION OF AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE (05:50 PM)

Pre-British-
Lack of Individual ownership of land.
Underdeveloped market economy.
Communal production.
Limited emergence of class.
Class was overshadowed by Caste.
There were Jajmani relations.
(Hereditary reciprocal obligations between jajmans and Kameens).
Society= Peasant society.
(Peasant society- small landholdings, traditional methods and tools are used, production is for self-consumption,
very strong ties based on family, caste, village community).
There are two major categories- rulers and ruled.
British Period-
Transformation of society from a peasant to an agrarian society.
Farming is the main economic activity- subsistence and commercial.
Introduction of different land revenue systems.
Commercialisation of agriculture.
Emergence of different classes/ groups.
(Example- moneylenders, traders, revenue farmers).
( AR Desai- state ( supra landlord)- landlords- L1, L2, L3, L4).
According to AR Desai, the state acted as the supra landlords in colonial times and appointed landlords.
They indulged in the vicious practice of leasing and sub-leasing, giving birth to the leisure class and absentee
landlords and an exploitative agrarian class structure.
AR Desai conceptualised a three-tier agrarian class system-
Upper class (absentee landlords).
Middle class( sub-landlords).
Bottom class (tenants, sharecroppers, and landless labour).
Post Independence-
Modernisation of agriculture with the advancement of technology, that is, cultivation of much larger areas in a shorter
time, which led to the displacement of the service caste group.
Commercialisation of agriculture altered the relationship between traditional land owners and the service
caste, declined in jajmani relations, and increased inequalities.
Land reforms-
It had altered the relationship between land owners, tenants, and labourers, for example, eviction of tenants due to
fear of a claim w.r.t occupancy rights.
Green Revolution-
It had widened the class inequalities by favouring the rich farmers and worsened the condition of marginal
landholders and landless labourers.
Breakdown of traditional service and tenancy relations.
 Increase inter-regional migration to well-off states due to increasing inequalities in rural areas.
This has led to the rise of a class of wage labourers known as footloose labourers by Jan Breman.
Modern education and employment outside agriculture led to the emergence of a new rural elite class.
Industrialisation-
It has diluted the centrality of land in the agrarian class structure.
Impact of Globalisation (06:31 PM)
With globalization, there were certain changes, for example-
Integration into the global economy and exposure to global competition.
Increased input costs without a proportionate increase in output prices have led to agrarian distress and farmer
suicide.
Exposure to new agricultural practices like contract farming, GM crops, patent seeds, and these practices often led
to exploitation.
Example- Pepsico sued Gujarat farmers.
Traditional Indian agriculture has undergone a major shift that is less exports and more imports, leading to a loss of
indigenous crop value.
Globalisation- emergence of Trans-National Corporation- Cash crop cultivation- nexus with large/ rich farmers-
displacement of small farmers- depeasantization (Vibha Arora's perspective).
Farmers have increasingly become dependent on the government. support like MSP, Subsidies, crop insurance
schemes.
The agrarian crisis has resulted in widespread farmer protests and mobilisation.

SCHOLARLY PERSPECTIVES ON AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE (06:46 PM)

K L Sharma-
Owners-on the basis of size of land- Large, Medium, and Small.
Non-owners (tenants, sharecroppers, and workers (free or bonded labourers)-
Andre Beteille-
Ownership-
Traditional landowners- they view land as a source of status, prestige, and kinship ties rather than a commercial
asset.
Enterprising landowner- profit-motivated individuals who treat land as capital.
Absentee landowners- choice ( live away from land due to lifestyle or employment) and compulsion (unable to
manage land due to displacement, social factors, or legal hurdles).
Cultural landowners- they belong to a community traditionally prohibited from cultivating the land.
Control over land-
Pure controllers.
Controller+ Owner.
Controller+ Owner+ user.
Use of land-
Owner+ user.
Owner+ Controllers+ user.
Pure user (labourer)- free, attached, bonded.
Andre Beteille, in his study of agrarian social structure, classified on the basis of economic position in rural areas.
Primarily determined by ownership, control, and use of land.
He has provided a complex reality of rural life, and his perspective is grounded in ideal types based on these
criteria.
Questions-
Classes in an Agrarian society in India.
Impact of Globalisation on changing agrarian structure in India.
Changes in Agrarian Class Structure.
What, according to André Beteille, are the bases of agrarian class structure in India? Analyse. (10 Mark)
Criticism of Andre Beteille's framework (07:13 PM)
AR Desai criticised A. Beteille for downplaying the role of class conflict, especially between landowners and
 landless laborers.
Desai argued there is a need for a serious analysis of agrarian class structure rooted in exploitation, surplus
extraction, political struggle, etc.
Whereas Beteille provided only a functionalist typology.
Marxist Approach-
Marx believed that the agrarian class structure comes from feudalism, which is a system where a few landlords
owned the land and peasants worked for them.
According to Marx, due to internal struggle, feudalism collapsed and gave rise to capitalism.
However, Marxist sociologists in India are divided into two groups-
One who believes Indian agriculture is feudal, whereas few believe both feudal and capital co-exist.
Daniel Thorner-
Marxist Approach- to study agrarian class structure in India started with the arguments of Daniel Thorner, who
actually came to India to study the extent of success of land reforms and found that capitalist transformation of
agriculture had ushered.
Three criteria were used on the basis of which three agrarian classes emerged-
Income earned from the land.
Nature of rights in the land.
Extent of field work actually performed.
Three classes were put forward- Malikm Kisan and Majdoor.
Malik-
Large landowner.
Do not participate in Manual work.
Capitalist class.
Completely dependent on hired labor.
Production for profit.
Usually upper caste.
Kisan-
Medium Land owners.
Production for sustenance.
Mostly dependent on family labour for production, but may also hire labourers.
Mostly intermediate caste.
Mazdoor-
No control over land.
Sell their labour for survival.
Usually lower caste, tribes, muslims.
According to Daniel Thorner, applying a Marxist perspective, there exists a correlation between agrarian class
structure and social structure in India ( superstructure is dictated by the economic substructure).
According to Danile Thorner, there was capitalistic agricultural development in the green revolution belt due to
technology-centric production, minimising the labour cost, and market-centric production.
However, this was criticised by Ashok Rudra on the following grounds-
In the green revolution belt, not the entire land holding is used for commercial agriculture( 60-70% only).
The spirit of capitalism was missing.
Market vulnerability, that is, the shrinkage of prices due to a discrepancy in demand and supply.
To control peasant mobilisation, the govt. introduced MSP.
However, input cost was greater than the market value of the product, which led to agrarian distress.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Continuation of Agrarian Class structure (Kathleen Gough, etc).
Ripped by @KingMaker836

Sociology_SmSh Class 18
AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE:

Relevance- It helps us to understand how rural societies are divided into classes based on-
Ownership.
Control over land and labour.
In the context of Indian society, both feudalism and Capitalism coexist.
Two broad perspectives-
Marxist and Neo-Marxist.

MARXIST APPROACH:

Daniel Thorner-
Criteria-
Income earned.
Rights in the land.
Extent of field work.
Malik, Kisan, Mazdoor.
Social hierarchy (caste) overlaps with the class hierarchy.
The finding is further substantiated by the D.N. Dhanagre study-
Landlords- dominant caste.
Peasants- backward caste.
Agricultural labourers- scheduled caste.
Green revolution-
The gap between the classes has further widened.
Tenants and sharecroppers ( losing their small rights over land)= wage labourers.
Ashok Rudra-
60% - 70% of the green belt area has seen capitalism remaining land, subsistence farming.
Lack of capitalist spirit.
Fragmentation of land holding- status difference across the generations, hence a lack of capitalistic dynasties.
Dependency on the state increased due to the market vulnerabilities over production = lower prices (State
Intervention = MSP).
Agrarian distress= protest.
Kathleen Gough (05:19 PM)
The Indian agrarian class structure is multi-layered.
Big Bourgeoisie- Hundreds of acres of land + Escaped land ceiling laws + Diversification.
For example, horticulture, agri-business, and orchards.
Rich farmers- commercial farming, produced export goods, and adopted advanced technology.
Petty Bourgeoisie- small land (consumption) + sustain family Income = petty trades, focus was on children's
education.
Semi-Proletariat- small piece of land (not sufficient)+ wage labor.
Poor Proletariat- landless labourers, extremely vulnerable to exploitation by both rich farmers and landlords.
Utsa Patnaik (05:27 PM)
It has been argued that in India, pre-capitalist modes of production exist (MoP).
Some elements of feudalism still persist; that is, economic behaviour is still governed by caste, kinship, and
community network rather than rationality and individualism.
Malik-
Landowners.
Amount of land- large/ fertile.
 Family labor versus hired labour- hired labor + some family labour.
Kisan-
Rich peasant-
Amount of land- moderate.
Family labor versus hired labour- hired labour + some family labour.
Middle peasant-
Amount of land- moderate.
Family labor versus hired labour- Family labour + some hired labour.
Poor peasant-
Amount of land- small.
Family labor versus hired labour- family labour.
Mazdoor-
Wage labourers.
Amount of land- landless.
Family labor versus hired labour- survive on selling their labor for a livelihood.

PC JOSHI- FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION (05:36 PM)

Indian agriculture largely retains feudal characteristics despite modernisation.

Landlords-
Control over large land areas + maximise profit through rent and labour exploitation.
Peasants-
Small landholders + subsistence farming + vulnerable to market shocks and crop failure.
Agricultural Labourers-
Landless + unorganised + no bargaining power + most vulnerable.
Old feudal landlords have declined.
The rise of commercial landlords has created new forms of economic exploitation.
This reflects how class-based exploitation continues in different forms even after the decline of feudalism.
Vina Mazumdar- Feminist perspective (05:44 PM)
Agrarian structure is deeply gendered.
Women are confined to domestic roles.
With economic development, gender based exploitation gets formalised rather than removed.
In fact, women's economic freedom shrinks in an agrarian society.
T K Oommen's perspective-
He criticised the fixed class model as the Indian agrarian class structure is too dynamic, and regional variations are
huge
Hence, class structures are constantly evolving.

NEOMARXIST (05:49 PM)

Duzerfedt and Lindsberg's Perspective-

According to them, the agrarian class structure not only should focus on WHO OWNS THE LAND, but also on how it
survives or changes due to new linkages/ developments.
For example, the market, policies, and rural-urban linkage.
* Please refer to the whiteboard for the diagram ( Urban Metropolis- Rural Satellite).
Sell goods at high prices,+ loans, but at high interest.
Input for agriculture is bought at a high price.
Buy produce at a low price (distress sale).
Asymmetrical dependency.
To break the cycle-
State intervention- subsidies, loans, MSP.
By applying Andre Gundre Frank's Dependency theory (Apply in the questions on- agrarian distress, rural urban
divide, uneven development)
 Conclusion-
Indian agrarian society is a complex mixture of feudal, capitalist, and pre-capitalist relations.
Different scholars offer different frameworks based on regional variation, change, and social factors such as caste
and gender.
Capitalism in Indian agriculture is partial, uneven, and incomplete.

SIGNIFICANCE OF AGRARIAN CLASS STRUCTURE (06:03 PM)

Classes shape the nature of power exploitation and interdependence.

Disproportionate benefits to rich peasants.
Domination of the big bourgeoisie in rural society (Kathleen Gough).
The big bourgeoisie has extended its influence beyond agriculture into politics, education, and social institutions.
They maintained a strong nexus with urban elites ( traders, moneylenders, etc) and monopolised credit and
agricultural markets.
The green revolution introduced capital-intensive farming, which favoured large landowners.
However, marginal and small farmers could not afford the new inputs.
This was further accelerated by globalisation as it was promoting export-oriented agriculture, which led to the
displacement of small landholders.
Green Revolution+ Globalizations "Depeasantization".
Limitations of class-based analysis in the Indian context-
In India, especially rural areas, caste identity overrides class in determining social relations, status, life chances, etc.
Class structure often ignores non-economic factors such as education, social network, and cultural capital, which are
unevenly distributed due to caste.
Contrary to the Marxist assumption that class replaces caste, Indian reality shows that there exists caste class
overlap.
Class conflicts in an Agrarian Society. (10 Mark)
KL Sharma, class position overlaps with caste identities; that is, class conflicts are experienced as caste wars.
Political dimension-
In the electoral and political sphere, conflict is not always rich versus poor.
In several states, middle farmers have allied with the marginalised to challenge upper caste, rich landlords.
This has led to the struggle between the ascendant and entrenched caste, especially in local governance.
Questions-
Classes in an agrarian society in India. (10 Marks).
Changes in the Agrarian class structure.

INDUSTRIAL CLASS STRUCTURE (06:33 PM)

It is defined as the system of social stratification existing in industrial societies.

Number and arrangement of classes in the hierarchy based on ownership of means of production, skills, and
authority.
Industrial class structure emerged as a result of industrialisation, which replaced manual labor with machine-based
production.
As per industrial society was agrarian ( landlords, peasants, Landless labourers).
Scholarly Views-
Karl Marx-
Industrial society- bourgeoisie and proletariat.
Capitalist society- inherent contradictions- extracting surplus and social production, + individual ownership.
Homogenisation.
Pauperisation.
Protelerization.
Polarization.
Revolution.
(Class in itself to class for itself).
 Weber-
Class is one of the basis of stratification along with status and power.
Group of people- share the same market position- income, skill, and employability.
Property owner.
Professional.
Petty Bourgeioisie.
Working class.
Duncan and Blau-
P1, P2, P3- similar Income status= class.
Schneider-
Entrepreneurs-
Big entrepreneurs- large capital + R&D + diversification.
Small/middle entrepreneurs- limited capital, avoid risk, and diversification.
Managerial class-
Top level- strategic decision makers.
Middle level- high workload, prone to alienation.
Lower level- lacks authority, acts as supervisor.
Working class (Skilled-Semi-skilled-Unskilled)
Contrary to Marx's prediction of workers' alienation, incentives in modern industries have reduced the discontent

INDUSTRIAL CLASS STRUCTURE IN INDIA (06:52 PM)

Pre-Colonial-
Indigenous industries have existed, such as handicraft, cottage, etc.
It had the following production system-
Produce for local community use.
Labour included both family and hired workers.
Non-hierarchical work relations.
Caste hierarchy.
Colonial-
Destruction of the indigenous economy-
According to AR Desai, the British dumped their surplus factory-produced goods in India and stifled the growth of
indigenous entrepreneurs while destroying the domestic handloom industry.
Rise of the merchant class-
Instead of industrial bourgeois traders and middlemen emerged.
Formation of the working class-
They worked in railways, mining, jute, sugar, textile industries, recruited by the middleman.
Mostly constitute distressed agricultural labour, practice seasonal migration, weak industrial discipline due to strong
community ties.
According to the Royal Commission on Labour, ' India can be a good marketplace but not a manufacturing site'.
Rise of indigenous capitalists-
Despite challenges, Indian business families established trade and industrial influence.
Post Independence-
Pre 1991-
1. The state was acting as the super entrepreneur-
Heavy industries were controlled by the state.
Private entrepreneurship was regulated.
The entrepreneurial spirit was not revived as state control has stifled private initiative, risk-taking, innovation, etc.
2. The dependency of the middle and lower classes on the state increased-
The educated middle class was dependent on the government. jobs.
The lower class relied on state welfare programs.
Hence, both lacked the critical autonomy to question the state authority and were reduced to 'passive citizenry'.
3. According to Sharit Bhowmik, the rise of the PSU led to the formation of multiple classes, but instead of industrial
 workers, they had the status of government employees.
4. In the later phase, some capitalist elements emerged due to policies like import substitution.
Public sector employees, traditional industrial middle class ( educated), working/ lower class, and differentiation of
class emerged.
Industrial class structure post globalisation (Post 1991) (07:15 PM)
The inflow of FDI is attracted by cheap labour and state subsidies.
Profit extracted by the parent country leading to neo-colonialism (A.G. Frank)
Rise of traditional industrial houses due to global capital and deregulation.
Opened up job opportunities across classes and caste lines.
Corporate contribution to the state had increased.
Small producers acted as the satellite to the large MNCs operating under sub-contracts and flexible labour
conditions.
A major share of employment is now in services, creating non-traditional industrial workers.
Class composition is also changing; that is, class is now defined by skill, digital access, and networking.
Emergence of a new hybrid class.
Industrial class structure today is multidimensional.
It is based on market exposure, skill, education, global linkage, etc.
It intersects with caste, gender, and region.
Question-
1) Do a critical examination of the impact of globalisation on industrial class structure.
According to Bardhan and Rudra, globalisation has led to the sharp concentration of wealth, with the top 10%
controlling 77% of national resources.
Growth of relative poverty, despite the decline in absolute poverty.
Shift from capitalist to hegemonic domination, that is, corporate, state, and elite think tank, they are monopolising
the decisions.
Emergence of the petty bourgeoisie, followed by the middle class, followed by the working class.
2) Critically examine the statement- 'Soil grows caste, Machine makes classes'.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: MIDDLE CLASS

Ripped by @KingMaker836

Sociology_SmSh Class 19
MIDDLE CLASS:

Premise-
The middle class is referred to as the Child of the Industrial Revolution ( Industrial Revolution= IR).
IR- Increase in Industrial production- demand with respect to trained manpower will increase- increase demand with
respect to teachers/ schools/ educational institutions/ professors/ managers will increase.
These trained professionals neither own the Means of Production (MoP), nor provide manual labour.
Hence, they lie in the middle of the MoP (Means of Production) owning Capitalist Class.
Rise in industries- emergence of Bureaucracy/ Media/ legal professionals.
Middle class- teachers/ professors/ managers
Manual labour providing working class.

SCHOLARLY PERSPECTIVE (02:19 PM)

Scholarly perspective with respect to the proliferation of the middle class:

Max Weber-
The middle class is the positive outcome of the Industrial Revolution.
With Capitalism, both Upper class(UC) and Working class (WC) have shrunk and there is an expansion of the
Middle Class (MC).
(Upper class- Middle class- Working class).
Social mobility is increasing.
Poverty is declining.
Diversification in the class structure, which was traditionally considered binary.
Lipset and Bendix-
They studied eight Industrial societies and arrived at the same conclusion.
Capitalist development- growth of the Middle class.
Goldthrope and Lockwood-
Emergence of "Affluent workers".
Affluent workers -Roots are working class ( 1960s car factory workers- Ford plant)+ Aspirations and lifestyle are
that of the middle class.
It was found that the characteristic features of the traditional working class (TWC) were different from the current
working class.
For example, TWC was identified with union collective mobilisation, political radicalism, etc.
Whereas the new working class (NWC) was more individualistic, driven by personal comfort, and was not politically
radical.
They are known as affluent workers as they are still engaged in blue-collar jobs.
However, earning more money and enjoying higher living standards than earlier.

SALIENT FEATURES OF MIDDLE CLASS (02:33 PM)

Historical Origin-
According to BB Mishra, the Middle class in India has emerged due to British colonialism.
Pre-British-
Lack of private property.
Merchant guilds-
No military and no political power.
Lack of training of artisans.
Manufacturing jobs were looked down upon.
British period-
The arbitrariness of the Mughal period was addressed, and a mild Rule of Law was established, which provided
legal security.
Similarly concept of private property emerged.
Modern Education- professional.
Social Reforms-
Created an environment for intellectual and moral leadership by the middle class
There was an emergence of laissez-faire (free market).
[West Middle Class- economic and technological changes (trade and Industry).
India Middle Class- laws and administration (legal professionals)].
Middle Class is not just an economic class-
Wealth defines the rich, poverty defines the poor; it is the values and aspirations that define the middle class.
Dipankar Gupta-
The Middle Class is characterised by cultural practices, consumption patterns, and aspirational values.
Hence, they are status-conscious, career-oriented, and educationally driven.
Ralf Dahrendorf-
Three perspectives-
1. As an extension of the Capitalist class, for example, a factory supervisor doesn't own the factory but manages
workers, helps increase profits, and acts in the interest of the capitalist
2. As an extension of the working class, for example, some middle-class professionals sell their labour like workers
do, for example, a software engineer working in a tech company.
3. Denial of the existence of the middle class (illusion)- for example, a school principal may seem like a middle
class, but if they control teachers, they are part of the authority class but if they follow orders of educational
departments, they form part of the subordinate class.
David Lockwood-
Middle class shows structural ambivalence, that is it is neither fully elite nor it is fully proletarian.
Caste and Social reform-
The middle class largely belonged to the educated forward class.
Although they were rooted in caste but they adopted a progressive and liberal outlook, which created ground for
social reform.
Satish Deshpande- " Invisible privilege" reaped by the middle class.
It is referred to as a knowledgeable class since it focuses on seeking education as a means for cultural transmission
and character building.
Agent of social change-
The middle class- transformation and modernisation
TK Oommen- The middle class is the harbinger of the silent revolution.
* In the post-independent NGO, Public litigation (PIL), social movement, protest for human rights, animal rights,
environmentalism, etc, was carried out by the Middle class.
Dipanker Gupta- especially post-1990 Middle class has emerged as West-toxicated elites who are only driven by
their selfish interest.
Political articulation-
The Middle Class is very vocal and opinionated.
According to Amartya Sen, in 'The Argumentative Indian', he mentioned how the middle class has the capability of
mobilising people.
Neera Chandoke- "The Middle Class is a cornerstone of Indian democracy".
Pavan Verma - Middle Class acts as a voice for the marginalised.
Custodian of culture-
The upper class is detached from culture.
The lower class lacks cultural capital.
Hence, it is only the middle class that helps in preserving and promoting culture and traditions.
Dual closure-
They indulge in inclusion ( EWS) or exclusion (reservation (caste) merit) based on their interest and context.
Exhibitionist Identity-
 The middle class proudly displays their knowledge, lifestyle, liberal values, etc.
They believed in rule rule-based society.
The middle class often believes that rules, laws, and procedures are the foundation of a civilised society.
They often celebrate themselves for being law-abiding or responsible citizens.
However may use influence to bypass rules when they need fast services, bribe for licenses, etc.
They are the nation builders-
Policy influencer.
Character builder.
Opinion maker.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE MIDDLE CLASS (03:34 PM)

Karl Marx-
Bourgeoisie- Middle class- Proletariate.
The middle class acts as a roadblock in the process of proletarian revolution.
It is believed that the Bourgeoisie share a portion of surplus value with the Middle class, which purchases their
loyalty and dilutes class consciousness.
E.O. Wright- The middle class is the creation of the Upper class to prevent revolutionary changes.
Anthony Giddens-
Three classes-
Upper- owner of MoP.
Middle- education and technical qualification.
Working class- manual labour
Habermas-
The middle class is not defined by income but by functions.
For example, coordination, communication, and commercial facilitation in capitalist societies.
For example, a warehouse clerk who coordinates shipments or a merchant banker helping finance overseas trade.
For example, a plant manager, a software analyst, marketing executive.

EVOLUTION OF MIDDLE CLASS IN INDIA (03:42 PM)

The middle class was mostly absent before the British period due to the following reasons-
Under the Mughals, land and property largely belonged to the emperor or the feudal lords.
People were easily displaced, property rights were not secured, hence economic independence, which is the base
for middle class formation, was weak.
Indian traders and merchants did exist, but they didn't control politics or the military as their European counterparts
did.
Skills were passed through caste or family, but not through a structured institution.
These limited upward mobility and innovation in craft
Brahminical culture emphasised purity, and any physical labour was seen as inferior, so people hesitated to pursue
skilled work, affecting industrial growth and middle-class emergence.
British Period (03:49 PM)
Unlike the Mughals British brought a system based on laws and regulations.
It gave a sense of legal security.
British laws protected land and property rights, encouraging people to invest and accumulate wealth.
This created the base for the property-owning middle class.
Modern education created classic middle-class professions.
Post 1857, there existed peace and political stability, which made it easier for economic growth and professional
jobs to spread in cities.
The British promoted a capitalist economy with the free market, and it allowed the emergence of businessmen,
traders, small enterprises, etc.
Support for social reform.
Exposure to education and employment opportunities created a disconnect with traditional occupations like
 agriculture.
Modern Middle class-
Individualism.
Secularism.
Rule of Law.
Rationality.
Rejected (Communalsim, collectivism, traditional practices/ customs, etc).
According to DP Mukherjee Indian Middle class (IMC) reflects dialectics of the values that is commitment to
tradition on one hand and urge to embrace modernity on the other.
The middle class wanted to preserve valuable elements of tradition, for example, family values, minimalism,
spirituality, etc.
They also wanted to integrate progressive colonial values such as rationality, scientific temper, women's education,
etc.
To usher in the path of social transformation that is removing superstition, caste rigidity, gender oppression, etc.
Preserve valuable elements of tradition (for example, spiritualism, minimalism, collectivism, and familism) +
integrate progressive western values (rationality, scientific temper)= path of social transformation (remove
superstition, caste rigidity, and gender oppression).
The Indian National Congress (INC) was a coalition of middle-class individuals.
It was not just a political party but an imagined institution.
INC signified a national movement that united diverse groups, and it emerged as a platform for debate,
deliberation, and shaping the national discourse.
The Indian Middle class (IMC) critiqued colonial injustice.
Colonialism in India- emergence of the Indian Middle Class- led to the Decolonization of India.

POST INDEPENDENCE (04:11 PM)

1947-60's-
Key engagement of the Indian Middle class included igniting young minds through education and intellectual
leadership.
Formulating public policy aligned with national interest.
Strengthening of grassroots administration.
Institutionalising the rule of law.
Supressing divisive elements.
It transformed Indian society from poverty, illiteracy, and famine to a self-reliant, educated, and democratic society.
AR Desai described this era as a decade of hope led by the middle class.
Question-
Salient feature of the Middle class (10 marks).
Role of the Middle class in democracy and development.
Reason for the emergence of the Middle class.
1960's-1990's.
Post 1990's.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Continuation of Middle Class (Post Independence, 1960s onward).
Ripped by @KingMaker836

Sociology_Smsh Class 20
MIDDLE CLASS:

* (Middle Class (MC).

1960s onward-
Premise-
The national leadership by the 1960s faded.
Unity of MC also got destroyed.
According to Rajni Kothari, INC emerged/ reduced to being just another political party.
Priorities-
The priorities of MC changed from national interest to selfish vested interest.
Nature-
Green revolution- rural affluent class- agriculture became the source of formation of MC.
Rural affluent class-
Politically conscious.
Engaged in caste based mobilization.
Acting as a pressure group- MSP, Subsidies, and loan waivers.
MC transformed from being an Idea to an Identity.
MC-Caste conscious and used as a vote bank.
* No longer is education the sole criterion for being a member of MC.
Anand Kumar-
RMC (Rural Middle Class)-
Politically assertive.
Seek state support.
UMC (Urban Middle Class)-
Focus is on employment.
They are not as politically active.
Composition-
No longer middle-class- homogenous.
There is an emergence of educated elites among ST/SC/OBCs who join the ranks of MC.
Example- Nandu Ram's study of mobile-scheduled caste.
Since MC is now diversified.
Instead of universal interest- community specific interest- there is an increase in incidences of caste conflict,
communal conflict, + Fragmentation of Identity.
Aspirations-
According to DL Seth, instead of keeping a check on the power of the state, MC has developed the aspiration to
become a state.
That is, instead of acting as a watchdog of democracy, it has developed political aspirations.
Consequences-
The ability of MC to bring transformation or desirable social change has been diluted.
AR Desai- ear as "decade of discontent".
Features- unemployment, caste and communal conflict, corruption, breakdown of institutions, pathological politics.
Post 1990s-
This period saw the rise of a new Indian middle class, which is defined as English-speaking, urban living, modern
education, working in the private sector, and driven by the culture of consumerism.
Salient Features-
They are the product of Globalisation.
They are de-ritualised.
They are secularised with respect to marriage, commensality, and accommodation.
 They are given by a material goal.
Focus is on goal attainment.
They lead fast fast-paced lifestyle.
Resilience.

IMPACT OF LPG REFORMS ON THE NEW INDIAN MIDDLE CLASS (05:46 PM)

Access to new white-collar jobs in IT, finance, service sector was provided.
The middle class became the chief consumer of products like electronics, FMCG, cars, etc.
According to Leela Fernandis, MC is now defined by consumption-based citizenship.
Growth in private English medium schools, professional colleges, and coaching centers.
According to Satish Deshpande, education acts as both a symbol and a strategy of MC distinction.
Satellite, TV, Internet, etc introduced global cultural norms ( rise in individualism, nuclear families, career-
orientedness, etc).
According to Leela Fernandes new Indian Middle Class engages in spatial politics
Support for anti-corruption movement, digital governance, etc.
According to Aseem Prakash, this class prefers non-political participation through RTI, PILs, etc.
MC has become the carrier of nationalist modernist values, for example, Swach Bharat, yoga, anti-corruption, etc.
However, their role in moral policing and cultural gatekeeping also increased.
Guru Charan Das wrote that post liberalisation, massive growth in the middle class, which was characterized as
risk-taking, confident, promoting innovation, and having the potential to transform India's socio-economic fabric.
Yogendra Singh-
Rural MC- power centric, suffered due to agrarian distress
Urban MC- market-driven, reaped the benefits of liberalisation
Leela Fernandes on New Indian Middle Class (NIMC) (06:02 PM)
NIMC, rather than their income or occupation, is known for their cultural practices, lifestyle, and consumption.
They are defined through their market participation, that is, shopping malls, gated housing, private education, digital
technologies, etc.
NIMC exerts influence on urban planning, slum clearance, and privatisation of services, even at the cost of the
marginalised.

Old Middle New Middle

Parameters
Class Class
Origin Colonial period Post 1991
Urban, Upper
Composition Cross sectional
Caste
Education, IT, Service,
Basis public sector White collar
jobs jobs, startups
Cosmopolitan,
Identity Traditional
detraditionalized
Individualism,
Sacrifice,
Values Innovation,
National Interest
Consumerism

ANDRE BETEILLE PERSPECTIVE ON MIDDLE CLASS (06:16 PM)

Andre Beteille
Explanation Examples
Perspective
 They oppose
caste based
reservation on
Don't They are the issue of
Romanticize neither merit, but enjoy
the Middle democratic nor privileges
Class meritocratic based on
English and
urban lifestyle.

Competing for
Competition govt jobs,
Intra-class over resources- Private versus
conflict education and public school,
employment. struggle for
medical seats.

There were -Rural MC

internal versus Urban
hierarchies MC.
MC is not
based on -English MC
monolithic.
region/ caste/ versus
gender/ Vernacular
language, etc. speaking

New Indian Middle Class Women-

Urban, educated Middle Class Indian women who are assertive, career aspirants, committed to equality and self-
realisation, negotiators of roles both within and beyond the domestic sphere.
Emergence of NIMC women and its transformative impact-
Economic growth has a direct correlation with FLFP.
Their active participation pushes for legal reforms around rights, harassment laws, environmental movement
participation, and gender equality.
It increases the probability of achieving the Sustainable Development Goal.
At the family level -increase in household income, change in lifestyle, such as delayed marriage and childbirth.
Adoption of flexible work models, for example, work from home.
At the societal level- challenging the notions of patriarchy.
However, applying Sylvia Walby's structure of patriarchy, they are confronted with the following challenges-
Wage disparity, glass ceiling, workplace harassment, dual burden, etc.
Questions-
Discuss the salient features of the New Middle Class in India (10 marks).
Andre Beteille's perspective on the Middle class in India.
Write a short note on the role of middle-class women in India and/ status of women among the urban middle class.
How has the new economic policy of 1991 affected the lifestyle and life chances of the New Middle Class in India
(20 Marks).

RELIGIOUS MINORITIES IN INDIA (06:40 PM)

Definition-
Religious communities that are numerically inferior to the dominant religious group (Hindus).
Number of Religious Minorities-
According to NCM, there are 6 Religious Minorities ( according to the 2011 census)-
Muslims- 14.23 %.
Christians- 2.4%.
 Sikhs- 1.72%.
Buddhists- 0.7%.
Jains- 0.37%
Parsis- less than 1 lakh.
Core Issues-
Numerically Inferior- sense of persecution and sense of insecurity = Minority consciousness.
Minority Consciousness- defined as a feeling of fear that their unique culture will be threatened by the majority in the
guise of Religious Nationalism.
It is among muslims, Christians, and sikhs- Minority consciousness.
It is not found among Buddhists, Jains, or Parsis (educated, urbanised, economically well off).
Parsis (issues)-decline in marriage rates, low birth rate, significant decline in population.

PROBLEMS FACED BY MINORITY COMMUNITY (06:56 PM)

Muslim Minority-
History-
Partition- Muslim elites- Pakistan.
Poor and leaderless people were left.
Leadership was provided by the Ulema ( no focus on modernisation, focused on religious revivalism (no modern
education, no diverse/ advanced job opportunities, Madarsa-based education).
Social-
Social alienation- Lack of cultural Integration- stereotype- prejudice- high probability of violence- survival techniques
of invisibility- ghettoisation.
There exists a lag in modernisation as muslims did not pursue modern English-based education.
Feeling of relative deprivation, which has deepened the feeling of marginalisation and antagonism.
Economic-
High concentration in low-income jobs.
According to the Sachar Committee, less than 5% of muslims in govt. services, poor connectivity that is many
muslim villages lack pakka roads, weak educational and financial infrastructure in muslim areas, low financial
inclusion, and access to credit.
Political Marginalisation-
Communal politics have deepened the insecurity.
In current lok sabha (18th Lok Sabha- 24 Muslim leader) (4.42%)( Population-14.23 %).
Vote bank politics has reinforced the community divisions.
According to Stephen Cohen, historical exclusion (suppression by the British post-1857 revolt) has contributed to
reactionary politics and structures.
Educational backwardness-
According to the Mandal Commission and Sachar Committee, Muslims fare worse than Dalits in terms of education
and job access.
Question-
Discuss the problems of religious minorities in India with a focus on muslims. How do these contribute to
communalism?

PROBLEMS OF RELIGIOUS MINORITIES (CHRISTIANS AND SIKHS) (07:14 PM)

Christians-
As a numerical weak, suffers from minority consciousness.
This leads to the feeling of cultural insecurity.
Social problems with respect to Christians are caste still persist as a result of economic deprivation and social
exclusion.
For example, Untouchability and caste based discrimination exist with respect to Dalit Christians.
Conversions, particularly from SC/ST groups, are the major point of tension.
Although economically and educationally better off than many minorities, insecurity remains high due to communal
 politics, anti-conversion laws, attacks on churches and missionaries.
Problems of the Sikhs-
No major issues post-independence until the 1980s.
Problems emerged due to the socio-economic fallout of the green revolution in Punjab.
On one hand, there was high productivity, but on the other hand, increased unemployment and social inequality,
which led to the demand for Khalistan.
Which was followed by Operation Blue Star, the assassination of Indira Gandhi, and the Anti-sikh riots of 1984.
The early 20th century saw the rise of sikh sectarian movements seeking a distinct identity, demanded Punjab as
the sikh homeland which, post 1980s created ground for the rise of the Khalistan movement.
After 1984, although normalcy returned but the memories of violence persisted.
Sikh minorities outside Punjab faced neglect and discrimination in some states for example, Gujarat passed a law
restricting land ownership by outsiders.
This affected sikh farmers.
Sikh families displaced in Jammu and Kashmir were also denied an internal displacement certificate, highlighting
the state's apathy towards the sikh.

SOLUTIONS (07:39 PM)

Thinkers Perspective
Argues that secularism
must be interpreted as
equal respect for all
TK Ooomen
religions and not merely
the separation of religion
from the state.
Proposed the model of
Rajeev Bhargava
principled distance.
Argued against the use
of religion in politics and
Christophe Jaffrelot suggested a shift from
identity-based politics to
issue-based politics.
Forced assimilation
weakens the
multiculturalism of India,
Ashish Nandy which is, a shared
national identity that
must accommodate
diversity
Affirmative action for
Zoya Hasan minorities is essential for
substantive equality.
 They have shown how
riots are engineered
during elections. Hence,
a central law is needed to
Paul Brass and Steven prevent communal
Wilinson violence, ensure relief
and rehabilitation, justice
to victims, and
prosecution of
perpetrators.
Questions:
Discuss the problems of religious minorities in India and suggest measures to address them. (10 Marks).
How do you understand the 'minority' question? Examine the violence and discrimination against religious minorities
in India.
Asses the Impact of ban on triple talaq among the muslim community.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Communalism and Religious Revivalism.

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Sociology_Smsh Class 21
COMMUNALISM:

Concept- refers to an ideology according to which society is divided into different religious communities having
different secular interests.
Scholarly perspective-
Bipin Chandra- defined as an ideology which seeks to promote the interests of one religious group against
another in the name of protecting their culture, identity, and religion.
Gopal Krishna- it is a form of "false consciousness", mobilized by elites for their political gains.
Explanation-
It is said that a man of religion is not communal, but one who practices politics by linking it with religion is communal.
Hence communalism = political trade in religion.
Manifestations (05:21 PM)

Types Explanation Perspective

Asghar Ali
People Engineer-
belonging to the Cultural
same religious assertion
Mild
group have the without political
same secular aggression is
interests. called Cultural
Communalism.
Donald
People Eugene Smith-
belonging to religious
different identities
Moderate religious groups influence
have different political
secular alignments, for
interests. example, in
colonial times.
Not only are the TN Madan-
interests "pathological
different, but communalism",
Extreme
they are such as
mutually hostile/ interreligious
antagonistic. conflict

TYPES OF COMMUNALISM (05:28 PM)

TK Oommen-
6 types of communalism-
Assimilationalist communalism- when the majority religious group brings the minority within their fold.
For example- Hindu Code Bill (applicable to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs)
TK Oommen- It is a benign form of communalism, hence it is not a threat to integration.
However, Andre Beteille said that this cultural assimilation could mask coercion and erode diversity.
Welfarist- when religious groups promote the interest (social, economic, political) of their members to ensure
upliftment.
 For example, scholarship, various trusts, residential accommodations, and facilitating preparation for government
exams.
Ashis Nandy- Community-based solidarity.
Imtiaz Ahmed- Institutional Pluralism, rather than communalism.
Retreatist- a religious group forbids the participation of its political affairs.
For example, Bahai community does not participate in politics.
For example, TK Oommen says it does not threaten the secular framework.
Rajeev Bhargava- it is a form of secular detachment.
Retaliatory- based on zero-sum game theory.
According to which one community can progress only at the cost of the others.
For example, religious conflict, riots, communal violence, etc.
Bipin Chandra- This is the outcome of the divide and rule policy of the British.
Separatist- autonomy on religious lines is demanded.
However, within the Indian Union.
For example- Anandpur Sahib Resolution (demand for separate Punjab Suba), article 370 (before abrogation).
TK Oommen- it is a threat to national integration/national cohesion.
Secessionist- demand separate nations on religious lines.
For example, Khalistan.
Zoya Hasan- it is extreme form of communalism.
Christophe Jaffrelot- These secessionist tendencies overlap with ethnonationalism as well.
For example, demand for a greater Nagalim.
This framework helped us to understand that communalism is not monolithic; it ranges from cultural solidarity to
violent separatism.

EVOLUTION OF COMMUNALISM (05:50 PM)

Pre-Colonial-
Communalism was not full full-fledged ideology during this period, however, communal bickering had started.
For example, destruction of temples, proselytization (forced conversion), imposition of religious tax, etc.
According to Romila Thapar, during this period, religion acted as a legitimising force for kingship, rather than a tool
for communal polarisation.
Colonial period-
Agrarian distress + lack of modern industries + increase educational oppurtunitues.
Emergence of educated middle class.
However, in the absence of employment opportunities, their aspirations were not being satisfied, which led to
nepotism, favoritism, and groupism based on religion.
Asghar Ali Engineer- economic deprivation + religious differentiation, is a fertile ground for the emergence of
communalism.
In the context of Indian society, class differences overlap with religious differences.
For example, 'X' zamindar versus 'Y' peasant.
Hence, instead of viewing this situation from a class line, it is seen from the prism of religious difference.
According to AR Desai, this was a deliberate misreading by the colonial authority and elite sections to divert
attention from real economic struggles.
Communalism was not the result of the struggle between the haves and have-nots only.
It was also manufactured due to the elite's struggle for power.
For example, western Punjab and Eastern Bengal- the struggle between X moneylenders versus Y zamindars, X
zamindars versus Y Jotedars.
According to Francis Robinson, elites of both religious communities mobilised their respective masses to serve
their political agenda.
Divide and Rule politics of the British-
According to Bipin Chandra, communalism was used as a tool in the hands of colonialism to counter the growing
national freedom struggle.
For example - partition of Bengal, separate electorate, patronage to communal press, spokesperson, etc.
Overthrowing colonial rule was necessary but not sufficient.
Partha Chatterjee criticised the national movement for failing to create a secular political culture; instead, they relied
on religious mobilisation.
Use of religious festivals, symbols, and myth to mobilise masses proved to be effective, but it alienated the
minorities as it was seen as a form of majoritarian nationalism.
Perspective-
Christophe Jaffrelot observes that such strategies blur the line between nationalism and religious identity, which
creates space for communal narratives.
According to Zoya Hasan, selective valorization of history led to minority distrust, which weakened the efforts of
national integration.
Post Independence ( 06:17 PM)
Cultural segregation fosters stereotyping, minority adopts the technique of invisibility, which leads to Ghettoisation.
According to TK Oommen, failure to promote cultural pluralism has prevented the integration of the religious groups.
Communalisation of politics-
Mobilising masses on religious lines, selecting candidates based on religious demography.
Paul Brass- "Institutionalised Riot System".
Politics of appeasement-
Asghar Ali Engineer criticizes appeasement as pseudo-secularism, which damages both secularism and minority
empowerment.
Psychological factors and media manipulation-
Lack of trust, mutual ignorance, and prejudices aggravate communal tensions.
This is further fueled by the media, through sensationalisation, trivialisation, and propagating rumors as news.
According to Ashis Nandy, media narrative reinforces communal stereotypes.
Rise of social media and digital polarisation-
For example, since social media lacks regulation, and hence hate speech, propaganda, and communal
misinformation are spread.
Neeranjan Sahu argued that digital polarisation was central to the Muzaffarnagar riot.
Suhas Palshikar stresses that when the state appears partitioned, it undermines the rule of law and fosters
communal confidence
Imtiaz Ahmed argues that socio-economic marginalisation, when coupled with identity politics, it sustains the
communal divide.
Amitabh Kundu notes that developmental exclusion of minorities, especially muslims, intensifies their alienation and
makes them vulnerable to radical ideologies.
Concluding remark-
TK Oommen states that tackling communalism not just requires secularism but also cultural inclusion, economic
justice, and institutional neutrality.
Question-
Analyse the role of Communalism in undermining democracy in India.
* Christophe Jaffrelot coined the term 'Ethnic Democracy' where majority identity shapes the political outcomes
under the garb of formal democracy.
Illucidate the concept of Majoritarianism and Minoritism in accentuating communal tensions in India (20 Marks).
Majoritarianism-
The belief that the majority community has a natural right to dominate the political and cultural landscape.
For example, asserting dominance based on numbers, seeking cultural homogenisation, marginalises minorities in
governance and public discourse.
Minoritism-
A defensive ideology where a minority community perceives itself as marginalised, begins to organise politically
and socially around its religious identity.
For example, emphasize victimhood, mobilize around identity preservation, and they can become separatist or
secessionist.
Hime assignment - Discuss the role of social media in communal polarisation and suggest measures to combat it.
RELIGIOUS REVIVALISM (07:00 PM)

Religious Revivalism (RR).

It refers to increased interest in religion, often in response to modern challenges.
Manifestations- revival of old religion, emergence of new religious movement or religious fundamentalism.
General causes of RR-
Urban migration- breakdown of traditional ties/ bonds- feeling of alienation and isolation.
It is religion that offers emotional belongingness or identity.
Economically marginalized and repressed section turns to religion for emotional support.
Materialism and fast-paced life create spiritual emptiness.
People seek comfort in a new or revived religion.
Giddens argues that rationality undermines traditional certainty and creates a moral vacuum.
Increased individualism detaches people from community values, leading to moral disorientation
With respect to third-world countries, the following factors can be responsible for religious revivalism
(07:16 PM)
Rapid change leads to social breakdown, which leads to increased anxiety-
In this situation of anomie, religion becomes the stabilising force.
Fear of cultural invasion provokes a defensive reaction.
Disparities in development also lead to RR.
Global platforms allow religious messages to spread widely, heightening religious identities through competition
and comparison.
For example-
Religious Fundamentalism.
Growing role of religion and politics, and International Relations.
Emergence of new religious movements, digitalised religion, media's role in religious advocacy, and better
transportation to religious pilgrimages.
Home Assignment-
Compare Religious Revivalism and Communalism (10 marks).
What is Religious Revivalism? Discuss the role of globalisation in religious revivalism (10 marks).

NEXT CLASS TOPICS: Religious Fundamentalism and Secularisation.

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Sociology_Smsh Class 22
RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM:

Concept- defined as a violent offshoot of communalism.

According to Gabriel Almond, " described a pattern of religious militancy by which self-styled true believers try to-
Arrest the erosion of religious identity.
Fortify the borders of religious communities.
Looks for alternatives to secular institutions and practices.
Characteristic Features-
Fundamentalism is rooted in strict adherence to the original scripture.
That is, they believe in literal interpretation.
Hence, they reject any alternative interpretation.
They actually deny the legitimacy of the nonbelievers.
These religious fundamentalist movements are communal in nature, and leadership is provided by a charismatic
male leader.
It is not necessarily a male leader who is a religious scholar.
They can be professionals with ideological lineage.
For example-
Maulana Maududi.
The focus is on removing the impure or modernised lifestyle (defending the traditions in the traditional way).
Fundamentalism arises as a reaction to social and cultural crisis.
According to TN Madan, fundamentalism= revivalism+ pursuit of political power.
Three pillars of fundamentalism (ACP)-
Assertion of spiritual authority.
Critic of contemporary culture.
Pursuit of political power.
Features of Religious Fundamentalism (TRIPS)-
Totalitarianism- it is authoritarian in approach.
Rooted in tradition- it emphasizes returning to original religious practices and values.
Intolerant- it rejects pluralism.
Past over present- it uses glorified history to criticize modern development.
Scriptural legacy- it justifies actions and beliefs through sacred texts.

CAUSES OF RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM (05:19 PM)

Necessary conditions = Modernisation (rationality)+ Secularisation (differentiation, privatization of religion, decline

in social significance of religion.
It is perceived that due to modernisation and secularisation, the society has changed so much that it is difficult to
protect, preserve, and promote their religious identities and beliefs.
However, they are necessary but not sufficient conditions.
Steve Bruce- Ideological Cohesion- Single Sacred text
Supply of potential recruits- Marginalised section.
Gabriel Almond- in the work 'Strong Religion', mentioned two forces-
Structural Force-secularization, secular education, Information and Communication Technology.
Human choices and leadership- Charismatic leader.

Scholars Perspective
 Fundamentalism is a
Ashis Nandy modern response to the
modern crisis.
The root cause of
fundamentalism is
economic and political
Asghar Ali Engineer exclusion and not religion.
Religion becomes the
vehicle of protest and not
the cause.
Fundamentalism thrives
where identity is
Imtiaz Ahmad
politicised and minorities
feel threatened
Question-
" Modernity has many children, one of them is fundamentalism". Critically examine the relevance of the statement.

WAY FORWARD (05:37 PM)

Short term-
Enhanced security deployment.
Temporary internet shutdowns.
Use of droens and CCTVs.
Engagement with religious leaders.
Immediate crackdown on fringe elements.
Peace committees.
Depoliticisation of religious conflict.
Long-term-
Value-based education without ideological bias.
Desensitisation of sensitive news.
Using cultural platforms to promote religious harmony.
Banning of communal outfits.
Dedicated cyber cells for social media surveillance.
Civil society engagements, for example- Sarva Dharma Sammelan, Langars, interfaith festivals.
Prevent Ghettoisation, for example, mixed neighbourhood planning.
Police sensitisation- based on the Rangnath Mishra Committee following steps should be taken-
Diversity in police.
Anti-bias training.
Minority grievance redressal cell.
Concluding remark-
According to TK Oommen, the Antidote to fundamentalism is not aggressive secularism but dialogical pluralism.

SECULARISATION (05:53 PM)

It is a social process.
It is defined as a process by which the significance of religion declines in different aspects of life, which could be
social, political, economic, cultural, etc.
* Refer to the diagram as drawn on the whiteboard.
Secularism (socio-political ideology)- reciprocal relation- Secularization (social process).
Secularism contributes to secularization, and w/o secularization, secularism is not effective.
Secularization (features)-
Desacralisation- religious beliefs and practices are losing their sacredness.
Privatisation- religion is confined to the personal sphere.
 Rationalisation- people assess the world based on logical and empirical reasoning rather than divine authority.
Transformation religion- transformed from institutional religion to a personal belief system.
Differentiation (Durkheim and Parsons)- Religion loses its earlier social function.
Privatisation (Luckmann)- religion moves to the personal domain.
Decline in significance ( Steve Bruce and Bryan Wilson)- decline in religious faith and commitment.

EVIDENCE OF SECULARISATION (06:10 PM)

Political- increase reliance on legal rational authority rather than religious legitimacy.
Economic- society is driven by capitalism, which is based on rational, profit-maximising principles.
Culture- music, films, and literature are largely devoid of religious connotation.
Social- education, scientific, and rational education is replacing theological dominance.
Counterclaims-
Deprivatisation of religion (Jose Casanova)-
Religion is re-entering the public sphere, trying to influence public policy, law, and governance.
Religion is no longer personal.
It seeks public legitimacy.
Rise of new religious movements (Stark and Bainbridge)-
Accordingly, argue that religion never declines but transforms.
Old forms may weaken, but new religious groups or cults are emerging continuously.
Proliferation of Godmen.
Economic factor (Norris and Inglehart)-
Wherever there exists poverty, inequality, instability, religiousity remains high.
According to Anthony Giddens, modernity creates anxiety, identity crisis, moral ambiguity, etc.
Hence, religion remerges as a response to these modern dilemmas.

SECULARISM IN INDIA (06:27 PM)

It is defined as the principle of separation between the state and people who have the mandate to represent the
state from religious institutions and dignitaries.
It is devoid of both inter- and intra-religious domination.
It promotes equality and freedom, both within and between religions.
The sphere of politics is separated from the sphere of religion.
* However, the nature and extent of separation depend upon the values it intends to promote.
* Refer to diagram (US model of secularism)
The sphere of politics cannot interfere sphere of religion.
Mutually exclusive (arm-length distance).
No scope of state-sponsored religious reforms.
Indian model-
The sphere of politics can interfere sphere of religion to give effect to the progressive voices in religion (abolition of
untouchability, triple talaq, etc)
The sphere of politics cannot interfere sphere of religion (any electoral mobilization on the religious lines is not
allowed).
Principled distance (Rajeev Bhargawa).
The wall of separation is porous.
* Please refer to the Handout for Comparison of Indian secularism and Western secularism.

CHALLENGES TO INDIAN SECULARISM (06:43 PM)

Promoting communal harmony in a plural society-

In India, there exists a reverse trajectory of secularism, that is, political elites adopted secularism without having a
secularised society.
(Concept- Meaning- Examples.
Secular state- freedom of religion.
 Secular society- freedom from religion.
Sudipta Kaviraj argued that Indian leaders failed to establish dialogue with vernacular culture.
Thus, secularism remained alien to grassroots India.
Persistent uneven growth and deprivation have led to identity-based political mobilisation.
Rise of pseudo secularism.
Secularism succeeds only when people transcend communal boundaries and imagine the nation in non-religious
terms and symbols.
Maintaining equal distance from all religions-
According to KM Panikker, in order to ensure equal respect for all religions state often ends up intervening in all
religions and succumbing to sectarian pressures.
Has secularism led to secularisation in India (06:54 PM)
Secular Indian state promotes-
Secular education (promoting scientific temper as envisioned in the constitution).
A secular law debate surrounds the uniform civil code.
Secular institutions- judiciary, election commission, etc.
However, Indian society is partially secularised.
For example, there exists some backlash against secularism, an increasing role of religion in the public sphere,
increased emergence of religious organizations, or an increase in interreligious conflict, etc.
According to TN Madan, there is a need for a balanced approach that rejects religion as mere superstition, or
reducing secularism to political opportunism will undermine both.
Questions:
Secularism was an outcome of 20th-century humanistic radicalisation. Comment (10 Marks/2020)
Examine different understandings of secularisation in India.

NEXT CLASS TOPICS: Urbanisation and Industrialisation.

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Sociology_Smsh Class 23
URBANISATION:

Concept.
Statistics.
Urbanism.
Types of Urbanisation.
Problems associated with Urbanisation.
Way Forward.
Concept-
Defined as a process of movement from rural to urban areas.
It not only involves physical movement but also a change in occupation ( that is, agriculture to industry services) and
value system.
(That is Individualism and Impersonality in social relations).
Kingsley Davis- "process by which population concentration increases in urban settlements".
According to Census 2011;
31.16% of the population lives in urban areas.
It is expected to increase to 43.2% by 2025 (according to UN World Urbanisation Prospects, 2022).
Ideology associated with urban areas is called as "Urbanism"(Louis Wirth) (way of life).
High level of technology and infrastructure.
Complex division of labour and occupational specialisation.
Heterogeneity and individualism.
Anonymity and impersonality and weak kinship bonds, and neighbourhood ties can also be referred to as social
atomisation.
However, Ashis Nandy has criticised urbanism as anti-tradition and promoting isolation and alienation as it erodes
community living.
Question-
Elaborate urbanism as a way of life in India. (10 Mark)

GROWTH OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS (05:19 PM)

* Please refer to the whiteboard for the diagram (Central Business District).
The process of urban growth is characterised by implosion and explosion.
For example, in Mumbai, workers crowd areas like Dharavi is near the commercial core.
Over time, congestion, high cost of living, and pollution push the people outward.
Poor people settle in slums such as Kurla.
Rich middle class moves to suburbs- like Navi Mumbai, Thane, etc.
Types of Urbanisation (05:28 PM)
Over urbanisation-
Urbanisation>>> Industrialisation.
Pressure over resources will increase.
The cost of accessing the resource will increase.
Cost of living increase.
For example sky skyrocketing real estate prices.
Marxist perspective-
According to David Harvey, it reflects the uneven development under capitalism, as it leads to infrastructural
collapse, slums, unemployment, etc.
Growth of cities on the fringes-
Sub-urbanisation.
 Pre-requisite for suburbanization-
Skyrocketing prices of real estate.
Well-developed public transport system.
Provision of work from home.
According to Robert Fishman, technoburbs are emerging.
Unlike traditional suburbs, which were dependent on the main city, technoburbs are self-sufficient.
They have offices, schools, malls, hospitals, industries, etc.
Hence, people don't have to travel to the main city.
Manuel Castell- Sub-urbainzation is not only spatial but informational.
Suburbs are digitally connected nodes that reflect urban organisation based on networks.
It is an uncontrolled, unplanned expansion to the extent that it engulfs the nearby rural areas.
It is the desire to seek cheaper land, big houses, and reliance on private vehicles, which leads to speculative urban
growth
Consequences-
Increased traffic, pollution, and pressure on land, and environmental degradation.
Example- Ghaziabad.
Splintering Urbanism-
According to Graham and Marwin, suburban growth creates islands of development, that is, some areas are well
serviced, such as sector 150 of Noida, whereas nearby areas are ignored and underdeveloped (Nangla, Hazipur,
etc)
This reflects splintering.
Counterurbanisation (05:57 PM)
Reverse migration from urban to rural areas due to inner deprivation, overcrowding, declining quality of life, etc.
It leads to decongestion of cities and rural development enabled by remote work.
For example, covid19 exodus from Delhi.
Mushrooming farmhouse culture.
Conurbation-
Merger of two or more cities due to continuous urban growth.
Question-
Elaborate on the causes, consequences of the growth of urban settlements in India (10 Marks).
There is a concept of pseudo-urbanisation, that is, urban population growth without proportional economic and
infrastructural development.
It leads to a lack of opportunities for the in-migrants, especially when migration is driven by distress.
This is known as Urbanisation of Poverty by Jan Breman.
According to Yogendra Singh Urban environment in India is characterised by impersonal relationships.
Mechanical social life, for example, detachment from community life.
There exists a stark duality where slums coexist with gated communities.
Widespread sanitation issues.
Problem of pollution.
Mass transport system.
However, it is overburdened, underfunded, and inaccessible to the urban poor.
Traffic issues and congestion.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH URBANISATION (06:21 PM)

Problems of housing and slums-

( According to the census 2011, slums are defined as residential areas unfit for human habitation, as it is cramped,
dilapidated, poorly ventilated, unhygienic, and detrimental to health and safety).
There are three types of slums-
Notified.
Recognised.
Identified.
One-third of India's slum population lives in identified slums, where they receive no legal protection or municipal
 services.
Historical perspective-
Slums are the byproduct of rapid urbanisation.
Cities like New York, London saw a similar growth of slums marked by informal housing and poor working
conditions.
However, when these eventually grew, they managed to integrate the migrants and expand infrastructure.
Applying the same trajectory in the Indian context, UN-Habitat calls the slums an urban transition crisis.
Problems associated with housing and slums/ Causes of slum proliferation-
As per the 12th Five-Year Plan, slums are the result of policy failure( housing policy) and not merely migration.
Amartya Sen emphasises the state's responsibility in providing social infrastructure.
Heritage of the past construction.
If we do not integrate social and environmental realities, it may lead to inefficient land use and scattered settlements,
as put forward by Patrick Geddes.
Private developers prefer commercial real estate over affordable housing due to higher profitability.
Janice Perlman emphasised the market's failure to address social housing.
Inadequate govt. capacity and corruption.
Ravinder Kaur noted that housing programs failed due to corruption and poor identification of beneficiaries.
Slums emerge near markets, construction sites, or industrial zones for ease of work and low transport costs.
According to Sundar Burra, slums are the solution for affordable housing close to livelihood.
Spatial segregation and real estate-driven planning have led to gated communities and the marginalisation of the
urban poor.
Saskia Sassen has criticised the spatial inequalities in the cities.
Poor implementation of existing policies (NUHHP- National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy)
Different forms of deprivation associated with slums (06:53 PM)
Health deprivation-high disease burden due to inadequate sanitation and overcrowded living conditions.
Educational deprivation- literarcy among slum dwellers is below average with significant gender disparity.
High dropouts due to financial pressure and inadequate facilities.
Occupational and economic deprivation-
According to Herbert Gans, slum dwellers are hard-working marginal men who often aspire to move up but are
blocked structurally.
Housing and infrastructure deprivation- problems associated with WASH.
Legal and social deprivation- many slums are not officially recognised and hence are denied access to government
schemes and basic services.
They often face stigma and discrimination affecting their integration into society.

WHY SLUMS PERSIST AS A STRUCTURAL ISSUE (07:03 PM)

Slum dwellers form a significant vote bank, hence the government. avoids eviction.
For example, Partha Chatterjee mentions that slum residents negotiate access to resources through politics rather
than legal entitlements.
Slum dwellers adapt to deprivation as normal due to intergenerational poverty, reducing collective mobilisation.
(Oscar Lewis' Culture of Poverty).
There exists labour political symbiosis.
They are mobilised as political support in rallies.
Urban economy thrives on cheap, flexible labour supplied by slum dwellers.
For example, domestic helpers, rickshaw pullers, etc.
According to MSA Rao, informal economy and slums coevolve and stabilise each other.
Arvind Panagariya, administrative inertia is a major hurdle in slum redevelopment.
Characteristic feature-
The ILO report states- 80% of slum employment is in the informal sector.
According to the 2011 census, one in every five dwellers is a scheduled caste.
Literarcy rate is below the urban average (National Sample Survey).
High dropout among girl children.
 Both men and women have high workforce participation, but most work is irregular and seasonal.
Culture of crime- crime rates are higher due to the development of a subculture of crime.
Slum residents often face stereotyping, harassment and denial of justice.
Slums exhibit a unique culture blending elements of lower working-class values and the culture of poverty.
Questions-
Write an analytical note on slums in cities (15 Marks).
Write a detailed note on the effects of growing slums in urban areas (20 Marks).
Urban slums are the site of social exclusion. Explain (10 Marks).
Compare the problems of the Dalit poor family living in an urban slum vis-a-vis those living in a rural area.

NEXT CLASS TOPICS: Continuation of Slum (Socio-cultural problem, infrastructure and way forward)
Ripped by @KingMaker836

Sociology_Smsh Class 24
URBANISATION (PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED):

Socio-cultural Problems-
Individual-
Feelings of isolation, anxiety.
Relative deprivation and crime.
Limited access to resources with respect to health, education, etc.
With respect to women, the sexual division of labour, the double shift, and violence against women (public place and
domestic violence).
With respect to children, increase increase of child labour- cheap labour, low bargaining power.
Lifestyle diseases- overdependence on technology- sedentary lifestyle- McDonaldization of food habits.
Family-
Disintegration of the Joint family.
Overburdening of the nuclear family and relationship.
Societal-
Dilution of social capital.
( Cultural Flows, Bowling Alone).
Cultural homogenisation.
Urban flooding, urban heat island effect, urbanisation of pandemics, and environmental aspects.
Slum proliferation.
Relative deprivation and crime-
Modern strain theory suggests that when societal goals are not achieved through legitimate means, there is a rise in
crime.
For example, theft, drug abuse, and juvenile crimes, especially in urban slums.
Change in value system due to globalisation-
Individualism- consumerism- bystander apathy- isolation, alienation- loneliness- breakdown of traditional bonds.
Zygmunt Bauman's " liquid Modernity".
Disintegration of Joint Families-
Primary socialisation.
Agency of Social Control.
Agency of Social Insurance.
Globalisation and Urbanisation- disintegration of the joint family.
Vulnerability of the marginalised increased.
Pressure/ workload on women has increased.
Domestic violence has increased.
(Leela Dube, Sharmila Regge, Sylvia Walby).
Strain on conjugal relationship- Edmund Leach" overloaded electric circuit".
Slum Proliferation-
According to Mike Davis in "Planet of slums", argues that urban poverty and informal settlements are the by-product
of exclusionary urban planning.
According to WHO, 60 % of deaths in India are attributed to non-communicable diseases (NCD).
Many of which are preventable through lifestyle changes.
Increase in NCDS- due to overdependence on technology, sedentary lifestyle, McDonaldization of food habits
(George Ritzer).
Cultural Homogenisation-
According to Arjun Appadurai, global cultural elements are dominating local traditions.
It is referred to as" Idea of Cultural flows", for example, celebrating Halloween, Valentine's Day, etc
Gentrification-
 Urban development projects display the poor as property rises.
Neil Smith's 'Rent Gap Theory 'explains how developers capitalise on undervalued urban spaces.
For example, Lower Parel in Mumbai, Hauz Khas, Shahpur Jat in Delhi, etc.
It leads to the displacement of low-income groups.
Rapid Urbanisation-
Construction of Infrastructure- Jungles of Concrete and encroachment of river bodies- dilution of natural sponge
surrounding cities to absorb water- urban flooding.
Cities are significantly warmer due to concrete
This will lead to the Urban Heat Island.
David Harvey-
Accumulation by dispossession-
Accumulating wealth by displacing/ or dispossessing people of their land and assets.
People were displaced from slums for some luxurious real estate projects.
Concentrated in areas which are cramped, lack WASH, and are unrecognised/ un-notified slums.
Urbanisation of Pandemics.
Accumulation without dispossession-
By the exploitation of the workers.
For example- Bonded labour, child labour, informal sector worker, etc.
Environmental displacement (05:51 PM)
Beautification and environmental conservation often ignore the livelihood of the poor.
For example displacement of fisher folk in Chennai due to the beach beautification
Dilution of social capital-
Competition over resources and spatial segregation reduce trust, cooperation, and empathy in cities
Robert Putnam "Bowling Alone", talks about the decline in civic participation and community life.
Child labour and middle-class aspiration-
Demand for cheap domestic help increases with the emergence of the new middle class.
According to Leela Fernandes, middle-class consumption patterns perpetuate informal exploitation
Questions-
Ellucidate the concerns of growing urban settlements in India. (10 Mark)
How do you relate the growth of development of metro cities and their impact on the mental and social life of people
in India? (20 Mark)

SCHOLARLY PERSPECTIVES (06:05 PM)

Inclusive Urban Development-

Access to all the basic resources (food, water, sanitation, housing, transport) in an affordable way, irrespective of
individual caste, class, gender, etc.
(Amartya Sen- Capability Approach- real freedom- autonomy of choices/ decision making- endowments +
entitlements.
Investment in social infrastructure.
Urban Administrative reforms-
ULBs lack autonomy and professionalism.
They are confronted with 3F challenges- funds, functions, and functionaries.
Functionaries- create a special cadre for city administration.
Professional maagement of ULBs.
Funds- explore different avenues of fund generation or revenue generation.
For example, PPP, monetisation of land assets, an increase in property taxes, and the issuing of municipal bonds.
Functions- Nirmala Buch- functional clarity for effective governance.
Cascaded and Integrated Planning Structure (06:17 PM)
Vertical (national-state-district) and Horizontal (transport-sanitation-municipality- employment- housing- water, etc).
A multi-tiered and spatially distributed planning approach that bridges micro and macro urban needs.
Bottom-up planning is required and integration of state, district, and metropolitan planning bodies, etc.
It will reduce the overlap and strengthen accountability.
 New Models of Development (06:22 PM)
Transport Oriented Development (TOD)-
Peter Calthorpe's TOD- Sustainable and Inclusive Urban Planning.
(A to B Public transport system- residential complex, schools, hospitals, workplace, malls).
Hub and Spoke Model-
Kevin Lynch- creating satellite towns and sub-centres, the pressure on the core declines( regional parity ensured).
Delhi (college, hospital)- Meerut, Ghaziabad, Gurugram, Faridabad, Noida, etc.
This model recognises that nodes and corridors are vital for urban resilience.
Sponge City Model-
China introduced the model to counter urban flooding.
It is defined as the urban areas that absorb, store, and purify rainwater using ecological infrastructure.
For example, inner city gardens, green roof, lakes, city forest, etc it can prevent disasters like urban flooding in
Bangalore, etc.

CHILD LABOR (06:33 PM)

* Please refer to the Handout (Child Labor) for detailed coverage.

Concept.
Statistics.
Efforts against child labor.
Causes of Child Labor.
Lacunae.
Way Forward.
Provisions of the Child Labor Prohibition Act, National Child Labour Project, ILO.
Gurupadswamy Committee Report-
Till the time poverty and illiteracy exist in India, child labour cannot be eradicated.
Questions-
Point out the main causes of child labour in India. How far the state's policy has succeeded in its elimination (10
Marks)
Do you agree that the issue of child labour raises questions about and beyond the informal sector?
Approach-
Introduction.
Body-
It is a by-product of the informal sector (easy entry, lack of regulation, lack of skill development (Manual Castell-
globalisation- urban transformation- informal- child labor).
It goes beyond the informal sector (poverty (survival), caste discrimination, new middle class
Conclusion.

INFORMAL SECTOR (07:04 PM)

The concept given by Keith Hart, British Anthropologist introduced the concept, was introduced when he was
studying the Urban labor market in Ghana.
Characterised by-
Lack of regulation.
Self-employment.
Small enterprises.
Low capital investment.
Low productivity.
Cash-based, unrecorded.
Easy entry and exit.
Lack of social security.
Heuristic Impact-
Keith Hart's work laid the foundation of-
ILO details work on the study and classification of the informal sector.
 It was further expanded by the likes of Jan Breman, Neera Burra, and Kalyan Sanyal with respect to the informal
sector in India.
With respect to the Informal sector-
Reason for its emergence/ growth/ proliferation-
Structural nature of societies-
Capitalist- precapitalist and feudal.
Due to this heterogeneity, it prevented the emergence of a single formal sector that absorbed all labor.
Modernisation:
Assumption- According to Classic development theory, modern capitalist structure absorbs both resources and
labor from the traditional sector.
Reality- post emergence of capitalist structure, it absorbed the resources (land, capital), but it did not absorb the
labor from traditional occupation (agriculture).
Emergence of dispossessed labor- therefore, they were not absorbed by the formal sector, they became part of the
Informal sector.
(Emergence-
Structural nature- multiple MoP, Modernization, emergence of the dispossessed.
Globalisation- increased competition, outsourcing and subcontracting, lean production and retrenchment, state
withdrawal, labor reforms.
Agriculture push.
Vicious cycle of Informalisation.
Globalisation:
Increased competition-
Globalisation- increases cross-border flow of goods, services, capital, etc.
Emergence of competition with respect to cost-cutting at the global level.
Outsourcing and subcontracting-
Globalisation- Capitalism- Profit maximisation- minimise cost of production- minimise the wages- outsource + sub-
contracting- informalisation.
Lean production and retrenchment-
Maximisation of productivity + minimisation of waste (labor, cost, material, etc).
Retrenchment- laying off, shutting down the units, and casualisation of labor.
State withdrawal-
Hans Singer- state withdrawal- increase informal sector.
Labor reforms- to encourage foreign investment, dilution of labor security.
Agricultural push- agricultural distress and lack of alternative employment opportunities.
Migration (due to distress and not for seeking opportunity)- semi-skilled and unskilled- informal sector.
Informal sector- workers- consumption patterns- driven by cheap goods and services- informal sector workers.
Self-reinforcing loop of informalisation.
Informal sector- easy entry- lack of skills- low wages.
Feminization of the Informal sector- 53% of RW on the eshram portal- women.
Feminization of Informal sector+ Casualisation of labor+ child labor.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE INFORMAL SECTOR (07:41 PM)

* Please refer to the Handout.

Formal and legal sector in India- A sociological Comparative Table.
Questions:
Distinguish between the formal and informal sectors in India. (20 Marks)
Discuss the impact of globalization on the workers in the informal sector. (10 Marks)
Issue related to the informal labor market in urban India. (10 Marks)
Discuss the changing nature of the problems of the working class in the informal sector.
How do you understand informalisation of labour, underemployment, and gender discrimination in respect to each
other?
How do you view the growth of the informal sector in India?
NEXT CLASS TOPIC: Continuation of Working Class.
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Sociology_Smsh Class 25
WORKING CLASS:

Industrial Class Structure- refer to ' system of social stratification existing in Industrial society'.
Industrialisation (Capitalist and working class- pre-Independence- agrarian).
Marx- ownership of the means of production.
Capitalist-
Working- professional, skilled, unskilled.
Weber- market position.
Bourgeoisie.
Professional.
Petty Bourgeoisie.
Manual working class.
Vamsi (scholar) (02:19 PM)
Elite section/non-workers-
Owners (formal).
Owners (informal).
Worker-
Professionals, unskilled, skilled (manufacturing, service, informal).
PSUs 19901- Informalisation, contract jobs, sectoral divisions, technology- gig economy.
Working Class:
The industrial working class traditionally refers to manual workers employed in factories, mines, and manufacturing
units during the Industrial Revolution.
However, post liberalisation, there has been a significant change in terms of composition, conditions, identity, and
organisation.
According to Vamsi Vakulabharanam's Model of Working Class-
Industrial class-
Elite section/non-workers-
Owners (formal)- industrialist, corporate shareholder.
Owners (informal)- unregistered business owners/ small enterprises.
Worker-
Professionals (IT workers, engineers, financial analysts).
Unskilled (helpers, construction workers, etc).
Skilled (machine operator, electrician, craftsman, etc).
Dev Nathan's division of the Working class-
Surplus earnings- earning more than the family wage, for example, a software engineer earning 1.5 lakh per month.
Sustaining working class- earn approximately a family wage, for example, a permanent factory worker earning 20k
to 30k.
Subsidised reproducers- their wages are not enough, so they depend on others for their support, for example, govt.
subsidies, family members, etc.
(government industry worker earning 8k a month).
Pauperised working class- they fail to meet the immediate cost of survival and reproduction.
A seasonal agricultural labourer.

FEATURES OF THE WORKING CLASS (02:41 PM)

They are defined by their role in the productive process, that is, wage laborers.
Highly differentiated class.
Class relations in India are deeply intertwined with caste, gender, and ethnicity.
 According to KL Sharma, caste hierarchy mirrors job hierarchy in industries.
Gender roles corner/ relegate women to informal or unpaid labour.
Ethnic regional identity affects recruitment, mobility, and workers' solidarity.
There exists sectoral dominance, and the textile industry is the largest employer.
Due to informalisation, contract labour workers, sectoral divisions, and technology.
There is increasing heterogeneity within the working class, that is, it spans from daily wage earners to IT
professionals.
Traditional structures like caste and religion overwrites class identity.
According to KL Sharma, identity politics, such as caste based mobilisation, have hindered the emergence of
strong working-class unity.
Labour migration, linguistic differences, and ethnic divides limit solidarity.
Gender roles have reduced female participation and visibility

IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON THE WORKING CLASS (02:56 PM)

Positive Impact-
Rise of the service sector.
It benefited the urban middle class and skilled professionals.
Increase in social mobility- World Bank Survey indicates upward mobility in urban areas.
Expansion of the Middle class- according to the McKinsey report Indian Middle class is projected to reach 475
million by 2030.
Women's participation has increased.
According to NASSCOM, women constitute 30% of India's IT workforce.
International migration opportunities expand for skilled workers.
Urbanisation has increased
Negative Impact-
Agriculture's share in GDP and employment is declining.
Disguised employment remains high.
Stagnation in the manufacturing sector (labour-intensive industries have not expanded proportionately.
High informal sector employment.
That is the rise in contractualisation in the organised sector.
Feminisation of labour (Pink Collared Jobs).
Inequalities between classes have increased (Utsa Patnaik).
On one hand, there is pauperisation as wages have stagnated, while profits have soared in industries.
Upper middle class professionals enjoy very high pay and lifestyle, a process called embourgeoisement
For example, a software engineer or an investment banker.
However, the petty bourgeoisie are struggling due to big corporations and globalisation.
For example, local kirana stores are losing to e-commerce (Walmartization).
So overall, it is urban professionals, urban owners and managers, rural money lenders, and absentee landlords who
have gained from globalisation.
However, urban unskilled, semiskilled workers, rural marginal farmers, and agricultural workers have suffered due to
globalisation.

CHANGING NATURE OF WORKING CLASS (03:20 PM)

From permanent jobs in the formal sector to casual, informal, and gig workers.
The workplace has also changed from large factories to small units, with dispersed work.
Traditionally, they used to be strong trade unions, but now fragmented labour identities.
From male-dominated to increased feminisation.
Traditionally, there was class-based mobilisation, but now diluted by identity politics.
Due to technology, there is automation, AI, etc, which are replacing jobs.
Questions-
Discuss the changing nature of the working class in India. (10 Marks)
 Discuss the impact of globalisation on the working-class mobilisation. (10 Marks)

SOCIAL CHANGE (03:27 PM)

Concept-
Defined as a process that involves significant alteration over time in-
Behavior pattern.
Cultural values and norms.
Social structures.
Change is inevitable, universal, and continuous.
"Change is the law of Nature".
Types and dimensions of social change-
Social change-
Evolution- change in size and structures (slow, gradual, for example- Auguste Comte.
Structural changes- replacement of old structures with new.
For example, traditional (rural agrarian)- liberalisation.
Growth- increase in quantity/ size.
For example, the population increased, the urbanisation rate increased, and GDP increased.
Progress- change in desirable direction.
For example- expansion w.r.t education, skills, health.
Change (a fact or a value) (03:36 PM)
Fact-
Something which is verifiable based on data or observation.
For example, change is the only constant, hence, it is a fact.
For example, simple economics- complex industrial economics.
Family as production unit- family as consumption unit.
Barter system- currency-based economy.
Value-
Value means "What Ought to be".
Something which is desirable, normative.
Hence, 'Change' is a value.
It is desired especially by the marginalised section.
Marxism- revolutionary change- classless society.
Feminism- change- ensure gender equality.

AGENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE (03:44 PM)

New Ideas-
For example, Max Weber's Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism.
Education, Science, and Technology-
For example- spread of rationalism, digital literarcy.
Individual morals-
For example, socio-religious reformers.
Structural strain and relative deprivation-
For example, the Dalit movement, the women's movement, etc.
Cultural change-
For example, William Ogburn explains how cultural change leads to the invention, discovery, and diffusion.
Social movements-
For example, the environmental movement.
Demographic changes-
For example, demographic dividend, longevity dividend, rural-urban migration, etc.
External aggression or war
For example, the partition of India, the impacts of World War, etc.
 Change by chance-
For example- Covid 19.
Morris Ginsberg-
Acculturation.
Charismatic leader.
Planned social change.
Acculturation means adopting some elements of another culture while still keeping your own original culture.
Modernisation (03:55 PM)
It refers to a complex process of social change that involves a shift from a traditional to a modern form of society.
For example, industrialisation, urbanisation, secularisation, individualism, bureaucratic institutions, democratic
political principles, economic interdependence, globalisation, technological advancement, etc.
According to Wilbert Moore, modernisation is defined as the complete/ total transformation of society from a
traditional to a technologically advanced and stable society.
Daniel Lerner- modernisation is a social change.
Development-
It is a multi-dimensional concept.
Growth- transformation- modernisation.
Modernisation-
Rational/ progressive transformation of various aspects of our life, social, economic, political, cultural, etc.
Development= growth+ transformation+ modernisaton.
There are some conditions for development-
Aspiration for advancement.
Awareness of opportunities.
Surplus energy (capacity to take risks and pursue innovation).

SCHOLARLY PERSPECTIVE ON DEVELOPMENT (04:04 PM)

Strcutural Perspective-
Focus on state-led industrialisation to reduce the dependency on the First World.
Encourage South-South cooperation.
Ensure structural reforms,
Dependency theory (Andre Gundre Frank)-
Metropolis (developed)- Satellite (impoverished).
Metropolis to Satellite (obsolete technology, finished goods).
Satellite to Metropolis (Raw material and cheap labor).
Asymmetric dependence.
"Poverty is not the result of exclusion but integration in the global system".
"Someone's development is someone's dependency."
Sustainable development-
According to the Brundtland Commission-
SD- "Development should be such that it meets the needs of the current generation without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their needs"
LT Hobhouse's perspective on development-
According to him, development in society is not just about wealth and technology.
It is about to what extent societies have become advanced, connected, and free.
4 dimensions of development according to LT Hobhouse-

Dimensions of
Examples
development
Increase in size or scale Growth in metro cities
 Optimum utilisation of
resources, such as the
Increase in efficiency mechanisation of farming
(more production with less
labour).

Rural farmer depends on

Mutuality and the urban market, and
interdependence urban people depend on
rural food
Right to freedom, gender
Individual autonomy
equality rights, etc
Stages of development (LT Hobhouse)-

Stages Examples
Tribal communities
Preliterate society living traditionally in the
forest
Start using writing and
Literate Proto-science early reasoning, for
society example early Vedic
period.
People began to
question tradition and
Stage of critical thought think rationally, for
example Enlightenment
period.
Use of science/
Development of development of modern
scientific thought science, for example,
space exploration
However, the modern explanation has been further expanded, and it goes beyond science.
For example-

Sphere Explanation Example

Reducing
Economic- poverty, creating MGNREGA
jobs, etc
PIL provisions,
Political- Citizens rights.
decentralisation

Reducing
inequalities
Article 17, triple
Social- based on
talaq abolition.
primordial
identities
* Please refer to the Handout for detailed coverage (Mass Media as an Agent of Social Change).

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: AGENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE.

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Sociology_Smsh Class 26
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE:

The term is coined by "Mahbub-ul-Haq".

The Idea is promoted by Amartya Sen.
The focus of Human Development is seeking development by expanding human choices and capability rather than
just income.
Hence, the objective is to ensure-
Health, education, and well-being of the people.
To treat them as ENDS rather than a tool for economic growth.
The concept of Human development has gained prominence post-liberalisation due to the following reasons-
Denial of social justice.
For example, economic growth has not been inclusive; rather, the gap between haves and have-nots has further
widened.
For example, according to the NFHS 5 report-
35.5% Children= stunted.
19.3% children= wasted.
Expansion of capabilities-
Globalisation has created opportunities for jobs, created access to diverse job opportunities, and access to various
kinds of skill development.
However, it is limited to only a few elite sections, and the majority are working in the informal sector without any
security or skill development.
Challenges with respect to (w.r.t) health-
Government spending on health (< 2%)= 1.84% ( NHM (2017)= 2.5% of GDP).
Out of Pocket Expenditure (OoPE) is very high = 39.4% ( World Bank OoPE - 1/6th of India's poverty).
Challenges w.r.t Education-
ASER- learning outcome remains dismal.
Jobless growth.
The development of technology, AI, and mechanization has led to the displacement of labor.
For example, according to the McKinsey Report, 12 million women in India will lose jobs by 2030 due to automation.
This was further discussed by AR Desai- (05:26 PM)
Criticised the capitalist path of development in India.
According to him, the following are the features of development in India-
Elitist development- opportunities and resources have been usurped by the elite class, for example, the
Bourgeoisie, landlords, etc.
Failure of cooperatives.
Inter-regional and intra-regional disparities by the Green Revolution.
The state acts as an instrument of the capitalist/ class instrument-nexus between the state and the elite section.
Functioned to promote the interests of the bourgeoisie.
Neglect of the social sector-
Under a Mixed economy (capitalism and socialism), India went private w.r.t health and education- marginalisation of
the poor.
Uneven development-
For example, growing regional divides due to a lack of proper planning-
Unequal distribution of resources and pressure due to the presence of strong regional leaders.
The agrarian crisis was ignored ( A. G Frank's dependency Theory).
* Refer to the diagram as drawn on the whiteboard ( Urban- Rural= farmers suicide).
Hence, overall, according to A.R. Desai-
Neo-liberalisation has widened the class inequality.
 Privatisation of health and education has led to the exclusion of the marginalised.
Informalisation of the labour market has led to a precariat and insecure nature of jobs
Concluding Remark-
Human development is essential for dignity, equality, and sustainable growth, especially in a country as diverse and
unequal as India.
While economic growth post-liberalisation has created wealth, AR Desai's critic reminds us that it often excludes the
poor.
Hence, real development is investment in people and not just profit.
Question-
Human development approach affirms that education and health care are more important than economic growth.
Discuss. (20 Marks).
Analyse AR Desai's views on India's path of development. (10 Marks)

DEVELOPMENT (05:24 PM)

Aspects of Development-
Economic aspect-
Transformation of societies from a simple economy to complex industrial economies.
For example, Manual labor- Mechanised production.
Social aspect-
Secularisation.
Egalitarianism.
Development of modern values- equality, liberty, rationality.
Education- exoteric, secular, scientific temper.
Eradication of civil disabilities- abolition of untouchability.
Social Policy-
It is defined as a "statement of intent which sets the goals, means, and resources mobilisation to achieve those
objectives."
According to GS Ghurye, social policy should deal with (SHE) Social welfare, Human freedom, and Equality.
Insitutions and schemes w.r.t Indias social policy-
Planning Commission (NITI Aayog).
Finance commission.
MoSJ&E.
NHM.
MGNREGA.
BBBP, etc

DEVELOPMENT PLANNING AND MIXED ECONOMY (05:55 PM)

In the mixed economy, there exist elements of both capitalism (private ownership) and socialism (state-controlled).
Development planning refers to a systematic process through which the government sets social, political, and
economic objectives and allocates resources and policies to achieve those goals within a specific time frame.
In a mixed economy, where both state and market forces co-exist, planning acts as a corrective mechanism to
address inequalities and channelise development towards social justice.

IMPORTANCE OF DEVELOPMENT PLANNING IN A MIXED ECONOMY (06:03 PM)

Balanced Growth-
It will prevent over-concentration of resources in private hands.
For example, the first five-year plan prioritised agriculture, whereas the second five-year plan prioritized industry.
Social Justice and redistribution-
It plans to reduce poverty, inequality, and regional disparity.
For example, D. Bandyopadhyay's land reforms targeted rural inequality.
Welfare orientation, for example, MGNREGA, ICDS, Mid Day Meal, etc.
 Public sector as a catalyst, that is, state-led investment in industries, infrastructure, public services, etc.
Employment generation- planning addressed both underemployment and disguised unemployment.
Rural Urban Integration-
State plans to bridge urban-rural divides through rural development schemes, for example, the PM Gram Sadak
Yojna.

SCHOLARLY PERSPECTIVE ON DEVELOPMENT PLANNING (06:11 PM)

Thinkers Perspectives
Planning was a tool to
serve the interests of
AR Desai
capitalists under the guise
of socialism
Development should be
participatory, and planning
TK Oommen
often ignores the voices of
the weaker sections
Warned about the
contradictions between
planning and
Andre Beteille
implementation, leading to
gaps between goals and
outcomes.
He advocated for
development as freedom:
Amartya Sen expanding capabilities
through state intervention
and planning.
Problems of development planning in India-
Bureaucratic inefficiency ( rigid top-down planning, which lacked contextual relevance).
Over centralisation.
Corruption and leakages-
According to Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen, India suffers from administrative apathy and corruption.
According to DB Gupta notes that rural development suffers due to poor interdepartmental coordination and a lack
of conversion of schemes.
Implementation deficit (Andre Beteille).
Elite capture (AR Desai).
For example, tribal displacement without proper rehabilitation.
Neglect of social sectors-
Early plans overemphasized industrial growth; however, they ignored health and education.
Planning versus market forces-
Rise of the private sector led to growth post-1991, diluting the welfare focus.
There exists a dialectics, that is, tension between two opposing forces that is-
Development versus ecological sustainability.
Ramchandra Guha highlights how, in India, it is the environmentalism of the poor.
Perspective of Escobar, accordingly, development itself is a Western-imposed concept which marginalises local
knowledge and destroys ecology.
Modern societies create manufactured risks like climate change through unchecked development.
Ulrich Beck's concept of risk society-
Politicisation of the planning process.
PROSPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT PLANNING IN CONTEMPORARY INDIA (06:44 PM)

It will ensure inclusive planning that is focused on gender, caste, region region-sensitive programs.
For example, caste census, tribal sub-plans, and aspirational district programs.
Decentralised planning that involves a greater involvement of local bodies through the 73rd and 74th amendments.
Use of technology to reduce the leakages, collection of real-time data to improve monitoring of plans, for example,
direct benefit transfer.
Participatory development, for example, NGOs, Civil societies, and SHGs are included in planning and execution.
For example, Kudumbashree in Kerala.
Involvement of private bodies, for example, under the Smart City Mission, creation of a special purpose vehicle.
Green and sustainable planning-
Climate-resilient development is being integrated.
Questions-
Analyse the idea of developmental planning in India. (10 Marks)
Discuss in detail the main issues of developmental planning in a mixed economy like India. (20 Marks)
Examine the importance of developmental planning and analyse its problems and prospects. (20 Marks)

CRISIS OF DEVELOPMENT- DEVELOPMENT AND DISPLACEMENT (06:56 PM)

Development is celebrated as a path to;

Modernisation.
Economic growth.
Social transformation.
However, it is not value-neutral as it involves cost and trade-off.
That is core issue is not the process of development, but who gets the benefits? and who pays the price/ cost?
The nature of the crisis-
Amita Bavishkar calls it accumulation by dispossession, echoing David Harvey's terms to describe how capital
expands by displacing the poor.
According to Walter Fernandes, development in India is anti-poor because it displaces the most vulnerable without
rehabilitation.
A study by the Center for Policy Research- 55% of displaced people have been resettled, but mostly when they are
marginalised wrt the assertion of rights.
The problem of development-induced displacement has aggravated due to the following factors:
Population explosion.
Scarcity of land.
Encroachment of cultivable land, which threatens food security and rural livelihood.
Uneven development leading to distress migration.
Overurbanization leading to infrastructural lag.

CONSEQUENCES OF DEVELOPMENT-INDUCED DISPLACEMENT (07:10 PM)

Economic impovershiment-
It creates a poverty trap.
According to UNDP, most people fail to reintegrate economically.
According to Fernandes, livelihood is lost, and if no land, then no compensation is given.
Social breakdown-
Disintegration of kinship network, cultural alienation (Vandana Shiva).
Psychological trauma-
Displaced communities suffer from an identity crisis and mental stress.
Feminisation of poverty (Bina Agarwal).
Accordingly, women lose access to common property resources.
Relative deprivation- it is fueled by unequal distribution of development gains, which creates a strain and, according
to Merton, can lead to crime and deviance.
Political alienation- according to the Xaxa committee, development has alienated tribals from land, resulting in
 unrest.
Due to resource deficit, such as housing, health, and education, it impacts the capability of the individual (Amartya
Sen).
Way Forward (07:21 PM)
Rights-based rehabilitations- for example, legal guarantee of prior informed consent.
Participatory development- for example, Kerala's People's Plan Campaign.
Social Impact Assessment needs to be made mandatory, transparent, and binding.
Sustainable alternatives- climate resilient technologies.
Climate Justice Approach- R.C Guha says that ecosystem people must be central to developmental projects.
True development is not building dams or roads but building people (Verghese Kurien).
Question-
The problem of displacement is inherent in the idea of development. Analyse the statement critically.
Discuss some of the striking issues of development-induced imbalances that need urgent attention. (20 Mark)
Illucidate the concerns of growing urban displacement dynamics in India.
Effect of displacement through development on rural landless and marginal farmers.

NEXT CLASS TOPICS: Continuation of Crisis of Development, and Politics and Society.
Ripped by @KingMaker836

Sociology_Smsh Class 27
DEVELOPMENT (ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES):

Premise-
Forests are the carbon sink-
Absorb atmospheric CO2, regulate micro-climate, and maintain biodiversity.
However, post independence, loss of green cover, due to development (dams, highways, mining, urban expansion).
Leads to ecological degradation and amplifies the threat of global warming.
According to the Forest Survey of India, forest and tree cover is 24.62% of the geographical land area.
However, the National Target is 33%.
Ecological degradation is not just an ecological phenomenon.
It is a social process as it is rooted in caste, class, and regional factors.
According to Ulrich Beck, the theory of 'Risk Society';
Technological advancements and development aspirations that lead to long-term risks, for example, climate
change, loss of biodiversity.
Ramchandra Guha- the general assumption is increase in population pressure leads to environmental
degradation.
However, according to Guha, it is overconsumption by the urban industrial elite class.
Therefore, environmentalism in India is known as "environmentalism of the poor".
The climate trajectory in India has been significantly altered due to anthropogenic actions such as rapid
industrialisation, intensive agriculture, use of fossil fuels, vehicular pollution, etc.
Anthony Giddens- modernity brings along with it manufactured risk.
(Technology+ Industrial Capitalism = threat to environment).
According to Ashis Nandy, ecological degradation is not material but cultural as well.
Because the western model of development is applied in the context of India, which has led to the marginalisation of
traditional ecological knowledge and ethics of traditional society practices.
The environmental degradation has met with resentment, and as a result, India witnessed grassroots mobilisation
often led by women, tribals, and small farmers.
For example, the Chipko Movement, Narmada Bachao Andolan (it opposed the displacement of tribal and dalit
communities by large dam projects.
It highlighted the link between development and social injustice.
Apikko movement- modelled after the Chipko movement.
It resisted monoculture plantations and promoted the conservation of biodiversity.
Amita Baviskar, "In the belly of the river," mentioned that the environmental movement in India is not just about the
environment, but a struggle for-
Livelihood.
Dignity.
Right over resources.
West- full stomach environmentalism.
Indian society- "Empty Belly".
Development and environment- there exists a dialectic relationship- the relationship of contradiction and conflict.
On one hand, development is required for poverty alleviation, for infrastructural development, and for economic
growth.
However, on the other hand, development causes irreversible damage to the environment, marginalization/
displacement of vulnerable groups, and aggravates the existing inequalities.
This can be explained through the Marxist perspective, for example-
AR Desai argued that the Indian model of development is rooted in capitalist interest and has led to the
accumulation of wealth by a few at the cost of many.
David Harvey's concept of accumulation by dispossession applies here.
 For example, forests, water bodies, and land are being privatised for industrial use, leading to the dispossession of
tribal and peasant communities.
Vandana Shiva (an ecofeminist) has criticised the patriarchal and technocratic approach to development.
For example, how green revolution technologies have marginalised women and displaced traditional ecological
practices, hence she demanded a model of development which is local, ecological, and gender just.
For example;

Development Environmental Sociological

projects concern Implication
Displacement of
There is concern
the fishing
Mumbai coastal for the loss of
community and
road mangroves and
violation of
marine habitat.
livelihood.
opposition by
Hasdeo Forest
coal mining in Adivasi gram
Mining,
dense forests sabhas asserting
Chhattisgarh
their forest rights
Concluding remark-
A balanced model of development, where environmental sustainability, social equity, and community participation
are the three pillars
We can apply Gandhi Ji's vision of Gram Swaraj, which prioritises self-reliance, local governance, and ecological
harmony.
Questions:
Has the reduction of Green cover affected environmental degradation? Elaborate your answer with an illustration.
(10 marks).
Evaluate the nature and scope of anthropogenic influence on climate in India, and also analyze the environmental
movement out of it.
Critically examine the interrelationship between development and environment.

REGIONALISM (06:00 PM)

Concept of Region-
Homogeneous unit which is physically and culturally distinct from neighbouring areas.
People of a region are united based on shared history, language, and culture.
Development of regional identity.
When based on identity, people start professing their political loyalty more towards a region known as Regionalism.
According to Rajat Ray, regional identities predated nationalism and have resurfaced due to political neglect and
identity assertion.
Regionalism-
The concept of Regionalism is rooted in India's diversity (caste, language, ethnicity, religion, etc).
When all these factors are geographically concentrated along with the feeling of relative deprivation- Regionalism.
According to MP Singh, India's regionalism is rooted in relative deprivation, especially when compounded with
linguistic and cultural suppression.
Positive/ constructive-
To concretize their cultural identity-
For example, linguistic reorganisation of state, administrative convenience (Uttarakhand), social and economic
development of regions (Telangana).
Negative/ destructive-
Violent manifestation.
Communal undertones.
Demanding secession (threat to territorial integrity)
 Son of the soil- politics of nativism: Myron Weiner.
Robert Stern-
Regionalism is more dangerous than casteism as it can lead to a separate state/or nation, threatening natural unity.
Son of the soil-
It is the ideology that the natives of a region have greater moral and economic rights over their resources than
migrants.
For example, demands in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Assam, Meghalaya, etc.
Paul Brass links the son of the soil to the failure of national integration and the dominance of the centralising state
Causes of Regionalism (06:25 PM)
Lack of a culture of outmigration.
Struggle over middle-class jobs.
Zerosum game.
Discrepancy in demand and supply of resources.
Administrative failure both in the source and destination areas.
Rising aspirations and frustration.
Rajni Kothari emphasized that regionalism is a response to the centralised development model, where peripheral
regions feel neglected, which intensifies sentiments like son of the soil.
Causes of Regionalism (06:37 PM)-
Historical- regional movements often rely on historical grievances, shared myth, and cultural memory.
For example, the Dravidian movement ( Reasons: against Brahminical hegemony).
Movement against outsiders in Assam (Reasons: historical immigration of Bengalis in Assam)
Geographical- resource distribution, strategic location, topography, it fuels distinct identities and grievances, for
example, Punjab drug trafficking due to border location, North East alienation due to isolation.
According to Granville Austin, India's cooperative federalism is a constitutional method to address location-based
inequalities.
Sociocultural- language, ethniicty, religion, etc.
MP singh perspective.
Political administrative- politics does not create regionalism, it amplifies the regionalism sentiments (Paul Brass).
Economic factors- AR Desai links regionalism to uneven capitalist growth.
Amartya Sen links development deprivation with the emergence of identity-based politics.
Professor Ramesh Saran argues healthy degree of regionalism is necessary to ensure balanced regional
development.
Types of Regionalism (06:51 PM)
Interstate- interstate river water dispute, a buffer zone between two states.
Intrastate- demand for Bodoland, Vidharbha, Saurashtra.
Suprastate- North India versus South India on official language issues.
Demand for secession - Khalistan, Greater Nagalim, etc
Impact of Regionalism-
Positive-
Promotes federalism and decentralisation.
Chanel's legitimate aspiration for neglected communities.
Keeps political extremism at bay.
Encourages competitive development among states.
Negative impact-
Vote bank politics.
Identity fragmentation.
Disruption of national unity.
Resource inequality between dominant and marginalized states.
Hampers international diplomacy.

DECENTRALISATION OF POWER (06:55 PM)

It is defined as the distribution of power and function from the central authority to lower levels of governance, such as
the state, districts, local bodies, etc.
It seeks to empower the grassroots-level institutions.
Enable participatory democracy and improve governance outcomes.
Decentralization is important in the Indian context.
Diversity (tailored approach to development) and demography.
Grassroots empowerment, local aspirations to ensure developmental equity.
Over the period, the idea of panchayat has developed through different stages-
1952 Community Development Programme
1957 Balwant Rai.
1959 - 1st PRI at Nagaur, Rajasthan
1977- Ashok Mehta.
73rd and 74th Amendment Act.

Scholar Views
Decentralisation
improves freedom,
Amartya Sen
capability, and efficiency
at the grassroots
PRIs were called the
BS Baviskar silent revolution. However
warned of elite capture.
Decentralisation must be
meaningful, that is
James Manor accompanied by
accountability and
financial autonomy.
Decentralisation is
necessary to interlink
Mahesh Rangarajan development with
environmental
sustainability.
Democracy at the
Rajeev Gandhi grassroots is the only real
democracy.
Advanatges of decentralisation (07:10 PM)
It prevents concentration of power in the hands of a few, that is, it challenges oligarchy.
It will provide a bottom-up approach to planning and can prevent policy paralysis.
It will ensure transparency and accountability as decision makers will be accessible.
PRIs act as grounds for political and social leadership.
Local issues surface early due to a better flow of information.
Women's empowerment.
It helps reduce alienation and extremism by including the marginalised in governance.
Participation in governance provides motivation and a sense of ownership.
Challenges-
Reluctance to devolve power with respect to three F (Funds, Function, and Functionaries).
Political apathy, administrative complexity, bureaucratic domination, etc.
Dejure versus de facto leadership (proxy-leadership).
Politicisation and criminalisation.
Primordial voting patterns.
Corruption and Elite capture of power-
According to Yogendra Singh, PRIs are controlled by the dominant caste.
 Decentralisation without social justice leads to elite capture of power (Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen).
According to Yogendra Yadav, PRIs are democratic in form but oligarchic in content.
Concluding remark-
Democratic decentralisation strengthens India's federalism by giving voice to local aspirations.
Questions:
Does regionalism essentially lead to decentralisation of power? Substantiate your answer with relevant examples.
( Sense of deprivation and need for cultural assertion- regionalism- channel- democratically- devolution of power
and function to state, district, and local bodies- decentralization of power).
What do you understand by democratic federalism? How does it promote decentralisation of power in India?
(It refers to the extension of federal principles beyond center-state relations to include the third tier as active
participants in democratic governance).

NEXT CLASS TOPICS: Political Parties and Pressure Groups.

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Sociology_Smsh Class 28
POVERTY:

Concept- manifestation.
Approaches to Poverty- Dimensions of Poverty- Is it a violation of Human rights?
Causes of Poverty- implications- Feminisation of poverty, inequality, acute poverty, Hunger.
Government efforts- lacunae.
Way Forward- SDG (1,2,3,4,5) (Goal, target, government efforts, achievement, lacunae/ lacking, way forward).
Amartya Sen: Poverty refers to deprivation of basic capabilities of life rather than merely lowness of income.
It has a cultural aspect to it, that is not only deprivation w.r.t physical aspect or material but w.r.t DAP (Dignity,
Autonomy and Participation).
Amartya Sen- Poverty is not just about survival, it is about making a meaningful contribution in the social and
economic aspects of life.
* Please refer to the diagram as drawn on the whiteboard.
Traditional society-
People were dependent on nature for food, clothing, and shelter.
Natural poverty.
With better social organisation and the advancement of technology, humans started producing goods to lead a
comfortable life.
However, the benefits of socio-economic development were not equally distributed.
As a result, there was a division of society (polarisation- have and have-nots).
Have were economically rich, politically powerful, and socially superior.
(Social poverty- it is a construct of society).

APPROACHES TO POVERTY (05:25 PM)

Relative
Aspects Nutrional
Deprivation
Developing Developed
Context
countries country.
Comparison with
Deals with
the general living
Nature minimum calorie
standards of the
intake.
society.

Contextual/
It deals with
Scope Subjective/
absolute poverty.
Relative.

Peter Townsend-
Poverty refers to a
Rowntree's
Thinker lack of ability to
Absolute poverty.
fully participate in
society.

Dimensions of Poverty (05:30 PM)

 Dimensions Explanation
Lack of work, fairness of
Economic wages, or safe working
conditions.
Lack of 4 A'Q
(Accessibility, Availability,
Social Awareness, Affordability)
w.r.t health, education, skill
development.
Lack of freedom and
opportunities w.r.t thought,
Political
speech, participation, and
representation.
Lack of ability to 3Ps
(Protect, Preserve,
Cultural Promote) w.r.t culture,
forceful assimilation, and
stigmatisation.
Scholarly perspective (05:36 PM)
Amartya Sen- Focus on freedom, dignity, and the ability to function, that is Capability Approach.
Oscar Lewis-
Culture of Poverty.
Poverty breeds self self-sustaining culture of marginalisation.
* However, Oscar Lewis' perspective was criticised by Michael Herinting for putting the blame on the victims rather
than the system.
For example, schools, unemployment, social discrimination, etc.
Pierre Bourdieu- According to Pierre Bourdieu, a lack of social and cultural capital perpetuates poverty.
Andre Beteille- poverty results from institutionalised inequality through caste, class, and kinship.

IS IT A VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (05:44 PM)

Violation-
It is a result of the action/ inaction of the government.
For example, development- displacement- environmental degradation.
State-led persecution, etc.
Lack of proper implementation of schemes- inclusion/ exclusion, red tapism, and corruption.
Not a violation-
However, if self imposed by individuals, then the state is not responsible.
For example-
Voluntary unemployment.
Seeking immediate gratification.
Consumerism.
Patriarchy = low FLFP, etc.
Caste base occupational division of labour.

CAUSES OF POVERTY (05:53 PM)

Economic- low agricultural productivity, jobless growth, inadequate social infrastructure, land alienation among
tribals, technological exclusion, low wages, informalization of labour.
Demographic- high fertility rate, health profile of the population, age structure, mortality w.r.t the main breadwinner
(COVID-19).
Socio-cultural- urbanisation without planning, caste based occupational division of labour, patriarchy, illiteracy, lack
of skills, customs, and traditions.
 Politico-administrative: corruption, poor identification of the beneficiary, policy paralysis, development-induced
displacement, etc.
Environmental- examples of ecological degradation.
Politico-administrative: unequal distribution of resources.
Implications (06:06 PM)
Informalisation of the labour market.
Lack of minimum wage- lack of minimum working conditions- Occupational health hazards- lack of social security.
Poverty.
Lack of education- Lack of skills- Lack of access to formal jobs.
Government efforts (06:11 PM)
5-year plans.
Nationalisation of banks.
20-Point Program during the emergency.
Government schemes-
Wage employement- MGNREGA.
Self-employment- Start up India, Stand up India.
Food security- TPDS, NFSA, Mid-day meal.
Social security- Ayushman Bharat, Atal Pension Yojna.
Miscellaneous/Infrastructure- PMGSY, JJM, Ujjawala.
Lacunae-
Ghost beneficiaries.
Lack of awareness w.r.t rights and entitlements.
Challenges of democratic federalism.
Underutilisation of funds, leakage due to corruption, lack of trained specialists, and red tapism.
Poor grievance redressal and social audits.
Lack of regional customisation.
Digital divide.
Failure to recognise social hierarchies.
Infrastructural deficit.

WAY FORWARD (06:24 PM)

Capability Approach of Amartya Sen-

Endowments- assets.
Entitlements- the ability to transfer assets to goods.
"Entitlements are necessary for poverty reduction".
Jagdish Bhagwati Model for development-
Focused only on growth (quantitative terms).
Which will initially aggravate inequality.
However, with sustained growth, resource generation, and the state can indulge in the redistribution of resources.
This will reduce inequality.
(Gujarat Model of development- focus on infrastructure, administration, and incentives).
Odisha Model of Development-
Tailored approach to development.
The state has brought down poverty levels from 63 % to 29 %.
Steps they focused on building the capacity of women SHGs to control child malnutrition.

FEMINISATION OF POVERTY (06:33 PM)

Concept- Refers to 'Over-representation of women among the poor'.

It is not just about numerical over-representation but structural inequities, denial of opportunities, and lack of ability to
become Human Capital.
It also has ' inter-generational impact', as according to Amartya Sen, women should be agents of change.
 Term coined by Diana Pearce- in the context of the US with respect to post-divorces, women-headed households.
Causes of Feminisation of poverty-
Economic cause-
Feminisation of informal sector- pink collar jobs, wage gaps, glass ceiling, dual burden (Hoschild) ( structures of
patriarchy - Sulvia Walby).
Socio-cultural causes- gender-specific socialisation prepares them for unequal roles ( Ann Oakley).
Patrilocality and patrilineality (Irawati Karve), lack of ownership of assets accords lower status to women (Bina
Agarwal).
Politico Institutional causes- displacement due to development projects disproportionately affects women.
Lack of social empowerment (Naila Kabeer).
Incompatibility of Indian laws to prevent violence against women (Madhu Kishwar)
Heidi Hartmann- Feminisation of Poverty (FoP) is a result of a capitalist patriarchal alliance where women are
systematically excluded from high-paying jobs.
Implication (06:48 PM)
High maternal mortality.
Chronic malnourishment.
Dropouts from schools, especially girl children.
Child labour.
Intergenerational poverty.
Social exclusion.
Vicious cycle of deprivation and patriarchy, etc.
Way forward-
Feminisation of Poverty (FoP) reflects deep-rooted gendered caste based and institutional inequalities.
Hence solution should address structural transformation.
For example, equal asset ownership.
3 R's (recognise- reduce- redistribute) w.r.t unpaid work.
Empowering women through education, representation, and voice.

INEQUALITY (06:56 PM)

Inequality refers to unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, privileges, and rewards among individuals in
society based on socially constructed categories such as caste, class, gender, race, ethnicity, etc.
Scholarly perspective-
Andre Beteille- modern inequality is not only a matter of wealth but access to dignity, status, and power rooted in
institutional hierarchies.
(Can mention- Karl Marx, Weber, Marshall, and Pierre Bourdieu).
Nancy Fraser proposed a redistribution-recognition framework.
Argued that inequality is both economic (lack of equal distribution) and cultural (lack of recognition/ misrecognition).
Herbert Gans introduced the functional theory of inequality.
It suggests that poverty and inequality serve a useful function for society.
For example, menial jobs, cheap labour.
Emerging forms of Inequality (07:07 PM)
Economic inequality-
The top 1 % in India own 40% of the wealth (Oxfam).
Jobless growth and informalisation of the labour market persist.
Growth without redistribution leads to relative deprivation.
Thomas Piketty- Rising inequality is the outcome of capitalism unless checked by state intervention.
Digital inequality-
Access to digital infrastructure is uneven.
According to Nandan Nilekani, digital exclusion is referred to as the new literacy gap.
Education and skill inequality-
Privatisation, English medium bias has widened the class division.
For example, according to Pierre Bourdieu, educational institutions reproduce class hierarchies through cultural
 capital.
Satish Deshpande- dalit face symbolic violence and exclusion in elite education.
(* Inequality is perpetuated through symbolic violence, that is, people are made to accept unfair things as normal.
For example, people who speak English are considered smart, lower castes are made to believe that they are
impure, and girls are told to behave modestly.
Gendered Inequality (quote Sylvia Walby, Bina Agarwal, Niala Kabeer, Leela Dube.
Intersectional inequality-
For example, caste, tribes, etc.
Perspective-
According to Ghurye, caste remains a deeply rooted institution in Indian society.
TK Oommen- Inequality in India is intersectional.
Kancha Ilaiah- Shudraisation of poverty.

EMERGENCE OF ACUTE POVERTY (07:23 PM)

Multidimensional poverty.
Relative poverty (Peter Townsend).
Informalisation and working poverty (Guy Standing's concept of 'Precariat Class', that is lack of stable jobs and no
social security).
Urban Poverty and Slumization-
Jan Breman- footloose labour or Mike Davis, Planet of slums.
Development-induced displacement (Ecosystem people- Ramchandra Guha)
Post-pandemic crisis.
Challenges to social transformation (07:32 PM)
Elite capture.
Symbolic violence.
Structural rigidity.
Cultural lag.
Way Forward-
Aspect and Recommendations-
Participatory governance (Recommendations- empower panchayats, women's SHGs, tribal councils, etc).
Elinor Ostrom's Collective Action.
Redistributive justice (Recommendations- strengthen land reforms, enforce tribal subplans, direct benefit transfer to
prevent leakages, etc).
John Rawls' theory of justice.
Inclusive digital infrastructure (Recommendations- bridge the digital divide).
Gender mainstreaming (Recommendations- address the structure of patriarchy).
Human development focus (Recommendations- capability approach ( Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze).
Questions-
Explain the interlinkages between poverty, deprivation, and inequality (20 Marks).
Feminisation of poverty (10 Marks)
Discuss emerging forms of inequality as major challenges of social transformation in India (20 Marks)
Consequences of malnutrition in India.

NEXT CLASS TOPIC: HUNGER.

Ripped by @KingMaker836

Sociology_Smsh Class 29
HUNGER/ MALNUTRITION:

Concept-
Hunger refers to a situation of distress associated with a lack of food.
It has the following manifestation-
Under-nourishment- according to FAO, when an individual consumes less than 1800 kcal/ day.
Malnutrition- according to WHO, it refers to a situation of deficiency, more than required, or imbalance w.r.t nutrient
or calorie intake.
Malnutrition- it has the following manifestations-
Undernutrition- stunting, wasting, and underweight.
Micro- nutrient deficiencies= Hidden Hunger.
Diet-related lifestyle diseases.

CAUSES OF HUNGER (05:17 PM)

Lack of availability of food-

Amartya Sen's entitlement approach argues that people suffer from hunger because they lack the entitlement to
access it.
Jene Dreze and Reetika Khera criticize leakages and exclusion errors in the identification of beneficiaries
Low agri. productivity.
Food wastage.
According to FAO, 7%= total food production, 30% of fruits/vegetables are wasted due to a lack of cold storage and
transport facilities.
(Failure of govt schemes, social pathologies, 3Cs- Covid, Climate, Conflicts)
Lack of nutritious food-
Cereal-specific Green Revolution- lack of diversified diet.
Problem of food adulteration.
McDonaldization of food habits (G. Ritzer).
Lack of women's autonomy in decision-making.
Lack of awareness w.r.t nutritious food/ choices.
Poverty (according to Dandekar and Rath Committee- a poor person spends 2/3rd of their money on food)
Lack of absorption of nutrients by the body-
Lack of WASH ( safe drinking water, sanitation, hygiene).
Increased disease burden.
Slums- overcrowding/ poorly ventilated- high incidence of diseases, as immunity is weak.
M.S. Swaminathan- ' Future belongs to grains and not guns'.
Advocated for "food security system", which deals with 3A's w.r.t food ( Availability, Accessibility, and Affordability).
According to Paul Farmer, he emphasized structural violence, how poverty and inequality make people vulnerable to
diseases.
According to Utsha Patnaik, hunger is related to post-liberal economic reforms, which focused on reducing food
subsidies as well as on export-oriented cash crops.
SDG 2- End hunger, improve nutrition, ensure food security, and promote sustainable agriculture.
Nutrition- biofortification, fortification.
Food security- NFSA, TPDS, One Nation- one ration.
Sustainable agriculture- Soil health card, PMFBY, PMKSY.

CHALLENGES IN TACKLING HUNGER (05:40 PM)

Social structures-
Weak policy execution
Lack of trained workforce, such as ASHA workers.
Fragile global food system.
Food wastage.
Low status of women.
Lifestyle changes.
Way forward-

Domain Suggestion
Targeted Nutrition budgeting,
Policy- Real-time monitoring, Local
Procurement.
Crop diversification, climate-
Agriculture-
resilient farming
Mandatory front-pack labelling,
Nutrition- fortification, and
biofortification.
Strengthen SHGs,
Women empowerment- microfinancing, and decision-
making roles
Nutrition literarcy, regulation of
Awareness
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Improve WASH, Healthcare,

Infrastructure-
and Anganwadi infrastructure.

According to Walter Fernandes, any development is anti-poor if it displaces the vulnerable without rehabilitation.
Questions:
Give an account of the consequences and remedies of chronic malnutrition in India. (10 Marks)
Consequences-
Individual-
Poor cognitive development.
Poor learning outcomes.
Limited development of skills.
High incidence of unemployment.
Reduced productivity.
Higher disease burden.
The major brunt is borne by women and girls.
Family-
High disease burden.
High out-of-pocket expenditure.
Negatively impact the standard of living.
Emotional stress due to financial issues.
Negative impact on interpersonal relationships.
Society/Nation-
Malnutrition is a silent assassin that impacts both the individual and the nation as it creates an army of sick
personnel.
Demographic dividend- demographic disaster.
Reduction/ decline in economic growth.
Question-
Create a vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty, and malnutrition. Suggest measures through which
the cycle can be broken. (20 Marks).
 Malnutrition-
Poor learning outcome.
Limited absorption of skills.
Low cognitive development.
Reduced productivity.
Limited opportunity for jobs in the formal sector.
Informal sector/unemployment/ concentration in lower ranks of jobs.
Poverty.
Lack of food, lack of absorption of nutrients by the body.
Gender inequality.

ELITES (06:09 PM)

Who are the Elites?

Refer to those people who occupy dominant positions in society by virtue of superior resources: that is, social,
political, economic, and cultural.
According to Pareto, elites are those who excel in their respective field and gradually reach the top of the social
hierarchy.
According to Mosca, elites constitute the ruling minority that exercises control over the masses.
C.W. Mills- elites occupy the top positions in various institutions, military, economic, and political, forming a
cohesive ruling class.
Role of elites in bringing social transformation-
Policy makers.
Reform initiators, economic transformers, cultural modernisers.
Civil society leaders.
Thinker's perspective-
Applying Paretos circulation of elite replacement of colonial administrative elites by Nehruvian political elites led to
major policy shifts like land reforms, planning, welfare state creation, etc.
Applying C.W. Mills, post-1991, the corporate political nexus transformed the economic policy landscape.
Applying Mosca's ruling class theory rise of OBC leaders, especially in North Indian Politics, marked the entry of
new class elites, which brought the transformation.
Andre Beteille observed Western-educated elite as the change agent.
For example, constitution makers.
Rajni Kothari's democratic elite, for example, members of the constituent assembly, consisted of lawyers, freedom
fighters who led the foundation of social justice and democratic governance.
Antonio Gramsci gave the concept of organic intellectuals, that is, those who have emerged from the subaltern
groups to challenge dominant ideologies.
For example, B.R Ambedkar.
By applying M.N. Srinivas' dominant caste theory, the caste group with resources (land) acted as local elites
pushing for change.
* Please refer to the Handout for Elite accommodation in India.

CHANGING NATURE OF POLITICAL ELITES (06:36 PM)

Traditional Contemporary
Aspect
Elites Elites
Landed
Business elites/
Aristocracy/
Background Professionals/
Feudal Lords/
Celebrities, etc.
Zamindars.
 Increase in
Caste Dominated by OBC and Dalit
Composition the upper caste. political
assertions.
Electoral
mobilisation,
Hereditary/
social
Entry Route Dynasty politics
movements,
or patronage.
and media
influence.
Gender Male- Slow rise of
representation dominated. women leaders.
Personality
Mode of
Ideological Driven or Media
engagement
Centric.
Scholarly View-
Rajni Kothari described Congress as a system integrating various elite groups.
Yogendra Yadav- Subaltern groups are now entering elite politics.
Partha Chatterjee- talks about the political society where marginal groups exert political pressure, altering the elite
dynamics.
Questions-
Who are the Elites? Discuss their role with respect to social change in society.
Write a brief note on Freedom of the Press.
Media as the fourth pillar of democracy. Discuss.
Discuss the changing nature of the political elites. (10 Marks).
Has the Green Revolution led to the formation of a new power elite in rural India?

PRESSURE GROUPS (06:53 PM)

According to Rajni Kothari, they are extra-constitutional growth but essential for interest articulation in a democratic
society.
Features of Pressure Group (PG)-
Nonparty organisation (they don't contest elections).
They are either issue-based or interest-based.
They create pressure through following action repertoires, for example, lobbying, protest, PILs, media influence, etc.
They are voluntary and they are organised.
They act as a link between the state and society.
Types of Pressure Groups (PGs) in India-
Business groups- ASSOCHAM, CII, FICCI, DICCI.
Agricultural groups- AIKS, BKU.
Caste based groups- Dalit Panthers.
Trade Union- AITUC.
Professional groups- Bar Council.
New social movements- RTI, Narmada Bachao.
Thinker's perspective-
David Trueman- PGs are necessary intermediaries in democracy.
C.W. Mills has warned that PGs might serve the interest of the power elite.
Gabriel Almond, PGs are key interest articulators in democracy.
Andre Beteille cautioned that caste based PGs may reinforce social divisions.
Robert Dahl, democracy is strengthened when multiple groups compete for influence.
Hence, PGs prevent authoritarianism and decentralized power by representing diverse interests.
How PGs Strengthen democracy-
 It limits the power of the state,
It ensures accountability and transparency,
It empowers the marginalised,
It articulates the interests of different groups and draws the attention of the government to issues overlooked by
them.
They act as a platform for further political participation.
They influence policy making by providing inputs through think tanks or lobbying, etc.
They push for legislative changes.
They provide legitimacy to the government in the eyes of the citizens by supporting the policies.

CIVIL SOCIETY (07:10 PM)

Civil society refers to institutions and organizations independent of the state that contribute to public engagement
and democratic governance.
For example, NGOs, Media, Religious and Academic institutions, etc.
Neera Chandhoke emphasized on normative role of civil society.
It ensures equality and justice in an unequal society like India.
Rajni Kothari- Civil society acts as a mediator between the state and society, amplifying marginal voices.
Andre Beteille- Civil society helps in sustaining democracy beyond elections by ensuring accountability, inclusion,
and civic vigilance.
Yogendra Yadav- there is a rise of subaltern Civil society, which expands the democratic participation.
Robert Putnam- Strong civil society fosters social capital, which is important for democratic performance.
Antonio Gramsci viewed Civil society as the arena where hegemony is built and challenged.
A vibrant Civil society is not just a democratic accessory but the lifeblood in both classical and modern societies.
(Scholte- voice to voiceless, hold government accountability, policy inputs, draws attention to issues overlooked,
bridge between state and citizen, legitimacy to state).
Question-
Discuss the implications of the Swach Bharat Abhiyan. Do you think that the Civil Society has a role to play here?
Substantiate your answer. (20 Marks)

CITIZENSHIP (07:29 PM)

It refers to full membership in a community marked by civil, political, and social rights (T.H. Marshall).
According to Yogendra Yadav, citizenship in India is not just legal but lived and contested ( shaped by caste, class,
religion, and region).
Religion-based citizenship, for example, the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), where Partha Chatterjee calls this
shift from legal citizenship to populist authoritarian nationalism.
NRC and Statelessness- Arjun Appadurai's concept of governmentality explains how documentation becomes the
tool of exclusion.
Documentation and bureaucratic exclusion, for example, lack of documents marginalises migrants, slum dwellers,
tribals, etc.
James Scott- Legibility (state regulates through documents).
Ethnic and Linguistic nationalism, for example Inner Line Permit is an example of ethnonational citizenship.
Gendered dimensions of citizenship - Naila Kabeer's concept of citizenship as a practice.
Caste and citizenship-
Dalits, STs, and OBCs experienced graded citizenship.
BR Ambedkar - Political democracy without social democracy is meaningless.
Urban versus Rural divide-
Ashutosh Varshney highlights how clientelism and informality affect urban citizenship.

THE SYLLABUS OF SOCIOLOGY PAPER II IS COMPLETED.