Science and Technology Notes

For UPSC CSE

1. Achievements of Indian in Science and Technology………………

2. Indigenization of technology and developing new technology…………..…..

3. DNA and RNA……………………………………

4. Antigens and Antibodies……………………………………

5. Virus and Bacteria……………………………………

6. Vaccines & Types of Vaccines……………………………………

7. Biotechnology and its Applications……………………………………

8. Genetic Engineering……………………………………

9. Genome Sequencing & Human Genome Project (HGP) ……………………………………

10. Cloning, GMO, Three Parent Baby……………………………………

11. Decoding Blood Group Concepts……………………………………

12. Diabetes: Type 1 Diabetes & Type 2 Diabetes……………………………………

13. Vitamins and Minerals (Deficiency Diseases) ……………………………………

14. Diseases – Zoonotic, Hereditary, Protozoan, Viral & Bacterial……………………………………

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15. Hepatitis – Causes, Types & Treatment……………………………………

16. Nuclear Energy……………………………………

17. Types of Nuclear Power Reactor……………………………………

18. India’s Three Stage Nuclear Power Program……………………………………

19. Development of Nuclear energy in India……………………………………

20. India’s Nuclear Policy……………………………………

21. Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010……………………………………

22. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) ……………………………………

23. Multilateral Export Control Regimes……………………………………

24. Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) ……………………………………

25. Defence Research and Development Organisation……………………………………

26. Defence Technology – Missiles, Submarines, UAVs……………………………………

27. Anti-tank Guided Missile (ATGM) ……………………………………

28. Artillery Gun system of India……………………………………

29. Indian Military Aircrafts and Helicopters……………………………………

30. Military Exercises of India with Other Countries……………………………………

31. INS Vikrant: First Indigenous Aircraft Carrier……………………………………

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32. Indigenisation of Indian Defence Sector……………………………………

33. Major Milestones in Indian Space Programme……………………………………

34. Space Technology: Satellites and Orbits……………………………………

35. Satellite Launch Vehicles – SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mk-III……………………………………

36. Satellite Frequency Bands: L, S, C, X, Ku, Ka-band……………………………………

37. Important Missions of ISRO……………………………………

38. Important Missions of NASA……………………………………

39. Star Formation (Life Cycle of a Star) ……………………………………

40. Dark Energy and Dark Matter……………………………………

41. Everything About Nanotechnology……………………………………

42. Nanotechnology in India……………………………………

43. Awareness in the Fields of Robotics……………………………………

44. Information and Communication Technology & Computers……………………………………

45. Awareness in the field of IT and Computers……………………………………

46. Programmes, Policies, and Initiatives related to ICT……………………………………

47. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ……………………………………

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 Achievements of Indian in Science and
Technology – UPSC

byLotusAriseJanuary 11, 2022

3 Comments

• Science and technology have been an integral part of Indian civilization and
culture over the past several millennia. Indians have played an important role
in the field of science and technology.
• Few are aware that India was the fountainhead of important foundational
scientific developments and approaches. These cover many great scientific
discoveries and technological achievements in mathematics, astronomy,
architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, medicine, natural philosophy, and other
areas. A great deal of this traveled outwards from India.
• Equally, India also assimilated scientific ideas and techniques from elsewhere,
with open-mindedness and a rational attitude characteristic of a scientific ethos.
• The Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic age and later periods saw great
achievements by Indians in the field of Science and technology.
• In modern times many Indian scientists and mathematicians have done
phenomenal work and some of them even received awards like Nobel Prize for
their contributions to science in technology.
• India belongs to the select group of countries that have developed
indigenous nuclear technology. India is among the few countries which
have developed ballistic missiles. In the field of space science, India has the
capability to launch GSLV satellites.
• Some Indian scientists have left indelible imprints on the world S&T arena.

Achievements of Indians in Science and Technology in

Ancient and medieval India
Baudhayana (800 BCE)

• Baudhayana was a mathematician who lived in ancient India around 800

BCE. His major contributions include:
• He is considered the earliest author of Sulbasutras which was used for
the accurate construction of altars needed for Vedic sacrifices.
• He gave a near accurate value of Pi(π).
• He gave the theorem today known as “Pythagoras theorem” before
Pythagoras had developed it.

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 • He also gave a near accurate value of the square root of 2
(577/408) which is correct to 5 decimal places.
Kanada Sage

• Kanada, a philosopher estimated to have lived in India between the 6th century
to 2nd century BCE. His name Kanada means atom eater.
• He was the first person to give the atomic theory. He gave the idea
that Parmanu (Atom) was an indestructible particle of matter which
cannot be divided further. Later on, Dalton made similar observations
in Dalton’s atomic theory.
Charaka (300 BCE)

• Charaka is considered the “Father of Indian Medicine” who lived in around 300
BCE in India. His major contributions include:
• He was among the principal contributors to the ancient system of
medicine ‘Ayurveda’ and wrote his medical treatise the ‘Charak
Samhita’.
• He is known for his works on metabolism and the fundamentals of
genetics.
• He wrote about three doshas which the body contains i.e. Vata
(movement), Pitta (transformation) and Cough (lubrication and
stability). Diseases occur when the balance among these three doshas
gets disturbed.
Sushruta

• Sushruta was the author of “Sushruta Samhita” an ancient Sanskrit text on

medicine and surgery.
• Sushruta invented surgical instruments and worked on the dissection of
dead bodies.
• Sushruta was aware of cataract operations.
• He is also known as the “father of surgery” and “father of plastic surgery”.
Aryabhatta (476- 550 CE)

• Aryabhatta also was known as Aryabhatta 1 was the first major astronomer
and mathematician from the classical age of Indian astronomy and Indian
mathematics.
• His major works include Aryabhatiya and Arya-Siddhanta.
• He calculated the orbits of planets, and scientifically explained the Solar and
lunar eclipses.
• He calculated the distance between Earth and Moon. He proposed that Earth
rotates on its axis.

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• He gave the theory that the apparent motion of stars is due to the movement of
Earth.
• He calculated the circumference of the earth and proposed that the shape of
Earth is not flat.
• He worked on the place value system and zero as a symbol and concept.

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Varahamihira (505- 587 CE)

• Varahamihira was born in the Avanthi region during the Gupta rule.
• He wrote the Pancha-siddhantika which summarises 5 alias astronomical
treatises namely the Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta,
Vashishtha Siddhant and Paitamaha Siddhanta.
• He gave trigonometric formulas and improved the accuracy of sine tables of
Aryabhatta.
• He explained the shifting of equinoxes and the nature of the scattering of
light.
• He was also the author of Brihat Samhita and Brihat Jataka.
• He gave theories on earthquakes and explained that how the termites may
indicate water underground.
Brahmagupta (598 – 670 CE)

• Brahmagupta was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was the

first person to give rules to compute with zero.
• He was the author of the “Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta”, a theoretical treatise on
mathematics and astronomy, and the “Khaṇḍakhādyaka”, which was a more
practical text.
• He worked on mathematics and astronomy and he is supposed to have invented
many astronomical instruments for his observations.
• He explained that the shape of the earth is spherical and worked on the
calculation of eclipses.
• He worked on methods for calculating the distance of the heavenly bodies.
Bhaskara 1 (600 – 680 CE)

• He was a mathematician who first wrote numbers in the Hindu decimal

system with a circle for zero.
• he was the follower of the Aryabhatta School of astronomy and was
the author of “Mahābhāskarīya” and the “Laghubhāskarīya”.
• He worked on many trigonometric formulas and give a rational approximation of
sine function.
Bhaskaracharya or Bhaskara II (1114- 1185)

• Bhaskaracharya was an Indian mathematician and astronomer born in

Bijapur in Karnataka.

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 • His main work includes “Siddhanta Shiromani” which has four sections
dealing with Arithmetics, Algebra, Mathematics of planets, and Spheres.
• He worked on differential calculus and algebra.

Nobel Laureates of India in Science

C.V. Raman:

• C.V. Raman was one of the most famous scientists in India. Raman’s academic
brilliance was established at a very young age. He had a pioneering work on
scattering of light, C.V. Raman won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930.
• He was the first Asian and first non-White to receive any Nobel Prize in the
sciences. Raman also worked on the acoustics of musical instruments. He was
the first to investigate the harmonic nature of the sound of the Indian drums such
as the tabla and the mridangam.
• He discovered that, when light traverses a transparent material, some of the
deflected light changes in wavelength. This phenomenon is now called the
Raman scattering and is the result of the Raman Effect.
Raman effect, change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is
deflected by molecules. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent
sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in
directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered
light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from
that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect.

Har Gobind Khorana:

• Har Gobind Khorana was an American molecular biologist of Indian origin.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in the year 1968 for his work on the
interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis.
• Dr. Khorana demonstrated how the genetic code determines all life
processes by directing the synthesis of all cell proteins finally unravelled
the secret of the DNA code of life.
• Dr. Khorana received numerous awards and honours such as the Novel Prize for
his achievement. Distinguished Service Award, Watumull Foundation, Honolulu,
Hawaii, American academy of achievement awards, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
Padma Vibhushan, Presidential Award, J C Bose Medal and Willard Gibbs medal
of the Chicago section of American Chemical Society.
• He was also elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, as well as a Fellow of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.
• In 1971, he became a foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences and in
1974, an Honorary Fellow of the Indian Chemical Society.
In the 1960s Khorana confirmed Nirenberg’s findings that the way the four
different types of nucleotides are arranged on the spiral “staircase” of the DNA

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molecule determines the chemical composition and function of a new cell. The 64
possible combinations of the nucleotides are read off along a strand of DNA as
required to produce the desired amino acids, which are the building blocks of
proteins. Khorana added details about which serial combinations of nucleotides from
which specific amino acids. He also proved that the nucleotide code is always
transmitted to the cell in groups of three, called codons. Khorana also determined that
some of the codons prompt the cell to start or stop the manufacture of proteins.

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar:

• He was one of the greatest scientists of the 20th century. He did commendable
work in astrophysics, physics and applied mathematics.
• Chandrasekhar has bestowed the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 Physics
for his mathematical theory of black holes. The Chandrasekhar limit is
named after him.
• He was the nephew of CV Raman. Chandra became a United States citizen in
1953. Chandra was a popular teacher who guided over fifty students to their PhD
including some who went on to win the Nobel Prize themselves.
• His research explored nearly all branches of theoretical astrophysics and he
published ten books, each covering a different topic, including one on the
relationship between art and science.
• His most famous work concerns the radiation of energy from stars,
particularly white dwarf stars, which are the dying fragments of stars.
By the early 1930s, scientists had concluded that, after converting all of their hydrogens
to helium, stars lose energy and contract under the influence of their own gravity. These
stars, known as white dwarf stars, contract to about the size of Earth, and the electrons
and nuclei of their constituent atoms are compressed to a state of extremely high
density. Chandrasekhar determined what is known as the Chandrasekhar limit—that a
star having a mass more than 1.44 times that of the Sun does not form a white dwarf but
instead continues to collapse, blows off its gaseous envelope in a supernova explosion,
and becomes a neutron star. An even more massive star continues to collapse and
becomes a black hole. These calculations contributed to the eventual understanding of
supernovas, neutron stars, and black holes. Chandrasekhar came up with the idea for a
limit on his voyage to England in 1930. However, his ideas met strong opposition,
particularly from English astronomer Arthur Eddington, and took years to be generally
accepted.

Venkataraman Ramakrishnan:

• Venkataraman, Indian born American is a senior scientist in the Structural

Division at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology,
in Cambridge, England.
• He has worked in various fields of biology during the earlier part of his career. He
is internationally recognized for the determination of the atomic structure of
the 30s ribosomal subunit.

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 • Ramakrishnan received numerous awards such as he was elected a Member of
the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) in 2002 and a Fellow of
the Royal Society (FRS) in 2003.
• He was chosen a Member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 2004. In
2007, Ramakrishnan has bestowed the Louis-Jeantet Prize for Medicine and the
Datta Lectureship and Medal of the Federation of European Biochemical
Societies (FEBS).
• In 2008, he won the Heatley Medal of the British Biochemical Society. Since
2008, he is a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge and a Foreign Fellow of the
Indian National Science Academy.
• In 2009, Ramakrishnan was honoured with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
along with Thomas A. Steitz and Ada Yonath. He received India’s second-
highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan, in 2010.
• Ramakrishnan was knighted in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to
Molecular Biology. In the same year, he was awarded the Sir Hans Krebs Medal
by the FEBS. In 2013, he won the Spanish Jiménez-Diáz Prize.
Awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Chemistry, along with American biophysicist and
biochemist Thomas Steitz and Israeli protein crystallographer Ada Yonath, for his
research into the atomic structure and function of cellular particles called
ribosomes. (Ribosomes are tiny particles made up of RNA and proteins that specialize
in protein synthesis and are found free or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum within
cells.)

Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology in the

Modern era
Prafulla Chandra Ray:

• He was a Famous academician and chemist, known for being the founder of
Bengal Chemicals & Pharmaceuticals, India’s first pharmaceutical
company.
• In 1889, Prafulla Chandra was chosen as an Assistant Professor of Chemistry in
the Presidency College, Kolkata.
• His publications on miraculous nitrite and its derivatives brought him recognition
from all over the world. His role as a teacher was significant as he inspired young
generation chemists in India to build up an Indian school of chemistry.
• Famous Indian scientists like Meghnad Saha and Shanti Swarup
Bhatnagar were among his students. Prafulla Chandra had contributed to
developing industries in India.
• He set up the first chemical factory in India, with very minimal resources,
working from his home. In 1901, this pioneering effort resulted in the formation of
Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works Ltd.
Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya:

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 • He was a notable Indian engineer, scholar, statesman and the Diwan of
Mysore from 1912 to 1918.
• Sir M. Visvesvaraya was one of the most eminent engineers of India.
• He maintained high principles and discipline in his life. He was best known for
his contribution as the chief architect behind the construction of the
Krishna Raja Sagara dam in Mandya which helped to convert the surrounding
barren lands into fertile grounds for farming.
• Visvesvaraya was knighted as the Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
(KCIE) by the British for his contributions to society in 1915.
• He was a recipient of the Indian Republic’s highest honour, the Bharat Ratna for
his persistent work in the fields of engineering and education. He was also
awarded several honorary doctoral degrees from eight universities in India.
• Sir M V suggested that India try to be at par with industrialized nations as he
believed that India can become developed through industries.
• He has the credit of inventing ‘automatic sluice gates’ and ‘block irrigation
systems’ which are still considered to be marvels in engineering. Each year, his
birthday 15 September is celebrated as Engineer’s Day in India.
Jagdish Chandra Bose:

• Jagdish Chandra Bose was an eminent scientist. He developed the use of

galena crystals for making receivers, both for short-wavelength radio
waves and for white and ultraviolet light.
• In 1895, two years before Marconi’s demonstration, Bose demonstrated wireless
communication using radio waves, using them to ring a bell remotely and to
explode some gunpowder.
• He invented many of the microwave components such as waveguides, horn
antennas, polarizers, dielectric lenses and prisms, and even semiconductor
detectors of electromagnetic radiation in the last decade of the nineteenth
century.
• He also proposed the existence of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun,
which was confirmed in 1944. After that Bose focused his attention on response
phenomena in plants.
• He presented that not only animal but vegetable tissues produce similar electric
responses under different kinds of stimuli – mechanical, thermal, electrical and
chemical.
Meghnad Saha:

• Meghnad Saha belonged to the District of Dacca, now in Bangladesh. In 1920,

Meghnad Saha had developed himself as renowned physicists of the time.
• Meghnad Saha has contributed in the arena of the thermal ionisation of
elements, and it led him to formulate what is known as the Saha Equation.
• This equation is one of the basic tools for the interpretation of the spectra of stars
in astrophysics. His theory of high-temperature ionization of elements and its

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 application to stellar atmospheres, as expressed by the Saha equation, is
fundamental to modern astrophysics; subsequent development of his ideas has
led to increased knowledge of the pressure and temperature distributions of
stellar atmospheres.
• By studying the spectra of various stars, one can find their temperature and that,
using Saha’s equation, determine the ionisation state of the various elements
making up the star. He also invented an instrument to measure the weight and
pressure of solar rays.
• He was also the chief architect of river planning in India. He prepared the original
plan for the Damodar Valley Project. He had a great role in the development of
scientific institutions throughout India as well as in national economic planning
involving technology.
Satyendra Nath Bose:

• Satyendra Nath Bose was an outstanding Indian physicist specialising in

quantum mechanics. He is of course most remembered for his excellent role
played in the class of particles ‘bosons‘, which were named after him by Paul
Dirac to commemorate his work in the field.
• Basically, he is known for his work in Quantum Physics. He is famous for “Bose-
Einstein Theory” and a kind of particle in an atom has been named after his name
Boson.
• Bose adapted a lecture at the University of Dhaka on the theory of radiation and
the ultraviolet catastrophe into a short article called “Planck’s Law and the
Hypothesis of Light Quanta” and sent it to Albert Einstein.
• Einstein agreed with him, translated Bose’s paper “Planck’s Law and Hypothesis
of Light Quanta” into German, and had it published in Zeitschrift für Physik under
Bose’s name, in 1924.
• This formed the basis of the Bose-Einstein Statistics. In 1937, Rabindranath
Tagore dedicated his only book on science, Visva–Parichay, to Satyendra Nath
Bose. The Government of India awarded him India’s second-highest civilian
award, the Padma Vibhushan in 1954.
Srinivasa Ramanujan:

• Srinivasa Ramanujan was a mathematician. He is extensively believed to be the

greatest mathematician of the 20th Century. Srinivasa Ramanujan made a
major contribution to the analytical theory of numbers and worked on
elliptic functions, continued fractions, and infinite series. His published and
unpublished works have kept some of the best mathematical brains in the world.
Vikram Sarabhai:

• Vikram Sarabhai was among the distinguished scientists of India. He is

considered the Father of the Indian space program. India’s first satellite
Aryabhata launched in 1975, was one of the many projects planned by him.
• Like Bhabha, Sarabhai wanted the practical application of science to reach the
common man. Therefore he saw a golden opportunity to harness space science

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 to the development of the country in the fields of communication, meteorology,
remote sensing and education.
• The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) launched in 1975-76,
brought education to five million people in 2,400 Indian villages.
• In 1965, he established the Community Science Centre in Ahmedabad to
popularise science among children. His profound cultural interests led him, along
with his wife Mrinalini Sarabhai, to establish Darpana Academy, an institution
devoted to performing arts and propagation of the ancient culture of India.
• Besides scientist, he had a combined quality as an innovator, industrialist and
visionary. He was awarded the Bhatnagar Memorial Award for Physics in 1962,
the Padma Bhushan in 1966, and was subsequently awarded the Padma
Vibhushan.
• He was the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1966, Vice-President
and Chairman of the UN Conference on peaceful uses of outer space in 1968,
and President of the 14th General Conference of the International Atomic Energy
Agency.
• The International Astronomical Union named a crater in the moon (in the Sea of
Serenity) after him, in honour of his marvellous role in science.
Dr Homi Jehangir Bhabha:

• He is considered the originator of the Indian Nuclear Research Programme.

India accomplished nuclear capability due to the extreme efforts of Homi, thereby
avoiding certain conflicts simply through non-aggression treaties. This
contribution of Bhabha augments the status of India on the world stage.
• He had a brilliant persona with multi-faceted qualities. He was fond of music,
painting and writing. Some of his paintings are displayed in the British Art
Galleries and the TIFR art collection today is rated as one of the best collections
of contemporary Indian art in the country.
• He is the recipient of Adam’s Award, Padma Bhushan, an Honorary Fellow of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences and Foreign Associate of the National
Academy of Sciences in the United States.
APJ Abdul Kalam:

• Dr APJ Abdul Kalam is remembered as a great scientist, an inspirational leader

and an extraordinary human being. As a scientist, Kalam made an effort to
develop the Polar SLV and SLV-III projects between the 1970s and 1990s.
Both of which proved to be a success.
• In the 1970s, Kalam also directed two projects, namely, Project Devil and
Project Valiant, which sought to develop ballistic missiles from the technology of
the successful SLV programme.
• Despite the disapproval of the Union Cabinet, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
allotted secret funds for these aerospace projects through her discretionary
powers under Kalam’s directorship.

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 • Kalam played a vital role in convincing the Union Cabinet to conceal the true
nature of these classified aerospace projects. His research and educational
leadership brought him great laurels and prestige in the 1980s, which prompted
the government to initiate an advanced missile program under his directorship.
• Besides a distinguished scientist and engineer, Dr APJ Abdul Kalam served as
the 11th President of India from the period 2002 to 2007.
• After post-presidency, Kalam became a visiting professor at the Indian Institute of
Management Shillong, the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, and the
Indian Institute of Management Indore; an honorary fellow of Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, chancellor of the Indian Institute of Space Science and
Technology Thiruvananthapuram; professor of Aerospace Engineering at Anna
University; and an adjunct at many other academic and research institutions
across India.
• He taught information technology at the International Institute of Information
Technology, Hyderabad, and technology at Banaras Hindu University and Anna
University.
• He played an intensive political and technological role when the Pokhran-II
nuclear tests were conducted. Kalam served as the Chief Project Coordinator,
along with R. Chidambaram during the testing phase. Photos and snapshots of
him taken by the media elevated Kalam as the country’s top nuclear scientist.
• He had a brilliant and dominant personality and he was a man of vision, who
always had novel ideas for the development of the country and is also popular as
the Missile Man of India.
Dr. Koti Harinarayana:

• He was a renowned genius scientist. It is recognized that the brain behind India’s
first indigenously built combat aircraft. Tejas, which was the name given to the
aircraft, saw its first flight in 2001.
• India’s first self-made light combat aircraft was built by HAL and developed by Dr
Koti.
• It was a result of the weakening value of the country’s soon to be obsolete Mig-21
fighter jets and, true to its name, made our defence sector’s future a lot more
healthy.
• Mangalyaan, or Mars-Craft, this program by its own space research organisation
has been praised as one of the most low cost but high functioning space
missions to date. With this scientific development, Indians can reach Mars orbit
on their first attempt.
• The brain behind the operation is actually credited to 14 scientists of ISRO.
• India’s first moon probe was efficaciously inserted into the lunar orbit in 2008 and
pushed India’s space program into the world map, putting India side by side with
NASA and the European Space Agency.
• Chandrayaan’s greatest achievement was the discovery of the extensive
presence of water molecules in the lunar soil.

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Venkatraman Radhakrishnan:

• Venkatraman belonged to a suburb of Chennai. He was a globally distinguished

space scientist and a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
• He was an internationally acclaimed Astrophysicist and also known for his
design and fabrication of ultralight aircraft and sailboats.
• His observations and theoretical insights helped the community in unravelling
many mysteries surrounding pulsars, interstellar clouds, galaxy structures and
various other celestial bodies.
Anil Kakodkar:

• Dr Anil Kakodkar is famous as a distinguished nuclear scientist in India.

• He holds the post of chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India
(AECI) as well as the Secretary to the Government of India, Department of
Atomic Energy. He received Padma Shri in 1998 and Padma Bhushan in 1999.
Abhas Mitra:

• He is a distinguished Indian astrophysicist and famous for his distinct views on

several front-line astrophysics concepts, particularly black holes and Big Bang
Cosmology.
• His research has received extensive attention, especially in India, which is
reflected by the fact that he is one of the most frequently mentioned Indian
physicists on the web.
• Mitra is associated with the `Himalayan Gamma-Ray Observatory’, being set
up at Han Leh jointly by Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre and Indian Institute of Astrophysics.
• He is also an Adjunct Prof. at Homi Bhabha National Science Institute since
2010.
• Dr Mitra is also a member of the International Astronomical Union.
Abhay Vasant Ashtekar:

• He is an Indian theoretical physicist. He is the Eberly Professor of Physics and

the Director of the Institute for Gravitational Physics and Geometry at
Pennsylvania State University. Ashtekar created variables and he is one of
the founders of loop quantum gravity and its subfield loop quantum
cosmology.
Aditi Pant:

• She is an eminent Indian oceanographer. She was a part of the Indian

expedition to Antarctica in 1983 and became the first Indian woman to visit
Antarctica (along with Sudipta Sengupta).
• Dr Aditi was bestowed the Antarctica award with Dr Jaya Naithani and Dr Kanwal
Vilku by the government of India for her excellent contributions to the Antarctic
program.

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Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri:

• He was a famous Indian physicist, well-known for his research in general

relativity and cosmology.
• His most noteworthy contribution is the eponymous Raychaudhuri
equation, which demonstrates that singularities arise inevitably in general
relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose-Hawking singularity
theorems.
Arvind Bhatnagar:

• He made significant contributions to Solar Astronomy and founded several

planetaria across India. He was the founder-director of the Udaipur Solar
Observatory, and the founder-director of Nehru Planetarium of Bombay.
Arun N. Netravali:

• He is an Indian-American computer engineer accredited with

significant contributions in digital technology including HDTV. He conducted
seminal research in digital compression, signal processing and other fields.
• Netravali was the ninth President of Bell Laboratories and has served as Lucent’s
Chief Technology Officer and Chief Network Architect. Netravali was honoured
with numerous awards and honorary degrees such as the IEEE Jack S.
• Kilby Signal Processing Medal in 2001 (together with Thomas S. Huang), the
IEEE Frederik Philips Award in 2001, the U.S. National Medal of Technology, and
the Padma Bhushan from the Government of India.
Anna Mani:

• She was popular as an Indian physicist and meteorologist. She held the position
of the Deputy Director-General of the Indian Meteorological Department.
• She made great contributions in the field of meteorological
instrumentation. She conducted research and published numerous papers on
solar radiation, ozone and wind energy measurements.
Birbal Sahni:

• Birbal Sahni was a famous paleobotanist of India, who studied the fossils of
the Indian subcontinent. Sahni is accredited for establishing the Birbal Sahni
Institute of Palaeobotany at Lucknow in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
• He was a pioneer in palaeobotanical research in India and was also a geologist
who took an interest in archaeology. He received several awards.
• He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London (FRS) in 1936, the
highest British scientific honour, becoming the first Indian botanist to be accorded
this honour.
• He also received the Barclay Medal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal the
same year. He was honoured with the Nelson Wright Medal of the Numismatic
Society of India in 1945 and Sir C. R. Reddy National Prize in 1947.

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Dr. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar:

• Dr Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar was a notable Indian scientist. He had an interest

in science and engineering during his early years of life. Shanti Swarup
Bhatnagar had a great contribution along with Homi Bhabha, Prasanta Chandra
Mahalanobis, Vikram Sarabhai and others to build post-independence Science &
Technology infrastructure and in the formulation of India’s science policies.
Komaravolu Chandrasekharan:

• He belonged to Andhra Pradesh. He attained his M.A. in Mathematics from the

Presidency College, Chennai and was a Research Scholar in the Department of
Mathematics of the University of Madras during 1940-1943. In 1949, he was
invited by Homi Bhabha to join the School of Mathematics of the Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research.
• With his brilliant quality as an organiser and administrator of science, he
transformed the fledgling School of Mathematics of TIFR into a centre of
excellence respected the world over.
• He initiated a very successful programme of recruitment and training of Research
Scholars at TIFR.
• The programme continues to the present day along with the same principle that
he set down. He put to outstanding use his contacts with the leading
mathematicians of the world, encouraging many of them to visit TIFR and deliver
courses of lectures over periods of two months and more.
• The lecture notes prepared out of these lectures and published by TIFR has a
great reputation in the world mathematics community to the present day. He
worked in the fields of number theory and summability.
• His mathematical achievements are of a high standard, but his contribution to
Indian mathematics has been even greater.
Raja Ramanna:

• Dr Raja Ramanna was a renowned physicist and nuclear scientist in India. He

had a multifaceted personality and played the roles of a technologist, nuclear
physicist, administrator, leader, musician, Sanskrit literature scholar, and
philosophy researcher.
• His interest was in Nuclear Physics and particularly attention to Atomic Research
and he became the head of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre at Trombay,
Bombay.
• Dr Ramanna held several important positions in the course of his scientific
career. These included the roles of Director in Babha Atomic Research Centre,
Director-General in the Defence Research and Development Program, Chairman
in the Atomic Energy Commission, Vice President in Indian National Science
Academy, and Director in the National Institute of Advanced Studies.
• He also played a major role in setting up the Centre for Advanced Technology at
Indore and Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre at Kolkata. He was often referred to
as the ‘Father of India’s nuclear program.

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 • Raja Ramanna received the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and
Technology in 1963, Padma Vibhushan in 1975, Padma Shri in 1968 and Padma
Bhushan in 1973. He was also appointed as the Union Minister of Defence in
1990. People will remember him for his incredible contribution to nuclear physics.
Ganapathi Thanikaimoni:

• Ganapathi Thanikaimoni was a successful botanist in his time. He is

remembered to date for his extensive contribution to the field of palynology. His
researches and projects not only helped India to make its presence felt on the
world stage of botany but also promoted public relations between countries.
• Dr Ganapathi Thanikaimoni was not only involved in the study of pollen but also
made efforts to contribute to the wellbeing of society.
• Thani tried his best to educate government authorities to take proper care of
coastlines and to rehabilitate arid areas across India.
• It is well known that mangroves play a very important role in balancing the
ecosystem; therefore Thani took steps to educate society and the government on
the necessity of mangroves.
• He was also one of the instigators in the UNESCO developed ‘Asia and Pacific
Mangrove Project’. Ganapathi Thanikaimoni’s contribution to the field of pollen
studies is immense and all his contribution is recorded in the book ‘Palynology
Manual’ that was printed after his death.
Harish-Chandra:

• Harish Chandra was a renowned Indian American mathematician and

physicist who contributed fundamental work in representation theory,
especially harmonic analysis on semisimple Lie groups.
• He was an eminent figure in the mathematics of the twentieth century.
• His prestigious work related to algebra, analysis, geometry, and group theory in a
fundamental and epoch-making manner consequently became the foundation on
which modern work in various fields, ranging from differential geometry and
mathematical physics to number theory, is being performed.
• He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S. and a Fellow
of the Royal Society.
• Harish Chandra received many prestigious awards. He was honoured with the
Cole Prize of the American Mathematical Society, in 1954.
• The Indian National Science Academy awarded him the Srinivasa Ramanujan
Medal in 1974. In 1981, he received an honorary degree from Yale University.
• The Indian Government named the Harish-Chandra Research Institute, an
institute devoted to Theoretical Physics and Mathematics.
G. N. Ramachandran:

• Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran is known as the best scientist of

the 20th century in India. The eminent work of G. N. Ramachandran is the

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 Ramachandran plot, which the scientist had conceived along with
Viswanathan Sasisekharan, to understand the structure of peptides.
• Ramachandran can be accredited for bringing together into the one field of
molecular biophysics the then disparate fields of X-ray crystallography, peptide
synthesis, NMR and other optical studies, and Physico-chemical experimentation.
• In 1970, he founded the Molecular Biophysics Unit at the Indian Institute of
Science which was later known as the Centre of Advanced Study in Biophysics.
• Ramachandran was highly honoured in India and abroad for his work. In
recognising his work, most agencies in India privileged themselves and conferred
a new lustre on the awards they instituted.
Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis:

• He was a renowned Indian scientist and applied statistician. He is best recalled

for the Mahalanobis distance, a statistical measure. He made ground-
breaking studies in anthropometry in India.
• He founded the Indian Statistical Institute and contributed to the design of
large-scale sample surveys.
• He developed Economic census, population census, agricultural surveys and
various other large scale and in-depth samples and surveys that have been
esteemed around the globe.
• He received numerous prestigious awards that include Weldon Medal from
Oxford University (1944), Fellow of the Royal Society, London (1945), President
of Indian Science Congress (1950), Fellow of the Econometric Society, U.S.A.
(1951), Fellow of the Pakistan Statistical Association (1952), Honorary Fellow of
the Royal Statistical Society, U.K. (1954), Sir Deviprasad Sarvadhikari Gold
Medal (1957), Foreign Member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences (1958),
Honorary Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge (1959), Fellow of the American
Statistical Association (1961), Durgaprasad Khaitan Gold Medal (1961), Padma
Vibhushan (1968), Srinivasa Ramanujam Gold Medal (1968).
• Mahalanobis became the Honorary President of the International Statistical
Institute in 1957 and was elected a Fellow of the American Statistical Association
in 1961.
Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao:

• Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao was a popular physicist of the 20th century in

India. His work in spectroscopy led to the development of Nuclear
Quadrupole Resonance in Physics.
• Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao is also famous for his long association with the
Andhra University in which he served as professor of Physics.
• Prof. Rangadhama Rao was one of the foundation members for the AP Akademi
of Sciences, nominated by the Government of Andhra Pradesh in 1963.
• The Indian National Science Academy frequently conducts a Memorial Lecture
Award in honour of Prof. Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao since its inception in
1979.

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Salim Ali:

• Dr Salim Ali had a passion to study birds in detail. He was popular as an Indian
ornithologist and naturalist. He was referred to as “Birdman of India.
• He became the eminent figure behind the Bombay Natural History Society after
1947 and used his personal influence to reap government support for the
organisation and to create the Bharatpur bird sanctuary (Keoladeo National Park)
and avert the destruction of the Silent Valley National Park.
• He published a research paper discussing the nature and activities of the weaver
bird in 1930. The piece made him famous and established his name in the field of
ornithology.
Yellapragada Subbarao:

• He was one of the greatest biologists of all time. He discovered the function of
adenosine triphosphate as an energy source in the cell and developed
methotrexate for the treatment of cancer.
• Most of his career was spent in the United States. Despite A famous proverb
quoted by American author, Doron K. Antrim, Yellapragada Subbarao was one of
those rare people who made several significant contributions.
• Subbarao is also credited with the first synthesis of the chemical compounds folic
acid and methotrexate. Though SubbaRow could not be awarded Nobel Prize,
his discoveries entitled him to be called the father of targeted cancer
chemotherapy.
Sam Pitroda:

• Satyanarayan Gangaram Pitroda generally popular as Sam Pitroda is an eminent

figure. He is best known as a telecom engineer, inventor, entrepreneur and
policymaker.
• Pitroda founded the National Innovation Council (2010), and served as the
Advisor to the Prime Minister with the rank of a cabinet minister on Public
Information Infrastructure and Innovation, to help democratize information.
• Pitroda had played an immense role in developing India’s foreign and
domestic telecommunications policies. He is considered a well-known
technical professional for the telecommunication revolution in India and
specifically, the ubiquitous, yellow-signed public call offices (PCO) that quickly
brought cheap and easy domestic and international public telephones all over the
country.
Suneet Singh Tuli:

• He is another great scientist of India who made an extraordinary contribution to

enhancing the position of India. Suneet Singh became popular with his innovative
product that has created a history.
• Suneet Singh Tuli as the CEO of the company launched the Aakash tablet
computer which has been labelled as the world’s cheapest ever tablet computer.

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 • This tablet computer has been developed by a Canadian company named
Datawind. He empowered students with the Aakash Tablet. With this
achievement, millions of Indians are empowered with tablets to study and access
the internet.
• It is the low-cost Aakash tablet that comes pre-loaded with huge amounts of
educational material. It is being distributed to students all over the country at
highly subsidised rates so as to give everyone an equal opportunity.
Vijay P. Bhatkar:

• Vijay Bhatkar is one of the most admired scientists and IT leaders of India. He
conceptualised India’s first supercomputer known as the PARAM 800 and
unveiled it in 1991.
• PARAM stood for the parallel machine. Living up to its nomenclature of
‘supreme’, this machine, built indigenously by the Centre for Development of
Advanced Computing and ranked India second after the USA in the arena of
supercomputing.
• He is credited with the creation of several national institutions, notably amongst
them being C-DAC, ER&DC, IIITM-K, I2IT, ETH Research Lab, MKCL and India
International Multiversity. Vijay Bhatkar is a recipient of the Padma Shri and
Padma Bhushan awards.
• He was also honoured with the Ramanuja Trust Award (2007), FICCI Award
(1983), Petersburg Prize (2004), Priyadarshni Award (2000), National Research
Development Corporation (NRDC) Award (1984–85), Gold Medal Award of Indian
Geotechnical Society (1976) and Electronics Man of the Year (1992).
U.R. Rao:

• U. R. Rao is acclaimed as a space scientist. He was a former chairman of the

Indian Space Research Organisation. He has developed the first satellite
launched by India, Aryabhatta.
• It is the name given to the satellite which was an indigenously designed space-
worthy satellite that set up tracking and transmitting systems in the orbital sphere.
U.R. Rao, the chairman of ISRO at the time was the man behind the launch in
1975 that put India on the world map in terms of space research.
Subhash Mukhopadhyay:

• He is a renowned scientist born in Calcutta, India. He made a remarkable

discovery in medical science.
• He gave life to India’s first and the world’s second IVF baby. The 3rd of
October 1978 saw Subhash performing India’s first In vitro fertilisation which
resulted in the birth of baby Durga.
• Tragically, Subhash was only given a posthumous recognition of his
achievements in 1986 as the West Bengal Government refused to support his
‘unethical’ methods.
Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao:

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 • Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao is an Indian-born, naturalized American,
mathematician and statistician. Dr Rao is a Fellow of the Royal Society of
London, and a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. He was
awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 2001.
• The C.R. Rao Award for Statistics was instituted in his honour, to be given once
in two years. In 2002, he was awarded the National Medal of Science of the
U.S.A.
• He also received the Sardar Patel Lifetime Achievement Award (Sardar Ratna) of
the Sardar Patel Foundation India (2015), Guy Medal in Gold (2011) of the Royal
Statistical Society
Narinder Singh Kapany:

• He is credited for his contribution to science and acclaimed as a great

scientist. He had invented Fibre optics.
• The process to transfer information freely and almost promptly was made
possible by the original work of Narinder Kapany.
• His research and inventions have encompassed fibre-optics communications,
lasers, biomedical instrumentation, solar energy and pollution monitoring.
• Fibre optics have transformed the way people communicate, offering high-speed
data transfers as well as helping in medical procedures such as endoscopy and
laser surgeries.
• He has a multifaceted personality.
• He also played a significant role as an entrepreneur and business executive. Dr
Kapany has specialized in the processes of innovation and the management of
technology and technology transfer.
• Kapany received numerous awards for his pioneering contribution in science that
includes ‘The Excellence 2000 Award’ from the USA Pan-Asian American
Chamber of Commerce in 1998 and the prestigious Pravasi Bharatiya Samman,
which was bestowed by the Indian government and presented by former Prime
Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 2004.
• In addition, Kapany holds over 100 patents and was a member of the National
Inventors Council.
Dr. A. Sivathanu Pillai:

• Sivathanu Pillai is an eminent Indian scientist. He supervised the conception of

indigenously developed missile systems. India’s self-sustaining missile
developing programme is called BrahMOS.
• Dr Pillai developed the concept of the joint venture BrahMOS, which makes India
one of the few countries to develop its own ballistic missiles as well as produce
and supply missiles in other key areas of the world. The start of BrahMOS led to
the negation of the absolute power held by Western countries.

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Achievements of Indian Scientists in Recent time

• Manjul Bhargava:
• Manjul Bhargava is the recent addition to the growing list of modern Indian
scientists who are making great contributions in the field of Mathematics.
Bhargava was recently awarded the Fields medal for his contribution to
number theory. In 2015, Manjul Bhargava won the Padma Bhushan, the
third-highest civilian award in India.
• Shiva Ayyadurai:
• VA Shiva Ayyadurai invented the Email in 1979 as a high school student
for the interoffice mail system. Later on, he also came out with EMS,
which included email and other programs.
• Ashoke Sen
• Ashoke Sen is one of the few elite scientists in the world who have made
original contributions to the subject of String Theory. He won the
Fundamental Prize in Physics in 2012 with total prize money of $3 Million.
He was later awarded the Padma Bhushan for his work in 2013.
• Abhas Mitra
• Abhas Mitra is considered the foremost authority in India on subjects
of Big bang and black holes. He is also one of the most cited Indian
scientists in the world.

Conclusions

• To summarize, Indian scientists have contributed astonishingly to the growth of

India. They have augmented the status of India with their scientific achievements
and many of the Indian scientists have also received some prestigious
international awards as well.
• The discoveries of Indian scientists have been appreciated all over the world.
After independence, India has accomplished several great scientific
achievements. Indian scientists have shown their courage at a global level and
have made India one of the scientific centres of the world. There are many
names like Bhabha, A. Sivathanu Pillai, Narinder Singh Kapany, and many more
who made a prime position in the scientific field.

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Indigenization of technology and developing new
technology

The phrase Indigenisation denotes to substituting an imported item with one that
is manufactured within the country. This does not indicate that the item manufactured
within the country is a replica of the imported item. It could be functionally the same but
could have more modern, energy-efficient, compact, and reliable parts and sub-
assemblies, that could themselves be either imported or indigenous.

To increase its technological capability in the area of homeland security, the

government is considering to establishing a centre for focused research on the
latest electronic equipment, which can be indigenously manufactured.

Indigenization of technology in the Indian context:

After independence in 1947, India had introduced policies and programmes for the
development of indigenous capacities in Science and Technology as an integral
part to develop as a modern nation-state.

A five-year planning approach was implemented for economic and industrial growth.
The Indian experience of strengthening the Science and Technology capacities in the
context of industrialisation as it has evolved over the various plan periods from 1947 to
2001 has been scrutinized.

Consolidation of Science and Technology capacities is regarded as a process of

establishing innovation networks interconnecting science, innovation and
industrial activities. Therefore, policies and programmes of the nation for both Science
and for Industry and the interrelationship between the two have been scanned.

Nevertheless, an indigenously manufactured electronic equipment using imported

components would still be desirable not only from the perspective of price but also the
availability of low-cost repair and maintenance over many years of operation.

In the viewpoint of defence and military applications, the value of indigenisation gets
multiplied manifold in terms of the strategic reliability of ready and direct access to a
local manufacturer and his support base.

Furthermore, an indigenous manufacturer also has the ability to increase his

product periodically using upgraded technology that could even be developed in-
house.

It is well documented in studies that indigenisation of technology goes beyond just

manufacturing the item based on drawings and materials supplied by a foreign
manufacturer (OEM). Here, the local manufacturer is anticipated to understand the
technology underlying the product or part, so as to be able to change, modify, improve
or re-design the item as and when he likes. Most of the ‘technology transfer’ that

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happens in the Indian defence and aerospace sector, only relates to the manufacture of
the item within the country and therefore concerns only the technology involved in
manufacturing. The foreign manufacturers hardly provide any insight into the technology
for design or modifications of the part.

It is presented that the Indian policies and programmes have developed through
five phases of development. To strengthen Science and Technology capacities, the
phases have been categorised as;

• Phase I: Infrastructure building

• Phase II: Reorientation
• Phase III: Promotion of indigenous technologies
• Phase IV: Moving towards economic liberalisation
• Phase V: Science and Technology in a liberalised economy
India’s developments in the last decade are visualized as the success of service
sector and increasing outsourcing industries. Indians were identified for being
the global winners of IT-enabled services. It includes the airlines, healthcare,
mobile phone, IT services etc.

India is among the world’s largest importers. It represents that India lacks in
meeting the demand of defence forces. Our indigenous efforts have shown results but
there is a lot of cost escalation and breach of time-limit one after another. This is
apparent from the facts:

1. Tejas aircraft had taken more than two decades in crore rupees. Even after the
completion, armed forces were not ready to induct these aircraft but as a result of
negotiation between forces, DRDO and government the aircraft is given 1st level
clearance now. DRDO is not able to develop its indigenous Kaveri engine due to
limited access to advanced defence technology by countries such as the USA,
and JAPAN.
2. Arjun Tank project was sanctioned in the late 1970s but was rolled out for trial in
just few years back. Even after all these years, it is said to be too weighty to use
in actual war operations. Now DRDO is working on using composites to decrease
the weight.
3. First indigenous nuclear submarine was developed in collaboration with BARC by
DRDO. But it has inadequate fuel inventor. As a result, it cannot go for long
deployment and further enhancements are required.
4. India has a BrahMos missile in collaboration with Russia. It is one of the best in
its class and air, land and water variants are under development.
5. AGNI V has given India the status of ICBM holder country in 2013 though the
project on integrated guided missile development was started in 1983. This along
with Dhanush, Nirbhaya, Prithvi, and Akash missiles has improved our
deterrence.
6. India’s first indigenous Aircraft carrier INS Vikrant is under sea trials.

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One of the major efforts toward indigenization has been the F-INSAS project which is
intended to equip the Infantry with state-of-the-art equipment. F-INSAS means
Futuristic Infantry Soldier as a System. The objective of this is to convert an
infantryman into a fully-networked all-terrain, all-weather, and weapons platform
with enhanced lethality, survivability, sustainability, mobility and situational
awareness for the digitised battlefield of the future. Most of the equipment are being
developed by DRDO.

Recently, the Indian government has proposed a new program, Make in India, to
promote the manufacturing sector which provides greater employment
opportunities by implementing a responsive policy environment.

Reports signify that the Indian Prime Minister, Mr. Narendra Modi, pledged to strengthen
the country’s military which took a swipe at the defence department’s research and
development agency. India, the largest importer of weapons in the world, has been
struggling to build an indigenous defence industry. To boost the effort, Mr. Modi’s
cabinet recently tried to open the defence manufacturing industry in India to more
foreign investment, approving increasing to 49% the amount of foreign direct
investment allowed in military equipment manufacturers.

In the Information technology sector, India got success in developing an

indigenous domestic computer industry capable of producing hardware for its
huge market base and software for export. Such remarkable successes have been
attained at considerable cost to other sectors of the economy, to subsectors of the IT
industry, and to the long-term viability of the domestic IT industry.

India has promoted IT Use: Numerous projects have been started to promote IT use in
the private and public sectors and to mobilize a favourable bias towards IT to use.

It is observed that great efforts were also made to increase public awareness of IT.
Computers have been introduced in locations visible to the public. These include the
computerized Railway Reservation System, airline reservation systems, electricity
billing, and retirement benefits accounting.

Regardless of these considerable efforts to promote IT use, there has been visible lack
of incentives, such as tax breaks or accelerated depreciation rules, to encourage private
sector use. Most importantly, the high barriers to imports have acted as strong
disincentives to the use of IT.

In developing new technologies, India also leads in research and development and
technology transfer. India’s industrialization has depended on imported technology,
much of which was acquired through technology licensing and technical collaboration
agreements.

Research and development by Indian companies have been basically oriented toward
acclimatizing imported technologies to domestic requirements, and in some cases have
helped Indian companies to develop their own technology. Interestingly, joint ventures
spend more on R & D than Indian-owned enterprises, and among Indian enterprises,
those who license technology do more R & D than those who do not. This advocates
that technology transfer inspires instead of replaces, domestic R & D, a finding which

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denies prevailing development theories. India’s R & D expenditures are well in advance
as compared to other developing countries in the world.

It is generally considered that India is growing at a speedy rate and has good repute
among Asian countries. Currently, India has far easier access to COTS and MOTS
systems, but dependency on foreign suppliers has produced helplessness like the high
cost of maintenance and inventories, and the danger of deficit of spares later in the life
cycle due to the closure of overseas production lines.

Additionally, it is difficult to optimise a platform’s design with a high percentage of COTS

and MOTS sub-systems and systems, because “systems engineering” demands that
sub-systems and systems be specifically engineered and optimised for the platform.
Only then can the effectiveness of the platform be more than the sum of its parts.

Indigenization of military hardware is a mindful effort on the part of the defence

establishment to develop products which suit Indian needs, circumstances and
demands. It is well-established that no nation can become hopeful to attain a great
power status without being practically self-reliant in defence production.

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 DNA and RNA

DNA and RNA

• DNA is a deoxyribonucleic acid and is a hereditary material whereas RNA is ribonucleic acid
present in all living cells. The only difference between ribose and deoxyribose is that ribose
has one more -OH group than deoxyribose, which has -H attached to the second (2′) carbon
in the ring.
• Both DNA and RNA is important, if either one of these polymers fails or disappear then life
would cease to exist. Without these elements protein will not be able to generate which is
important for life to exist and to produce energy.
• DNA is a double-stranded molecule while RNA is a single-stranded molecule.
• DNA is stable under alkaline conditions while RNA is not stable.
• DNA and RNA perform different functions in humans. DNA is responsible for storing and
transferring genetic information while RNA directly codes for amino acids and as acts as a
messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make proteins.
• DNA and RNA base pairing is slightly different since DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine,
cytosine, and guanine; RNA uses adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine. Uracil differs from
thymine in that it lacks a methyl group on its ring.

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Comparison of DNA and RNA

S.No. DNA RNA

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid Ribonucleic acid

It occurs inside the nucleus of cell and some

It is found in cytoplasm of the cell but
2. cell organelles but it plants it is present in
very little is found inside the nucleus.
mitochondria and plant cell.

It is a double-stranded molecule consisting of It is single-strand helix having shorter

3.
a long chain of nucleotides. chains of nucleotides.

It is used to transfer genetic code from

It stores and transfers genetic information to nucleus to the ribosomes to make
4.
generate new cells and organisms. proteins and carries DNA blueprint’s
guidelines.

It has two nucleotide strands consisting of It is single stranded consisting of

5. phosphate group, five carbon sugar (stable phosphate group, five carbon sugar (less
deoxyribose 2) and four nitrogen bases. stable ribose) and four nitrogen base.

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 Nitrogen base pairs are Adenine links to Here nitrogen base pairs are Adenine
6. Thymine (A-T) and Cytosine links to Guanine links to Uracil (A-U) and Cytosine links to
(C-G) Guanine (C-G).

7. DNA is self replicating It is synthesised from DNA when needed.

The DNA helix geometry is in the form of B The RNA helix geometry is in the form of
8. and can be damaged by exposure of ultra- A. It is more resistant to damage by
violet rays. ultra-violet rays.

9. It is a long polymer chain. It is shorter polymer.

It produces secondary helix or pseudo

DNA produces regular helix i.e. it is a spirally
10. helix as its stranded may get folded at
twisted.
places.

It occurs in the form of chromosomes or It occurs in ribosomes or forms

11.
chromatin fibres. association with ribosomes.

12. Quantity of DNA is fixed for cell. The quantity of RNA for a cell is variable.

It is of two types: intra nuclear and extra It is of four types: m-RNA, t-RNA and r-
13.
nuclear. RNA.

Its life is short. Some RNA’s have very

14. Life of DNA is long. shorter life but some have longer but in
all its life is short.

15. After melting its renaturation is slow. Fast

Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids – DNA and RNA

• DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve of genetic
information.
• DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of different species of
organisms over millions of years.
• A DNA molecule is capable of self-duplication during cell division and identical DNA strands
are transferred to daughter cells.

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 • Another important function of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell. Actually, the
proteins are synthesized by various RNA molecules in the cell but the message for the
synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA.

DNA Fingerprinting

• It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints. These occur at the tips of the
fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these can be altered by
surgery.
• A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and information regarding this is
called DNA fingerprinting. It is the same for every cell and cannot be altered by any known
treatment.
• DNA fingerprinting is now used–
• in forensic laboratories for the identification of criminals.
• to determine the paternity of an individual.
• to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA’s of parents or
children.
• to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

Recombinant DNA

• In 1953, scientists discovered the structure of DNA, and in 1972, researchers developed
a method for cutting and splicing DNA. That method became known as recombinant DNA
or rDNA.
• Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of
genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material
from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the
genome.
• Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share
the same chemical structure. They differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that
identical overall structure.
• In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal
phenotypes(observable physical properties of an organism), That is, their appearance,
behavior, and metabolism are usually unchanged.

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The basic steps involved in Recombinant DNA Technology:

• Isolation of a DNA fragment containing a gene of interest that needs to be cloned (called as
insert).
• Generation of a recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecule by insertion of the DNA fragment into a
carrier DNA molecule called vector (e.g. plasmid) that can self-replicate within a host cell.
• Transfer of the rDNA into an E. coli host cell (a process called transformation).
• Selection of only those host cells carrying the rDNA and allowing them to multiply thereby
multiplying the rDNA molecules.
• The whole process thus can generate either a large amount of rDNA (gene cloning) or a
large amount of protein expressed by the insert.
• The first rDNA molecules to be generated using these procedures were established by the
combined efforts in 1973 by the molecular biologists’ Paul Berg, Herbert Boyer, Annie
Chang, and Stanley Cohen.
• The next step after a recombinant molecule has been generated is to introduce it into a
suitable host.
• There are many methods to introduce recombinant vectors and these are
dependent on several factors such as the vector type and host cell.
Some commonly used procedures are:

• Transformation
• Transfection
• Electroporation
• Microinjection: In the procedure of microinjection, foreign DNA is directly injected into
recipient cells using a fine microsyringe under a phase-contrast microscope to aid vision.

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 • Biolistics: A remarkable method that has been developed to introduce foreign DNA into
mainly plant cells is by using a gene or particle gun. Microscopic particles of gold or tungsten
are coated with the DNA of interest and bombarded onto cells with a device much like a
particle gun. Hence the term biolistics is used.
Applications of recombinant DNA technology

• Recombinant DNA is widely used in biotechnology, medicine, and research.

• Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map, and sequence genes, and to determine their
function.
Recombinant DNA is used to produce

• Human Insulin: Recombinant insulin is cheaper and easier when compared to insulin
obtained from animal sources.
• Human growth hormone: For patients with pituitary glands generating an insufficient
quantity of hormone for normal growth, this was a boon
• Blood clotting factor VIII: To help patients suffering from haemophilia.
• Herbicide and Insect-resistant crops: Commercial varieties like soya, sorghum, cotton have
been developed. Such varieties integrate a recombinant gene that causes the resistance to
herbicide glyph sate application
• Bacillus Thuringeinsis: is the name of the bacterium that naturally produces a protein with
insecticidal properties

DNA Profiling

• DNA profiling is the process of determining an individual’s DNA characteristics.

• Modern-day DNA profiling is also called STR analysis and relies on microsatellites rather
than the minisatellites used in DNA fingerprinting.
• Microsatellites, or short tandem repeats (STRs), are the shorter relatives of minisatellites
usually two to five base pairs long. Like minisatellites, they are repeated many times
throughout the human genome.

DNA Sequencing

• DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of
nucleotides in DNA.
• In this era of genomics wherein, whole genomes of species are being sequenced and
compared to get a vision into the fundamental nature of DNA, the blueprint of life, the ease
with which DNA is sequenced has played a major role.
• The first methods for sequencing DNA were developed in the middle 1970s by Fred Sanger,
and by Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam.

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 • Subsequently, Sanger developed a new method that forms the basis of most DNA
sequencing today.
• Sequencing DNA means determining the order of the four chemical building blocks – called
“bases” – that make up the DNA molecule.
• The sequence tells scientists the kind of genetic information that is carried in a particular
DNA segment.
Benefits of DNA Sequencing:

• Forensics: To identify a particular individual because every individual has a unique

sequence of DNA.
• Determine the Paternity of the child
• Medicine: Used to detect the genes which are associated with some heredity or acquired
diseases. As almost all organisms have some kind of genetic material we can understand the
causes of all human diseases.
• Agriculture: Specific genes of bacteria have been used to make crops resistant against
insects and pests. It is also useful in the production of livestock with improved quality of
meat and milk.

DNA Barcoding

• DNA barcoding is a method of species identification using a short section of DNA from a
specific gene or genes.
• DNA barcoding is a system for fast and accurate species identification that makes the
ecological systems more accessible by using short DNA sequences instead of whole-genome
and is used for eukaryotes.
• The short DNA sequence is generated from the standard region of the genome known as a
marker.
• Application
• Identification of plant leaves even in absence of fruit
• Identification of insect larvae
• Identification of products in commerce
• Criticism
• Lack of reliable information above the species level
• Gross oversimplification of the science of taxonomy.

Difference between Antigens and Antibodies

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In this article, You will read Difference between Antigens and Antibodies – for UPSC
IAS.

Antigens and Antibodies

Antigens and antibodies play vital but distinct roles in illness and disease. One tries to
wreak havoc on our health while the other fights to protect it.

Simply put, antigens can make you sick, and antibodies are how your body defends
itself against antigens.

An antibody is a glycoprotein which is produced in response to and counteracts a

particular antigen. On the other hand, an antigen is a foreign substance (usually
harmful) that induces an immune response, thereby stimulating the production of
antibodies.

Antigen
Antigens, or immunogens, are substances or toxins in your blood that trigger your
body to fight them.

Antigens are usually bacteria or viruses, but they can be other substances from
outside your body that threaten your health. This battle is called an immune response.

The presence of antigens rouses your body’s illness-fighting white blood cells,
called lymphocytes. This presence of antigens causes white blood cells to make cells
called antibodies to fight against the antigens.

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There are two main types of antigens, heteroantigens and autoantigens:

• Heteroantigens are substances that are foreign to your body and involve
substances made by or found within:
• viruses
• bacteria
• protozoa
• blood and red blood cells from other people
• snake venom
• allergens such as pollen
• certain proteins in foods
• Autoantigens, or self-antigens, are made by your body to fight your cells and
are usually a sign of an illness such as an autoimmune condition.

Antibody
Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins or Ig. They are Y-shaped
proteins made by your immune system’s B lymphocytes or B cells.

B cells attack and eliminate viruses and other toxins outside the cell. They do this
by making specific antibodies for a single type of antigen.

These tailored antibodies lock on to their specific antigens and tag them for attack.
Antibodies also block these antigens, keeping them away from your healthy cells.
Ultimately, antibodies kill these antigens, stopping infection.

The main types of antibodies (immunoglobulins) include:

• IgG. These are the most abundant types of antibodies in your plasma. They
detoxify harmful substances and provide long-term protection.
• IgM. These are the first antibodies made by B cells in response to antigens.
• IgA. These antibodies collect antigens and remove them from your body in
your mucus or other body fluids.
• IgE. These antibodies trigger allergies and protect against parasites. Small
amounts are in your skin, lungs, and mucosal membranes.
• IgD. These antibodies bind to B cells and signal them to release IgM
antibodies.
Each antibody guards against its target antigen and many types of antibodies are
found throughout your body. They play a vital role in your body’s defense against illness
and disease.

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Difference between Antigens and Antibodies
Antigen Antibodies

Also called Also called Immunogens Also called Immunoglobulins

Antigens are usually lipids. However,

Molecular
they can also be proteins, All antibodies are proteins
Type
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids

Protects against the effects of the

Antigens cause allergic reactions or
Effect antigen either by lysis or immobilization
even illnesses
of the particle

Specific Epitopes are regions of the antigen Paratopes are variable regions of an
Binding Site where interacts with the antibodies antibody that binds to an epitope.

Antibodies always originate within the

Origins Antigens have origins outside the body
body

Difference between mRNA Vaccine and Traditional

Vaccines

• Vaccines work by training the body to recognise and respond to the proteins
produced by disease-causing organisms, such as a virus or bacteria.
• Traditional vaccines are made up of small or inactivated doses of the whole
disease-causing organism, or the proteins that it produces, which are
introduced into the body to provoke the immune system into mounting a
response.
• mRNA vaccines tricks the body into producing some of the viral proteins
itself.
• They work by using mRNA, or messenger RNA, which is the molecule
that essentially puts DNA instructions into action. Inside a cell, mRNA is
used as a template to build a protein.
Functioning of mRNA Vaccines:

• To produce a mRNA vaccine, scientists produce a synthetic version of the mRNA

that a virus uses to build its infectious proteins.

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 • This mRNA is delivered into the human body, whose cells read it as instructions
to build that viral protein, and therefore create some of the virus’s molecules
themselves.
• These proteins are solitary, so they do not assemble to form a virus.
• The immune system then detects these viral proteins and starts to produce a
defensive response to them.
Advantages of Using mRNA based Vaccines:

• mRNA vaccines are considered safe as mRNA is non-infectious, non-integrating

in nature, and degraded by standard cellular mechanisms.
• They are highly efficacious because of their inherent capability of being
translatable into the protein structure inside the cell cytoplasm.
• Additionally, mRNA vaccines are fully synthetic and do not require a host for
growth, e.g., eggs or bacteria. Therefore, they can be quickly manufactured
inexpensively to ensure their “availability” and “accessibility” for mass vaccination
on a sustainable basis.

Difference between Virus and Bacteria

Virus and Bacteria

Bacteria are tiny microorganisms that are made up of a single cell. They’re very
diverse and can have a large variety of shapes and structural features.

Bacteria can live in almost every conceivable environment, including in or on the

human body.

Only a handful of bacteria cause infections in humans. These bacteria are referred to as
pathogenic bacteria.

Viruses are another type of tiny microorganism, although they’re even smaller
than bacteria. Like bacteria, they’re very diverse and have a variety of shapes and
features.

Viruses are parasitic. That means they require living cells or tissue in which to
grow.

Viruses can invade the cells of your body, using the components of your cells to grow
and multiply. Some viruses even kill host cells as part of their life cycle.

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Viruses

• Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not truly ‘living’, if
we understand living as those organisms that have a cell structure.
• The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterized by having
an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
• Viruses are obligate parasites. Once they infect a cell, they take over the
machinery of the host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.
• The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by Pasteur.
• In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be
either RNA or DNA.
• No virus contains both RNA & DNA.
• In general,
• viruses that infect plants have single-stranded RNA &
• viruses that infect animals have either single or double-stranded
RNA or double-stranded DNA
• bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) are usually double-
stranded DNA viruses.
• The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits
called capsomeres protects the nucleic acid.
• These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.

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Some examples of viral infections include:

• influenza
• common cold
• viral gastroenteritis
• chickenpox
• measles
• viral meningitis
• warts
• human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
• viral hepatitis
• Zika virus
• West Nile virus
• COVID-19 is another illness caused by a virus. This virus commonly causes:
• shortness of breath
• fever
• dry cough

Bacteria

• Bacteria are single-cell, living organisms that can survive without a host.
• They can live on surfaces, in soil, in water, & in the air.

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 • You can kill them by messing with their ability to do cellular respiration or their
ability to grow.
• Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections because antibiotics kill
bacteria.
• Hence Antibiotics are useless against viruses.
• There are some antiviral drugs that help protect you from a viral infection.
• Antivirals either make it harder for the virus to get into the cell or they
prevent the virus from reproducing once they are inside of your cells.
• Most bacteria reproduce by simply dividing into two.
• Bacteria can cause diseases such as pneumonia & food poisoning.
• However, not all bacteria are bad. In fact, some friendly types actually help
protect us from the disease.
Some examples of bacterial infections include:

• strep throat
• urinary tract infection (UTI)
• bacterial food poisoning
• gonorrhea
• tuberculosis
• bacterial meningitis
• cellulitis
• Lyme disease
• tetanus

Difference between Virus and Bacteria

Virus Bacteria

They are very Small They are larger in size as compared to virus

Non-Cellular Single-Celled

Cell wall is absent but a capsid is present in Cell wall of bacteria is made up of
them. lipopolysaccharide or peptidoglycan.

Have no metabolism of their own Have metabolism of their own

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Take no food by any method Take food by absorption

Grow in size & divide to produce more bacteria

Do not grow & do not divide
(by Cell-Division)

Command the host cell to produce a virus i.e. They can reproduce by their own i.e. They can
They cannot survive without a host. survive without a host.

Can be crystallised Cannot be crystallised

Bacterias are both pathogenic and parasitic in

They are only parasitic in nature.
nature.

Some are harmless, some useful & some are

All produce diseases in man, animals & plants
disease-causing

Contains various cells subunits or organelles

Contains only genetic material & protective
such as cytoplasm & cell wall which all perform
coating
specific functions

They have simpler DNA (if their genetic

They have more complex DNA
material is DNA)

Multiply faster than bacteria Multiply slower than Viruses

Viruses are present in both living and nonliving

Bacteria are totally living in nature
form

Vaccines prevent the spread & antiviral

medicines help to slow reproduction but They can be treated with Antibiotics
cannot stop it completely

Example– Strep Throat, Tuberculosis,

Example– Common Cold, Flu & Sore Throat
Whooping Cough

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Viroids

• Viroids are infectious agents that are smaller than viruses.

• A viroid is a free RNA, it lacks the protein coat that is found in viruses, hence
the name viroid.
• The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.
• Viroids cause potato spindle tuber disease.

Virus Viroid

It is a nucleoprotein particle. It is an RNA Particle.

Nucleic Acid can be DNA or RNA. Viroid is formed of only RNA.

A protein covering of coat is present. A protein coat is absent.

Virus has a larger size. Viroid has a smaller size.

Virus infects all types of organisms. Viroid infects only plants.

Difference Between DNA & RNA Viruses

• A virus can self-replicate inside a host cell.

• The infected cells may produce thousands of new copies of the original virus at
an extraordinary rate.
• The genetic material of a virus can be either DNA or RNA.

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 • The viruses that contain DNA as their genetic material are called the DNA
viruses.
• RNA viruses, on the other hand, contain RNA as their genetic material.
• DNA viruses are mostly double-stranded while RNA viruses are single-
stranded.
• RNA mutation rate is higher than the DNA mutation rate.
• DNA replication takes place in the nucleus while RNA replication takes
place in the cytoplasm.
• DNA viruses are stable while RNA viruses are unstable.
• Antigens: A substance which the body recognizes as alien & which induces
an immune response.
• Antibodies: A blood protein produced by the body in response to &
counteracting an antigen.

Difference between DNA vs RNA

DNA RNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid

Double-Stranded Single Stranded

Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose Sugar

Can’t Self-ReplicateIt is synthesized from

Self Replicate
DNA when required

Occurs inside the nucleus & of cell & some cell It is found in the cytoplasm of the
organelles (mitochondria) but in plants, it is cell but very little is found inside the
present in mitochondria & plant cell nucleus.

DNA is the genetic material in all living

RNA is the genetic material in some viruses
organisms

Long Polymer Chain Shorter Polymer Chain

Life of DNA is longer Its life is short

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 3 types of RNA are present in an organism:
DNA occurs only in one form in any organism
– mRNA, rRNA, tRNA

RNA is functional is the transmission of the

DNA is functional in the transmission of genetic
genetic code that is necessary for the
informationIt forms as a media for long-term
protein creation from the nucleus to the
storage
ribosome

Bases present are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, & Bases present are Adenine, Guanine,
Thymine Cytosine & Uracil

Difference between Gene & Genome

Gene Genome

A gene is a part of DNA Molecule. The genome is total DNA in a cell.

The hereditary element of genetic

All set of nuclear DNAs.
information.

Encodes both proteins & regulatory elements for

Encodes protein synthesis.
protein synthesis.

Length of the genome of a higher organism is

Length is about a few hundreds of bases.
about billion base pairs.

A higher organism has about thousands of

Each organism has only one genome.
genes.

Variations of the gene named alleles can be Horizontal gene transfer & duplication cause large
naturally selected. variations in the genome.

Which infections are treated with antibiotics?

Antibiotics are medications used to treat bacterial infections.

There are many types of antibiotics, but they all work to keep bacteria from effectively
growing and dividing. They’re not effective against viral infections.

Despite the fact that you should only take antibiotics for a bacterial infection, antibiotics
are often requested for viral infections. This is dangerous because over-prescribing
antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance.

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Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria adapt to be able to resist certain antibiotics. It
can make many bacterial infections more difficult to treat.

If you’re prescribed antibiotics for a bacterial infection, take your entire course of
antibiotics — even if you begin to feel better after a couple of days. Skipping doses can
prevent killing all of the pathogenic bacteria.

Why antibiotics do not work on viruses?

Antibiotic target cellular structures and proteins present in the bacteria.

E.g. Antibiotics target bacterial cell walls, cellular enzymes, metabolic pathways,
ribosomes, etc. Since viruses do not contain cellular structure, antibiotics do not affect
them.

Vaccines & Types of Vaccines

• A vaccine is a biological preparation that offers active acquired immunity to

a specific disease. Generally, a vaccine comprises of an agent that has a
resemblance to the disease-causing microbe.
• Acquired immunity is immunity one develops over a lifetime. It can come
from a vaccine, exposure to an infection or disease, or another person’s
antibodies (infection-fighting immune cells).
• When pathogens (germs) are introduced into the body from a vaccine or a
disease, the body’s immune system learns to target those germs in the
future by making new antibodies.
• The agent induces the body’s immune system to recognize the agent as a
threat and destroy it. The immune system further memorizes to destroy any of
the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future.

How do vaccines work?

• When viruses or bacteria (germs) invade our body, they attack and
multiply. This invasion is called an infection, and the infection is what causes
illness.
• The first time the body encounters a germ, it can take several days for the
immune system to make and use all the tools it needs to fight the infection.
• After the infection has been eradicated, the immune system keeps a few
“memory cells” that remember what it learned about how to protect against that
disease.

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 • If the body encounters the same virus or bacteria again, it will produce
antibodies to attack the germ more quickly and efficiently.

Types of vaccines
Vaccines are made up of viruses or bacteria that are altered or weakened so that they
only cause an imitation of the disease and not the disease.

There are a variety of different ways to alter or weaken the viruses or bacteria so that
vaccination develops immunity instead of serious disease.

Following are the different types of vaccines based on how they are made:

1. Inactivated Vaccine: Vaccines of this type are created by inactivating a

pathogen, typically using heat or chemicals such as formaldehyde or formalin.
This destroys the pathogen’s ability to replicate, but keeps it “intact” so that the
immune system can still recognize it.
2. Attenuated Vaccine: Attenuated vaccines can be made in several different
ways. Some of the most common methods involve passing the disease-causing
virus through a series of cell cultures or animal embryos (typically chick
embryos). When the resulting vaccine virus is given to a human, it will be unable
to replicate enough to cause illness, but will still provoke an immune response
that can protect against future infection.
3. Toxoid Vaccine: Some bacterial diseases are not directly caused by a bacterium
itself, but by a toxin produced by the bacterium. Immunizations for this type of
pathogen can be made by inactivating the toxin that causes disease symptoms.
As with organisms or viruses used in killed or inactivated vaccines, this can be
done via treatment with a chemical such as formalin, or by using heat or other
methods.
4. Subunit Vaccine: Subunit vaccines use only part of a target pathogen to
provoke a response from the immune system. This may be done by isolating a
specific protein from a pathogen and presenting it as an antigen on its own.
5. Conjugate Vaccine: Conjugate vaccines are somewhat similar to recombinant
vaccines: they’re made using a combination of two different components.
Conjugate vaccines, however, are made using pieces from the coats of bacteria.
These coats are chemically linked to a carrier protein, and the combination is
used as a vaccine
6. Valence Vaccine: Vaccines may be monovalent. A monovalent vaccine is
designed to immunize against a single antigen or single microorganism.A
multivalent or polyvalent vaccine is designed to immunize against two or more
strains of the same microorganism, or against two or more microorganisms.
7. Heterotypic Vaccine: Heterologous vaccines also known as “Jennerian
vaccines”, are vaccines that are pathogens of other animals that either do not
cause disease or cause mild disease in the organism being treated.

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 8. mRNA Vaccine: An mRNA vaccine (or RNA vaccine) is a novel type of vaccine
which is composed of the nucleic acid RNA, packaged within a vector such as
lipid nanoparticles.

mRNA Vaccine

• The mRNA (messenger RNA) is one such vaccine that injects pieces of
mRNA into human cells in order to get them the produce pathogen antigens.
• The mRNA vaccines function differently from traditional vaccines.
Traditional vaccines stimulate an antibody response by injecting a human
with antigens. mRNA vaccines inject a fragment of the RNA sequence of a
virus directly into the cells, which then stimulate an adaptive immune response
mRNA fragment is a specific piece of the virus that carries instructions to build
the antigen of the virus. An advantage of RNA vaccines is that they stimulate
cellular immunity.
• Unlike DNA vaccines, mRNA vaccines are more fragile as the molecules
degrade within minutes when exposed to the outside environment, hence
they need to be stored at extremely low temperatures.
• Advantages of Using mRNA-Based Vaccines
• mRNA vaccines are considered safe as mRNA is non-infectious, non-
integrating in nature, and degraded by standard cellular
mechanisms.
• They are highly efficacious because of their inherent capability of
being translatable into the protein structure inside the cell
cytoplasm.
• Additionally, mRNA vaccines are fully synthetic and do not require a
host for growth, e.g., eggs or bacteria. Therefore, they can be quickly
manufactured inexpensively to ensure their “availability” and “accessibility”
for mass vaccination on a sustainable basis.

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How are mRNA Vaccines Different From Traditional Vaccines?

• Vaccines work by training the body to recognise and respond to the proteins
produced by disease-causing organisms, such as a virus or bacteria.
• Traditional vaccines are made up of small or inactivated doses of the whole
disease-causing organism, or the proteins that it produces, which are introduced
into the body to provoke the immune system into mounting a response.
• mRNA vaccines tricks the body into producing some of the viral proteins itself.
• They work by using mRNA, or messenger RNA, which is the molecule that
essentially puts DNA instructions into action. Inside a cell, mRNA is used
as a template to build a protein.

Concerns regarding vaccines

• Vaccines are a special cause of concern, the reason being that some vaccines
can cause side effects, as is the case with all medications. The side effects
may range from soreness to swelling but are all mild in comparison to the effects
of the disease they protect against.
• But despite the concerns, vaccines are important as they are the best
weapons available in the fight against diseases. As disease keeps evolving
over time, the vaccines themselves need to keep up.

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Conclusion

• The overwhelming majority of scientists agree that vaccination is a very safe

and effective method for preventing infectious diseases and curing those
that already exist.
• The immune system “remembers” vaccination agents because it recognises them
as alien, eliminates them, and then “forgets” about them.
• When the virulent form of an agent is encountered, the body recognises the
protein coat that is present on the virus, and as a result, it is ready to respond,
first by neutralising the target agent before it can enter cells, and then by
recognising and destroying infected cells before that agent can multiply to vast
numbers.
• When the virulent form of an agent is encountered, the body recognises the
protein coat that is present on the virus, and as a result, it is prepared to respond.

Biotechnology and its applications

Biotechnology
• Biotechnology is the field that exploits living organisms to make technological
advances in various fields for the sustainable development of mankind.
• The European federation of biotechnology defines it as “The integration of
natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular
analogues for products and services”.
• Biotechnology is the use of an organism, or a component of an organism or
other biological system, to make a product or process for a specific use.
• It can include both cutting-edge laboratory techniques and traditional
agricultural and culinary techniques that have been practiced for hundreds of
years.
• Brewing and baking bread are examples of processes that fall within the
concept of biotechnology (use of yeast (= living organism) to produce the
desired product).
• Such traditional processes usually utilize the living organisms in their
natural form (or further developed by breeding), while the more modern
form of biotechnology will generally involve a more advanced modification
of the biological system or organism.
• With the development of genetic engineering in the 1970s, research in
biotechnology (and other related areas such as medicine, biology etc.) developed

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 rapidly because of the new possibility to make changes in the organisms’ genetic
material (DNA).
• Biotechnology deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals and
biologicals using genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants and animals.

Principles of Biotechnology

1. Genetic Engineering: techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material to

introduce into host organism and thus change the phenotype of organism
• (NOTE: The genotype is a set of genes in DNA responsible for unique
traits or characteristics while the phenotype is the physical appearance
or characteristic of an organism.)
2. BIOPROCESS Engineering: Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination-
free) ambience in chemical engineering processes to enable growth of only the
desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of
biotechnological products like antibiotics, vaccines, enzymes, etc.

Types of Biotechnology

• Red biotechnology: This is the health branch and responsible, according to the
Biotechnology Innovation Organization (BIO), for the development of more than
250 vaccines and medications such as antibiotics, regenerative therapies and the
production of artificial organs.
• Green biotechnology: It is used by more than 13 million farmers worldwide to
fight pests and nourish crops and strengthen them against microorganisms and
extreme weather events, such as droughts and frosts.
• White biotechnology: The industrial branch works to improve manufacturing
processes, the development of biofuels and other technologies to make industry
more efficient and sustainable.
• Yellow biotechnology: This branch is focused on food production and, for
example, it carries out research to reduce the levels of saturated fats in cooking
oils.
• Blue biotechnology: This exploits marine resources to obtain aquaculture,
cosmetics and health care products. In addition, it is the branch most widely used
to obtain biofuels from certain microalgae.
• Grey biotechnology: Its purpose is the conservation and restoration of
contaminated natural ecosystems through, as mentioned above, bioremediation
processes.
• Gold biotechnology: Also known as bioinformatics, it is responsible for
obtaining, storing, analysing and separating biological information, especially that
related to DNA and amino acid sequences.

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Applications of Biotechnology

Biotechnology has numerous applications, particularly in medicine and agriculture. The

applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified
crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment, and
energy production.

Medicine

• Biotechnology techniques are used in medicine for diagnosis and treating

different diseases. It gives opportunities for the people to protect themselves
from dangerous diseases.
• The field of Biotechnology, genetic engineering has introduced techniques
like gene therapy, recombinant DNA technology and polymerase chain
reaction which use genes and DNA molecules to diagnose diseases and
insert new and healthy genes in the body which replace the damaged cells
• Genetic modification in mosquitoes can solve the problems of epidemic
diseases such as dengue and malaria.
• Artificial insemination is the artificial introduction of semen into the reproductive
tract of a female animal. It is used extensively in breeding animals, such as
sheep and cattle
• Medical researchers believe that stem cell therapy has the potential to
dramatically change the treatment of human disease. A number of adult stem cell
therapies already exist, particularly bone marrow transplants that are used to
treat leukaemia.
• Stem cell transplantation was first used in the treatment of blood disorders and it
was a breakthrough. Conventionally known as bone marrow transplantation, the
stem cells responsible for production of the blood cells reside in the bone marrow

Agriculture

• Biotechnology has played a major role in agriculture by altering genes, studying

and cloning various crops in order to provide better quality products of foods
ultimately improving our lives.
• Hybrid Seeds, Artificial Seeds, Photosynthesis improver, Stress resistant crops
and plants, Biofertilizers, Bio-pesticides are some of the potential applications.
• Potential advantages that biotechnology can confer across a wide range of
agricultural applications are in areas such as livestock management, storage of
agricultural products and sustaining current crop yields, while reducing the use of
fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides.
• Biotechnology offers a very promising alternative to synthetic foods and an
improvement on conventional plant-breeding technologies. Combined with other

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 advanced agricultural technologies, it offers an exciting and environmentally
responsible way to meet consumer demand for sustainable agriculture.

Animal Husbandry

• The application of biotechnology in this area, in increasing production efficiency

through manipulation and control of physiological systems and improving the
health and well-being of animals, assumes great significance.
• Biotechnology is being harnessed in various aspects of the livestock industry to
hasten breed development for improved animal health and welfare,
enhanced reproduction, and improved nutritional quality and safety of
animal-derived foods.
• Various biotechnology methods are used in improving the breeding stock of
animals. These include Artificial insemination (AI), Embryo transfer (ET), In-
vitro fertilization (IVF), Somatic cell nuclear transfer, and the emerging
technology on somatic cell nuclear transfer.
• Artificial insemination is the deliberate introduction of sperm into a female’s cervix
or uterine cavity for the purpose of achieving a pregnancy through in vivo
fertilization by means other than sexual intercourse or in vitro fertilisation.
• Embryo transplantation, used with cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep, aims to
increase the number of offspring from a quality female.
• Cloning embryos to artificially produce genetic duplicates of an animal has also
become possible.
• Direct manipulation and alteration of an animal’s genetic material— genetic
engineering—has the potential to produce even more drastic changes in animal
breeding. It is believed that genetically altered pigs may one day be able to
provide compatible organs for emergency transplantation (xenotransplantation)
into humans.

Food Processing

• Modern Biotechnology is helpful in enhancing taste, yield, shell life and

nutritive values. This is also useful in food processing (fermentation and
enzyme involving processes). So Biotechnology is beneficial in erasing hunger,
malnutrition and diseases from developing countries and third word.
• Modern biotechnology products are commercially reasonable hence it can
improve agriculture as well as food industry that will result in raise in income of
poor farmers.
• Biotechnology has a major application in the food sector.
• Bread, cheese, wine, beer, yogurt, and vinegar are all made by culturing
microorganisms and are really the oldest products of biotechnology.

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 • It helps in improving the edibility, texture, and storage of the food; in
preventing the attack of the food, mainly dairy, by the virus like
bacteriophage.
• Biotechnologists are also developing tests that will allow the detection of
food-contaminating microorganisms and the toxins they produce,
which may be present only in minute quantities.
• Biotechnology also has applications in the detection of
mutagens (substances that cause genetic mutations) in individual food
products.
• GM crops which have been approved for use in food items in select
countries include corn, maize, soya, tomato, potato and papaya.
• Latest innovations in biotechnology that fortify major staples with micro
nutrients like vitamin A, zinc and iron can be game changers for
hunger problem in India.

Environment

• Biotechnology can be used to tackle environmental issues like deforestation

and air pollution
• Biotechnology can help in finding out the level of Particulate Matter 2.5 in the
air
• Biotechnology is already providing a clean and renewable alternative to
traditional fossil fuels, the burning of which contributes to global warming.
• The benefit of environmental biotechnology helps us to avoid the use of
hazardous pollutants and wastes that affect the natural resources and the
environment.
• Biosensors, which combine a biological component (such as an enzyme) with
various electronic components to trigger a circuit when a particular type of
chemical is detected. Biosensors are capable of detecting extremely low levels of
proteins, hormones, pollutants, gases, and other molecules.
• Biomarkers – It is an application of biotechnology in the
environment that responds to the chemicals to Measure the effect of
pollution caused.
• Biofuels – Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from
biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the
formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. Since biomass can be used as a fuel
directly, some people use the words biomass and biofuel interchangeably.
• Bioremediation – is a process that uses mainly microorganisms, plants, or
microbial or plant enzymes to detoxify contaminants in the soil and other
environments.

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LOTUS-HR Project

• Local Treatment of Urban Sewage streams for Healthy Reuse (LOTUS-

HR) project was initiated in July 2017 and aims to demonstrate a novel
holistic (waste) water management approach that will produce clean
water which can be reused for various purposes.
• The innovative pilot-scale modular plant upon commissioning will treat 10,000 L
of sewage water per day and will showcase a self-sustaining model for the end-
user.
• This pilot-scale facility will employ multiple technologies so that the data
generated at the pilot scale becomes a toolbox of treatment technologies for
replication at other sites in Delhi as well as other parts of India where similar
drains exist. The rationale is that the mixing and matching of technologies from
this toolbox will depend on the quantity (flow rate) and quality (pollutant load) of
drain water, land availability, site accessibility as well as topography.
• The LOTUS-HR project is jointly supported by the Department of
Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India,
and Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research /STW, Government of
Netherlands.
Objectives:

1. First objective is to produce ‘fit for purpose’ water qualities to offset the
societal cost.
• The program distinguishes between three types of water usage;
households, industry, and urban agriculture.
• The required treatment and reclamation steps will be determined by the
water quality needed for safe and healthy reuse for each usage.
2. The second objective is to reach a successful implementation strategy.
• To be successful it is crucial that the local community is involved.
Therefore special emphasis is placed on social acceptability in order to
develop a framework that allows for the successful implementation of
water reuse strategies.
• By ensuring that all the water-related stakeholders are on heard, a broadly
carried and thus socially accepted water reuse implementation strategy
can be developed.

Significance:

• LOTUS-HR will demonstrate a novel holistic (waste-) water management

approach for the recovery of water, energy, and nutrients from urban
wastewater that is applicable for megacities all over the world.
• In the Indian context, the project aims to demonstrate that by combining
existing cost-effective technologies and targeting potential pollutants at the

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source, the sacred role of the river in Indian society can be preserved despite the
anticipated rapid urbanization and associated water stress.

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 Genetic Engineering

• Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification) is a process that uses

laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism.
This may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of
DNA, or adding a new segment of DNA.
• Gene Editing is a type of genetic engineering in which DNA is inserted,
deleted, modified or replaced in the genome of a living organism. Unlike early
genetic engineering techniques that randomly insert genetic material into a host
genome, genome editing targets the insertions to site-specific locations.
• CRISPR is widely considered the most precise, most cost-effective, and quickest
way to edit genes.
• The techniques of genetic engineering which include creation of recombinant
DNA, use of gene cloning and gene transfer, overcome this limitation and
allows us to isolate and introduce only one or a set of desirable genes without
introducing undesirable genes into the target organism.
• There are three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism —
• identification of DNA with desirable genes;
• introduction of the identified DNA into the host;
• maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its
progeny.
Techniques of Genetic Engineering

1. DNA/RNA extraction: The DNA/RNA is isolated and extraction from cells, this
can be done by breaking open the cells using enzymes to destroy
macromolecules that are not needed.
2. PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): The techniques that amplify a single
segment of DNA into a thousand copies within a short period. Desired DNA
amplified through recurrent replication process.
3. Enzymes: Restriction Endonucleases, DNA Ligase, DNA Polymerase.
4. Gel Electrophoresis: Gel electrophoresis is the technique that separates
molecules according to their size using charge in the electric field.
5. Hybridization, Southern and Northern Blotting
6. Molecular Cloning
7. Three T’s: Transduction, Transfection, Transformation

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Benefits of genetic engineering

• Genetic modification is a faster and more efficient way of getting the same results
as selective breeding.
• Improve crop yields or crop quality, which is important in developing countries.
This may help reduce hunger around the world.
• Introduce herbicide resistance, which results in less herbicides being used, as
weeds are quickly and selectively killed.
• Insect and pest resistance can be developed and inserted into the plants. The
plant produces toxins, which would discourage insects from eating the crop.
• Sterile insects could be created such as a mosquito. They would breed, which
would lead to infertile offspring. This may help with spread of diseases, such as
malaria, dengue fever and the Zika virus.

Risks of genetic engineering

• Transfer of the selected gene into other species. What benefits one plant may
harm another.
• Some people believe it is not ethical to interfere with nature in this way. Also, GM
crop seeds are often more expensive and so people in developing countries
cannot afford them.
• GM crops could be harmful, for example toxins from the crops have been
detected in some people’s blood.
• GM crops could cause allergic reactions in people.

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 • Pollen produced by the plants could be toxic and harm insects that transfer it
between plants.

Difference between Gene therapy and Gene editing

• All concepts of Gene therapy, Gene editing, and CRISPR CAS9 are
interlinked.
• We use Gene editing for multiple reasons like designer babies, treatment of
genetic disorders, for invention of medicines, etc, if we are editing Gene for
health-related then its called Gene therapy. Besides, there is also a difference
of degree, in Gene therapy we don’t replace the Gene.
• In gene editing, a mutated gene is revised, removed, or replaced at the DNA
level.
• In gene therapy, the effect of a mutation is offset by inserting a “healthy”
version of the gene, and the disease-related genes remain in the genome.
• Both approaches may provide a durable benefit to patients, and both gene
therapy and gene editing, alone or in combination, may lend themselves to the
development of transformative genomic medicines.
• Gene therapy is a technique that modifies a person’s genes to treat or cure a
disease. Gene therapies can work by several mechanisms:
• Replacing a disease-causing gene with a healthy copy of the gene
• Inactivating a disease-causing gene that is not functioning properly
• Introducing a new or modified gene into the body to help treat a disease
• Gene therapy products are being studied to treat diseases including cancer,
genetic diseases, and infectious diseases.
• Types
• Somatic Gene Therapy: Effects will not be transferred to next
generation
• Germline Gene Therapy: Effects transferred to next generation

Mitochondrial Gene Therapy (MGT)

• Mitochondria are tiny rod-like structures in cells that act as powerhouses,

generating the energy that allows our bodies to function. Unusually, they have
their own DNA, distinct from the genetic material within the cell nucleus.
• Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) makes up about 0.1% of a cell’s total DNA and
does not affect individual characteristics such as appearance and
personality.
• MGT techniques essentially swap a woman’s defective mitochondrial DNA
with that of a donor. The resulting embryo’s DNA will mostly come from the

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 two parents who supplied the egg and sperm, but a tiny proportion – a
fraction of a percentage – will come from the donor.
• All cells have mitochondria, which are like power packs for the cells and create
the energy that keeps cells alive. While a child’s DNA is a mixture from both the
mother and father, mitochondria are separate “packages of genetics” that come
solely from the mother.
• Some people have a mitochondrial disease — a problem with the genetics in
their mitochondria — which can lead to severe, life-threatening conditions,
although this is rare. One treatment for a woman who might have one of
these diseases is to replace the mitochondria in her eggs via IVF. This can
be done via a process like the one used in Greece where the DNA is taken out of
the woman’s egg and put into a donor woman’s egg once the DNA has been
stripped from it, which is then fertilized with sperm to create an embryo.

Why is it so controversial?

• Some people don’t like the idea of a baby having three biological parents, and
argue that mitochondrial DNA goes some way to shaping important
characteristics, such as personality. But the scientific consensus is that swapping
mitochondria is similar to changing a battery – it’s unlikely to have much, if any,
influence over a person’s behaviour.
• Others have argued that the technique is unnecessary. After all, it won’t help
those who have already been born with mitochondrial diseases. Parents often
don’t find out they are carriers of these diseases until they give birth to sick
children. And those who do know they could pass on a disease have other
options, such as using a donor egg. The technique is specifically for people who
carry genes for the disease, but want to have a child genetically related to them.
• Another concern is that, by creating a new mix of genetic material, embryologists
are creating lasting genetic changes that will be passed down through
generations, before we have a chance to find out if they are dangerous. Some

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 argue that this starts us on a slippery slope of germ-line editing – one that could
eventually lead to “designer babies”.

Mitochondrial Diseases

• Mitochondrial diseases are a group of disorders caused by dysfunctional

mitochondria. Mitochondria are found in every cell of the human body
except red blood cells.
• Mitochondrial disorders may be caused by mutations (acquired or inherited), in
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), or in nuclear genes that code for mitochondrial
components.
• They may also be the result of acquired mitochondrial dysfunction due to adverse
effects of drugs, infections, or other environmental causes.

CRISPR-Cas9
CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) – Cas9
(CRISPR-associated protein 9) is a unique technology that enables geneticists and
medical researchers to edit parts of the genome by removing, adding, or altering
sections of the DNA.

It is currently the simplest, most versatile, and precise method of genetic

manipulation and is therefore causing a buzz in the science world.

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How does it work?

• The CRISPR-Cas9 system consists of two key molecules that introduce a

change into the DNA. These are:
• an enzyme called Cas9. This acts as a pair of ‘molecular scissors’ that
can cut the two strands of DNA at a specific location in the genome so that
bits of DNA can then be added or removed.
• a piece of RNA called guide RNA (gRNA). This consists of a small
piece of pre-designed RNA sequence (about 20 bases long) located
within a longer RNA scaffold. The scaffold part binds to DNA and the pre-
designed sequence ‘guides’ Cas9 to the right part of the genome. This
makes sure that the Cas9 enzyme cuts at the right point in the genome.
• The guide RNA is designed to find and bind to a specific sequence in the
DNA. The guide RNA has RNA bases that are complementary to those of the
target DNA sequence in the genome. This means that, at least in theory, the

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 guide RNA will only bind to the target sequence and no other regions of the
genome.
• The Cas9 follows the guide RNA to the same location in the DNA sequence
and makes a cut across both strands of the DNA.
• At this stage, the cell recognizes that the DNA is damaged and tries to repair it.
• Scientists can use DNA repair machinery to introduce changes to one or more
genes in the genome of a cell of interest.

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Base Editing

• Bases are the language of life. The four types of base – adenine (A), cytosine
(C), guanine (G) and thymine (T) – are the building blocks of our genetic
code.
• Just as letters in the alphabet spell out words that carry meaning, the billions of
bases in our Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) spell out the instruction manual for our
body.
• A mis-arrangement in the sequence of bases may cause cancer.
• Base editing allows scientists to zoom to a precise part of the genetic code
and then alter the molecular structure of just one base, converting it into
another and changing the genetic instructions.
• The large team of doctors and scientists used this tool to engineer a new type
of T-cell that was capable of hunting down and killing cancerous T-cells.
• Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
(CRISPR) technology is one of the most popular approaches that allows the
genes to be altered, thereby, fixing the errors.
• This method has been further improvised to be able to directly change
certain bases such as a C can be changed into a G and T into an A.

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Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy

• It is a way to get immune cells called T cells (a type of white blood cell) to
fight cancer by editing them in the lab so they can find and destroy cancer
cells.
• T cells are taken from the patient’s blood and are changed in the lab by
adding a gene for a man-made receptor (called CAR).
• This helps them better identify specific cancer cell antigens. The CAR T
cells are then given back to the patient.
• It is also sometimes talked about as a type of cell-based gene editing
because it involves altering the genes inside T cells to help them attack
cancer.
• In order to promote and support the development of CAR-T cell technology,
Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC) and the
Department of Biotechnology (DBT) have taken initiatives in the last 2
years.
• Development of CAR-T cell technology for diseases including acute
lymphocytic leukemia, multiple myeloma, glioblastoma, hepatocellular
carcinoma, and type-2 diabetes is supported through DBT.
• Though this technology has a remarkable therapeutic potential for cancer
patients, at present this technology is not available in India.

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 • Each patient’s CAR-T cell therapy costs 3-4 crore (INR). The challenge,
therefore, is to develop this technology in a cost-effective manner and
make it available to the patients.
• The manufacturing complexity is a major reason for the therapy cost.

Orphan Drug
A biological product or medicine that is intended to treat diseases so rare that
sponsors are reluctant to develop them under usual marketing conditions.

• In 1983, the US government passed the Orphan Drugs Act to stimulate research
in the treatment of diseases that have been largely ignored by the
pharmaceutical industry. Similar laws have been enacted in Japan, Australia,
and the European Union. All these laws offer incentives such as shorter clinical
trials, extended exclusivity, tax breaks, and high rates of regulatory success.
They have made it commercially attractive for pharmaceutical companies to
invest in the research and development (R&D) required to find a cure for these
diseases. India does not have a nationwide Orphan Drug policy.
• In 2016 Karnataka became the first state to release a Rare Diseases and
Orphan Drugs Policy. It recommended the implementation of preventive and
carrier testing as a means of reducing morbidity and mortality. Given that over

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 80% of rare diseases have a genetic basis, it suggested the use of genetic
testing to accelerate the identification of the critical genes involved in rare
diseases.
• The court made many suggestions to the government. It pointed to the corporate
social responsibility (CSR) provisions under the Companies Act, 2013, and
confirmed that the act of sponsoring the treatment of rare diseases would
qualify as a CSR activity.

Bioprospecting

• It is the process of discovery and commercialization of new products based on

biological resources. Despite indigenous knowledge being intuitively helpful,
bioprospecting has only recently begun to incorporate such knowledge in
focusing screening efforts for bioactive compounds.
• Biopiracy is the term used to refer to the use of bio-resources by multinational
companies and other organizations without proper authorization from the
countries and people concerned without compensatory payment.
• Biomining is a technique of extracting metals from ores and other solid materials
typically using prokaryotes or fungi. These organisms secrete different organic
compounds that chelate metals from the environment and bring it back to the cell
where they are typically used to coordinate electrons.
• The people of India in a variety of ways have used neem, since time
immemorial. Indians have shared the knowledge of the properties of the
neem with the entire world. Pirating this knowledge, the USDA and an
American MNC W.R. Grace in the early 90s sought a patent (No. 0426257
B) from the European Patent Office (EPO) on the “method for controlling
on plants by the aid of hydrophobic extracted neem oil.” The patenting of
the fungicidal properties of Neem was an example of biopiracy.

Biomaterials
A biomaterial is a substance that has been engineered to interact with biological
systems for a medical purpose, either a therapeutic (treat, augment, repair, or replace
a tissue function of the body) or a diagnostic one.

Experts say a number of tissues can potentially be retrieved and stored for use.
The Transplantation of Human Organs (Amendment) Act, 2011, includes the
component of tissue donation and registration of tissue banks as well.

Biomaterials that can be potentially retrieved and stored –

• Skin: It is used as a biological dressing, in cases of major burns. It helps prevent

infections and does not need to be changed every day – it can be kept for a
couple of weeks, giving the patient time to recover.
• Bones: Bones from limbs can be stored and used to replace parts that are
damaged or diseased. Bone grafts from banks act as scaffolds for support. They

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 could be used in cases of trauma where there is bone loss, in sports injuries, and
in cancer cases where parts of the bone and joint cartilage die. The upper end of
the shin bone, the lower end of the thigh bone, and the head of the thigh bone
can be retrieved for use.
• Ligaments and tendons: These can be used in cases of sports injuries involving
multiple ligaments. In some cases, it is difficult to use the patient’s own. The
Achilles tendon (ankle), the Peroneal tendon (leg to ankle), the Patellar tendon
(front of the knee), and the Meniscus (a shock absorber between the thigh bone
and leg bone) can be procured for storage.
• Bone products: Bone powder is made by crushing bones, generally those that
would otherwise be disposed of – such as those parts replaced during hip
replacement surgeries. These are used to treat various kinds of defects – in
dentistry, skeletal and joint reconstruction procedures.
• Amniotic membrane: This is the wall of the amniotic sac. When a baby is
delivered, the sac ruptures. The sac can be used as a biological dressing for
burns, bedsores, diabetic ulcers, and skin reactions to radiation.
• Heart valves: Heart valves can be retrieved and stored to be used in valve
replacement procedures. The advantage with such valves is that the patient does
not need blood thinners. They are also cheaper than artificial valves. However,
they last about 15 years, and another procedure may be subsequently required.
Even in cases where the heart can’t be used, the valve can be retrieved for
storage. Usually, the aortic valve is procured.
• Corneas: Corneal transplants are used in cases when the cornea becomes
opaque – due to injuries, infections, birth defects, or rarely after surgeries.

Escherichia Coli

• Escherichia coli, also known as E. coli, is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic,

rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly
found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms.
• The E. coli genome was the first to be completely sequenced (in 1997). E. coli is
the well-understood bacterium in the world and is an extremely important model
organism in many fields of research, particularly molecular biology, genetics, and
biochemistry.
• It is easy to grow under laboratory conditions, and research strains are very safe
to work with. As with many bacteria, E. coli grows quickly, this allows many
generations to be studied in a short time. In fact, under ideal conditions, E. coli
cells can double in number after only 20 minutes.

Luciferase
Luciferase is a generic term for the class of oxidative enzymes that produce
bioluminescence and is usually distinguished from a photoprotein.

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 • Luciferases are widely used in biotechnology, for microscopy, and as reporter
genes, for many of the same applications as fluorescent proteins. However,
unlike fluorescent proteins, luciferases do not require an external light source but
do require the addition of luciferin, the consumable substrate.
• Luciferases can be produced in the lab through genetic engineering for a number
of purposes. Luciferase genes can be synthesized and inserted into organisms or
transfected into cells. Mice, silkworms, and potatoes are just a few of the
organisms that have already been engineered to produce the protein.
• In the luciferase reaction, light is emitted when luciferase acts on the appropriate
luciferin substrate. Photon emission can be detected by light-sensitive apparatus
such as a luminometer or modified optical microscopes.
Restriction Enzymes

• In order to generate recombinant DNA molecules, we not only require the vector
and insert DNA but also a method to precisely cut these DNA molecules and then
join them together (ligation).
• The foundations of rDNA technology were laid by the discovery of restriction
enzymes. They are also called as ‘Molecular Scissors’.
• These enzymes exist in many bacteria where they function as a part of a defense
mechanism called the Restriction-Modification System.
• A restriction enzyme that selectively recognizes a specific DNA sequence and
digests any DNA fragment containing that sequence.
• The term restriction is derived from the ability of these enzymes to restrict the
propagation of foreign DNA (e.g. Viral/phage DNA) in a bacterium.
• The Restriction-Modification enzyme system within a given bacterium protects its
DNA from digestion by methylation but can digest foreign DNA which is not
protected by similar methylation.
• Different species of bacteria contain their own sets of restriction endonucleases
and corresponding methylases.
• Three main classes of restriction endonucleases- type I, type II, and type III are
present, of which, only type II restriction enzymes are used in rDNA technology.

PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY

• Photodynamic therapy uses a photosensitive drug that becomes active under the
action of light and converts molecular oxygen into reactive oxygen species that
kill cancer cells.
• It uses special drugs, called photosensitizing agents, along with light to kill cancer
cells. Depending on the part of the body being treated, the photosensitizing agent
is either put into the bloodstream through a vein or put on the skin. Over a certain
amount of time, the drug is absorbed by the cancer cells. Then light is applied to

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 the area to be treated. The light causes the drug to react with oxygen, which
forms a chemical that kills the cells. PDT might also help by destroying the blood
vessels that feed the cancer cells and by alerting the immune system to attack
cancer.

Bacteriophage

• Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacterial cells by injecting their DNA into
them and consequently take over the machinery of the bacterial cells to multiply
themselves.
• The injected DNA hence is selectively replicated and expressed in the host
bacterial cell resulting in a number of phages that eventually extrude out of the
cell (lytic pathway) and infect neighboring cells.
• Some phages can only reproduce via a lytic lifecycle, in which they burst and kill
their host cells.
• This ability to transfer DNA from the phage genome to specific bacterial hosts
during the process of viral infection gave scientists the idea that specifically
designed phage-based vectors would be useful tools for gene cloning
experiments.
• Two phages that have been extensively modified for the development of cloning
vectors are lambda (ë) and M13 phages.

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CHARGE SYNDROME

• CHARGE syndrome is a rare birth defect that affects approximately 1 in 20,000

people around the world. CHARGE syndrome causes multiple life-threatening
problems in a newborn, such as facial bone and nerve defects that cause
breathing and swallowing difficulties, deafness and blindness, heart defects,
genital problems and growth retardation.
• The children may survive and go on to live with these deficiencies if the heart and
bone defects are corrected with multiple surgeries, but those without access to
such support usually do not survive past their first year.
• CHARGE syndrome is a result of defective embryonic development. Two-thirds
of the patients with CHARGE syndrome have a sporadic mutation in the gene
called CHD7.

BIONICS

• Bionics is not a specialized science. It refers to the use of principles of biology to

engineering. Now it is used more to describe a method to engineer organs that
can replace diseased or non-functional organs in human body.
• Bionics is different from bioengineering (or Biotechnology), which is the use of
living things to perform industrial tasks like use of microbes to remove waste etc.

Autophagy

• The word autophagy is derived from Greek words “auto” meaning self and
“phagy” meaning eating. Autophagy is a normal physiological process in the
body that deals with destruction of cells in the body.
• It maintains homeostasis or normal functioning by protein degradation and
turnover of the destroyed cell organelles for new cell formation.
• During cellular stress the process of Autophagy is upscaled and increased.
Cellular stress is caused when there is deprivation of nutrients and/or growth
factors.
• Thus Autophagy may provide an alternate source of intracellular building blocks
and substrates that may generate energy to enable continuous cell survival.
• Autophagy also kills the cells under certain conditions. These are form of
programmed cell death (PCD) and are called autophagic cell
death. Programmed cell death is commonly termed apoptosis.
• Autophagy is termed a nonapoptotic programmed cell death with different
pathways and mediators from apoptosis.
• Autophagy mainly maintains a balance between the manufacture of cellular
components and breakdown of damaged or unnecessary organelles and other
cellular constituents.

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 • Thanks to Ohsumi and others following in his footsteps, we now know that
autophagy controls important physiological functions where cellular components
need to be degraded and recycled.
• Autophagy can rapidly provide fuel for energy and building blocks for the
renewal of cellular components and is therefore essential for the cellular
response to starvation and other types of stress.
• After infection, autophagy can eliminate invading intracellular bacteria and
viruses. Autophagy contributes to embryo development and cell
differentiation.
• Cells also use autophagy to eliminate damaged proteins and organelles, a
quality control mechanism that is critical for counteracting the negative
consequences of aging.
• Disrupted autophagy has been linked to Parkinson’s disease, type 2
diabetes, and other disorders that appear in the elderly. Mutations in
autophagy genes can cause genetic disease. Disturbances in the
autophagic machinery have also been linked to cancer. Intense research
is now ongoing to develop drugs that can target autophagy in various
diseases.
• Autophagy has been known for over 50 years but its fundamental
importance in physiology and medicine was only recognized after
Yoshinori Ohsumi’s paradigm-shifting research in the 1990s. For his
discoveries, he is awarded the 2016 Nobel Prize in physiology or
medicine.

TRIPLE DRUG THERAPY

The World Health Organization (WHO) is recommending an alternative three-drug
treatment to accelerate the global elimination of lymphatic filariasis – a disabling and
disfiguring neglected tropical disease.

• The treatment, known as IDA, involves a combination of ivermectin,

diethylcarbamazine citrate, and albendazole. It is being recommended annually in
settings where its use is expected to have the greatest impact.
• Lymphatic filariasis is caused by infection with parasitic worms living in the
lymphatic system. The larval stages of the parasite (microfilaria) circulate in
the blood and are transmitted from person to person by mosquitoes.
• The manifestation of the disease after infection takes time and can result in an
altered lymphatic system, causing abnormal enlargement of body parts, and
leading to severe disability and social stigmatization of those affected.
• The parasites are transmitted by four main types of mosquitoes: Culex,
Mansonia, Anopheles, and Aedes.
• A day-long National Symposium on the theme ‘United to Eliminate Lymphatic
Filariasis’ was inaugurated by Union Minister for Health and Family Welfare.

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• The Union Minister also signed the ‘Call to Action to eliminate Lymphatic
Filariasis by 2021’.
• India is set to scale-up the use of Triple Drug Therapy (IDA) in a phased
manner starting from November 2019.

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 Genome Sequencing

byLotusAriseJuly 17, 2022

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• Genome sequencing is the process that involves deciphering the exact order
of base pairs in an individual. This “deciphering” or reading of the genome is
what sequencing is all about. Costs of sequencing differ based on the methods
employed to do the reading or the accuracy stressed upon in decoding the
genome.
• Genome Sequencing is a laboratory process through which scientists get
the complex DNA sequence (in terms of A,T,G,C) of an organism’s genome
at a time.
• DNA containing cells such as saliva, epithelial cells, bone marrow, hair, seeds,
and plant leaves are used as samples for sequencing.
• Genome sequencing is done by an instrument called automated DNA sequences.

Need for genome sequencing:

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 • Ever since the human genome was first sequenced in 2003, it opened a fresh
perspective on the link between disease and the unique genetic make-up of each
individual.
• Nearly 10,000 diseases — including cystic fibrosis, and thalassemia — are
known to be the result of a single gene malfunctioning.
• While genes may render some insensitive to certain drugs, genome sequencing
has shown that cancer too can be understood from the viewpoint of genetics,
rather than being seen as a disease of certain organs

Human Genome Project (HGP)

The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific
research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make
up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human
genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint.

HGP and its benefits:

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 1. Identification of predictive and predisposition markers would be
accelerated by harnessing the huge amount of genetic variability available
for common and complex diseases
2. Data from the project is expected to answer several questions involving
similarities and differences between humans and our closest relatives.
Specific Applications – Genome research could be potentially helpful in other
fields

• Medicine
• Improved diagnosis of disease and earlier detection of genetic
predispositions to disease
• Rational drug design
• Gene therapy
• Reduce the likelihood of heritable mutations
• Access health damage and risks caused by radiation exposure to
mutagenic chemicals and cancer-causing toxins.
• Evolutionary Biology and Anthropology
• Study of evolution
• Study of migration of different human population groups
• Energy and Environment applications
• Detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute air, water, soil and
food.
• DNA Forensics
• Identify crimes and catastrophe victims.
• Match organ donors with recipients in transplant programs
• Agriculture
• Development if productive and disease, insect and drought-resistant crops
• Healthier, more productive, and disease-resistant farm animals.

National Genomic Grid

• It will study genomic data of cancer patients from India.

• It will collect samples from cancer patients, through a network of pan-India
collection centres by bringing all cancer treatment institutions on board.
• The grid to be formed will be in line with the National Cancer Tissue Biobank
(NCTB) set up at the Indian Indian Institute of Technology, Madras.

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 • National Cancer Tissue Biobank (NCTB), is a joint initiative of the
Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India and
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras.
• The biobank collects cancer tissue samples with consent from
patients diagnosed with cancer.
• The aim is to provide researchers with high quality of cancer tissues and
the patient data in order to facilitate cancer research that will lead to
improvements in cancer diagnosis and treatment.
• This research is carried out through the technique of Genome Sequencing.
• Moreover, under Genome India Initiative, the government plans to scan 20,000
Indian genomes (in the next five years) in order to develop diagnostic tests and
effective therapies for treating diseases such as cancer.

Human Genome Project-Write

• A complete haploid copy of the human genome consists of at least three

billion DNA nucleotide base pairs, which have been described in the Human
Genome Project – Read program (95% completed as of 2004).
• Among the many goals of GP-Write are the making of cell lines resistant to all
viruses and synthesis assembly lines to test variants of unknown significance that
arise in research and diagnostic sequencing of human genomes (which has been
exponentially improving in cost, quality, and interpretation).

Indigen Project

• The IndiGen initiative was undertaken by CSIR in April 2019, which was
implemented by the CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology
(IGIB), Delhi and CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB),
Hyderabad.
• The objective is to enable genetic epidemiology and develop public health
technologies applications using population genome data.
• This has enabled benchmarking the scalability of genome sequencing and
computational analysis at population scale in a defined timeline.
• The ability to decode the genetic blueprint of humans through whole genome
sequencing will be a major driver for biomedical science.
• IndiGen programme aims to undertake whole genome sequencing of
thousands of individuals representing diverse ethnic groups from India.

Nanopore Gene Sequencing

• It enables direct, real-time analysis of long DNA or RNA fragments at a

faster and cheaper rate than previously possible with older technologies.

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 • It works by monitoring changes to an electrical current as nucleic acids are
passed through a protein nanopore.
• Nucleic acids are essential for all forms of life and are found in all
cells and viruses. Nucleic acids come in two natural forms called DNA
and RNA.
• The resulting signal is decoded to provide specific DNA or RNA sequence.

DNA Microarray

• In recent years, a new technology, called DNA Microarray, has attracted

tremendous interest among biologists.
• This technology promises to monitor the whole genome on a single chip so
that researchers can have a better picture of the interactions among
thousands of genes simultaneously.
• It is widely believed that thousands of genes and their products (i.e., RNA and
proteins) in a given organism function in a complicated and orchestrated way that
creates the mystery of life.
• However, traditional methods in molecular biology generally work on a “one
gene-one experiment” basis, which means that the throughput is very limited
and the “whole picture” of gene function is hard to obtain. Microarray
Technology promises to study multiple genes in one experiment.
• Microarrays consist of large numbers of DNA molecules spotted in a
systematic order on a solid substrate, usually a slide. The base pairing or
hybridization is the underlying principle of DNA microarray.
• Microarray exploits the preferential binding of complementary single-
stranded nucleic acids.
• A microarray is typically a glass (or some other material) slide, onto which
DNA molecules are attached at fixed locations (spots).
• There are several names to this technology – DNA arrays, gene chips,
biochips, DNA chips, and gene arrays. The DNA microarray technology
is used for analyzing the expression of thousands of messenger RNA
molecules.
This technique has been used to study the following:

• Tissue-specific genes
• Regulatory gene defects in a disease
• Cellular responses to the environment
• Cell cycle variations

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Gel Electrophoresis

• Gel Electrophoresis is a technique used to separate DNA fragments

according to their size.
• Since DNA fragments are negatively-charged molecules, they can be
separated by forcing them to move towards the anode under an electric
field through a medium/matrix.
• Nowadays the most commonly used matrix is agarose which is a natural
polymer extracted from seaweeds.
• The DNA fragments separate (resolve) according to their size through the sieving
effect provided by the agarose gel. Hence, the smaller the fragment size, the
farther it moves.
• The separated DNA fragments can be visualized only after staining the DNA with
a compound known as ethidium bromide followed by exposure to UV
radiation (you cannot see pure DNA fragments in the visible light and without
staining)
• The separated bands of DNA are cut out from the agarose gel and extracted
from the gel piece. This step is known as elution.
• The DNA fragments purified in this way are used in constructing recombinant
DNA by joining them with cloning vectors.

Genetic Marker

• A short sequence of DNA with a known location on chromosome useful to identify

cells, individuals or species
• To study the relationship between an inherited disease and its genetic cause,
genetic markers can be used.

Biomarker
In medicine, a biomarker is a measurable indicator of the severity or presence of
some disease state. More generally a biomarker is anything that can be used as an
indicator of a particular disease state or some other physiological state of an
organism.

A biomarker can be a substance that is introduced into an organism as a means to

examine organ function or other aspects of health. For example, rubidium chloride
is used in isotopic labeling to evaluate perfusion of the heart muscle. It can also be
a substance whose detection indicates a particular disease state, for example, the
presence of an antibody may indicate an infection.

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 Cloning, GMO, Three Parent Baby

byLotusAriseAugust 6, 2022

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• Cloning is a technique scientists use to make exact genetic copies of living

things. Genes, cells, tissues, and even whole animals can all be cloned.
• The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the original, is
referred to as a clone.
• Production of cells or organisms originally derived from a single original
cell or organism by the asexual method under laboratory conditions.
• Dolly was the first mammal successfully cloned. The first clones were frogs.
• Scientists at India’s National dairy research institute Karnal Haryana
produced the first cloned buffalo in 2009; however, the buffalo died a few
days later.

Types of Cloning
There are three different types of cloning:

• Gene cloning, which creates copies of genes or segments of DNA.

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 • Reproductive cloning, which creates copies of whole animals.
• In this we actually reproduce not organ but entire being(donor) from
where we got genetic information.
• Egg cell is placed into the uterus after few divisions in it. The cell is
allowed to develop into foetus that is genetically identical to the
donor of the original nucleus.
• Therapeutic cloning, which creates embryonic stem cells. Researchers hope to
use these cells to grow healthy tissue to replace injured or diseased tissues in
the human body.
• In therapeutic cloning, the aim is to clone cells that make particular
organs or types of tissue.
• Egg is placed in a Petri dish to develop into embryonic stem cells
which have shown potential for treating several ailments.
• It is also called somatic cell nuclear transfer or research cloning.
• In this technique, the resultant embryo is allowed to grow for 14 days.
• Its stem cells would then develop into human tissue or a complete human
organ for transplant.
• Use of therapeutic cloning:
• Overcomes the problem of immune rejection which is a major
concern in tissue transplantation
• Cell which are removed can give rise to all cells in the body except
embryo i.e. it can treat diseases by replacing damaged cells
• Help in studying stem cells and future medical importance of it
to treat against common diseases affecting today such as
diabetes and Parkinson’s disease.
• Understanding the process of cancer formation
• Help in plastic, reconstructive and cosmetic surgery.
Human Cloning

• Positive
• Can solve the issue of infertility
• Can help save a life in case of kidney failure
• May be possible to reproduce sudden trait in humans via cloning
• Negative
• Tamper with genetics in human beings, raises the probability of deliberate
reproduction of undesirable traits.
• May violate social norms

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 • Endangers and exploits women: Put them on high risk of ovarian cancer,
infertility.
Methods:

1. Natural: This happens naturally when one embryo spontaneously divides into
two or more embryos, thus creating identical twins or, sometimes, triplets or even
more
2. Artificial: An existing embryo is mechanically divided into two or more embryos
that are then allowed to develop naturally
3. Artificial and Donor: Through the use of somatic cell of Donor.

Significance

• An embryo made by cloning can be turned into a stem cell factory. Stem cells are
an early form of cells that can grow into many different types of cells and tissues.
Scientists can turn them into nerve cells to fix a damaged spinal cord or insulin-
making cells to treat diabetes.
• The cloning of animals has been used in a number of different applications.
Animals have been cloned to have gene mutations that help scientists study
diseases that develop in the animals.
• Livestock like cows and pigs have been cloned to produce more milk or
meat.Example India is doing this project on Indigenous breeds
• Cloning might one day bring back extinct species like the woolly mammoth or
giant panda.
• It overcomes the problem of immune rejection which is major concern
during organ transplantation
• It can help in understanding process of ageing

Issues

• Many researchers think it is worthwhile to explore the use of embryonic stem

cells as a path for treating human diseases. However, some experts are
concerned about the striking similarities between stem cells and cancer cells.
Both cell types have the ability to proliferate indefinitely and some studies show
that after 60 cycles of cell division, stem cells can accumulate mutations that
could lead to cancer. Therefore, the relationship between stem cells and cancer
cells needs to be more clearly understood if stem cells are to be used to treat
human disease.
• Researchers have observed some adverse health effects in sheep and other
mammals that have been cloned. These include an increase in birth size and a
variety of defects in vital organs, such as the liver, brain and heart.

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 • Another potential problem centers on the relative age of the cloned cell’s
chromosomes. As cells go through their normal rounds of division, the tips of the
chromosomes, called telomeres, shrink. Over time, the telomeres become so
short that the cell can no longer divide and, consequently, the cell dies. This is
part of the natural aging process that seems to happen in all cell types. As a
consequence, clones created from a cell taken from an adult might have
chromosomes that are already shorter than normal, which may condemn the
clones’ cells to a shorter life span. Indeed, Dolly, who was cloned from the cell of
a 6-year-old sheep, had chromosomes that were shorter than those of other
sheep her age. Dolly died when she was six years old, about half the average
sheep’s 12-year lifespan.
• Reproductive cloning would present the potential of creating a human that is
genetically identical to another person who has previously existed or who still
exists. This may conflict with long-standing religious and societal values about
human dignity, possibly infringing upon principles of individual freedom, identity
and autonomy. However, some argue that reproductive cloning could help sterile
couples fulfill their dream of parenthood. Others see human cloning as a way to
avoid passing on a deleterious gene that runs in the family without having to
undergo embryo screening or embryo selection.
• Therapeutic cloning, while offering the potential for treating humans suffering
from disease or injury, would require the destruction of human embryos in the
test tube. Consequently, opponents argue that using this technique to collect
embryonic stem cells is wrong, regardless of whether such cells are used to
benefit sick or injured people.
India does not have specific laws regarding cloning but has guidelines prohibiting
whole human cloning or reproductive cloning. India allows therapeutic cloning and the
use of embryonic stem cells for research purposes

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

• Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism is a technique that uses Restriction

enzymes to identify variations in the homologous DNA sequences.
• The DNA isolated from an individual organism has a unique sequence and
even the members within a species differ in some parts of their sequence.
• The restriction sites would also vary and hence if DNA from a given individual
was subjected to digestion with a restriction enzyme the fragments generated
would vary when compared with another individual’s DNA similarly digested.
• A major application of this technique is DNA Fingerprinting.
• Individuals except identical twins vary in their RFLP pattern as indicated
schematically in the agarose gel electrophoresis.
• Hence the term DNA fingerprint is used and this is the basis of a major technique
used in forensic science to identify and relate individuals.

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GMO (Genetically Modified Crops)

• According to WHO, Genetically modified organisms are organisms in

which genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur in
natural recombination.
• All GM crops in India require approval from the Genetic Engineering
Appraisal Committee (GEAC) for use in commercial production.
• Globally GM crops were commercially introduced in 1996. Crops such as
corn, cotton, and soybean have been engineered to resist insect pests and
herbicides and are now planted widely in many parts of the world.
• USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, and Canada are top GM crops growing
countries, together accounting for approx. 90% area of the GM cultivation.
• BT cotton is the only genetically modified crop allowed in India. Biotech
regulator recently allowed for the commercial production of GM Mustard in the
country. Several groups opposed the GEAC’s decision.

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 • GEAC has allowed biosafety research field trials of two new
transgenic varieties of indigenously developed Bt Brinjal –
namely Janak and BSS-793, containing the Bt Cry1Fa1 gene (Event
142) – in eight states during 2020-23 only after taking no-objection
certificate (NOC) from states concerned and confirmation of the availability
of isolated stretch of land for this purpose.
• These indigenous transgenic varieties of are developed by the
National Institute for Plant Biotechnology, (NIPB, erstwhile National
Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi), Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
• Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture, the
DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods.
• Plants, bacteria, fungi, and animals whose genes have been altered by
manipulation are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO).
• GM plants have been useful in many ways. Genetic modification has:
• enhanced nutritional value of food, e.g., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice.
• made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat).
• reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (pest-resistant crops).
• helped to reduce post-harvest losses.
• increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early
exhaustion of fertility of soil).
• In addition to these uses, GM has been used to create tailor-made plants to
supply alternative resources to industries, in the form of starches, fuels
and pharmaceuticals.

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BT Crops

• BT stands for Bacillus thuringiensis.

• Bacillus thuringiensis is a gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium which is
mainly found in the soil and hence it is also known as a soil-dwelling
bacterium.
• This bacterium produces a protein that acts as a toxin for those insects
destroying the yield. This bacterium is mainly used in the sprays for
commercial agriculture and for organic farming.
• The use of this spray on crops is safe for the environment and causes no harm to
the consumers.
• The practice of using BT started in the year 1996 and began with using small
quantities of genes from BT. With the help of this genetic transformation, plants
used to create the necessary proteins to protect the crop from pests.
• All over the globe, in a land spanning 29 million acres, BT corn, BT potato, and
BT cotton were grown in the year 1999. Relying on this technology alone,
approximately 92 million dollars was saved by the United States.
• How does the cry protein work?
• When an insect feeds on the plants, the cry protein present in the
plants crystallizes the digestive system of insects and it starves to
death since the cry protein is toxic to the organism’s digestive tract.
Remember that it affects the insect’s digestive system and has no effect
on the human digestive system.
Advantages of BT Crops.

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 • They help in controlling soil pollution as the use of synthetic pesticides are
reduced when the plants begin to produce the toxins by themselves in their own
tissues.
• BT Crops help in protecting the beneficial insects.
• Reduced manpower and labour charges.
• The pests hiding inside plant parts are controlled effectively.
• It is cost-effective as multiple sprays are not needed.
Disadvantages of BT Crops

• The BT crops are more costly than the normally grown crops.
• There is a possibility for allergic reactions while using these crops.
• BT Crops are not effective for certain pests including spider mites, seed
corn.

Regulatory Procedures involved in the development and approval of

GM crops in India

• The rules governing the handling of GMOs and products thereof were notified in
1989 under Environment Protection Act 1986 and guidelines were issued
later.
• There is a well-established regulatory framework for approval of GM
Crops as per “Rules for the Manufacture/Use/Import/Export and
Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms, Genetically Engineered
Organisms or Cells, 1989” under the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986.
• Two government agencies, MoEFCC and the Department of Biotechnology
(DBT) are responsible for the implementation of the regulations.
• There are various authorities to handle different aspects of the regulation.
• These are the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee, Institutional
Bio-Safety Committee, Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation,
GEAC, State Biotechnology Coordination Committee, and District
level Committee.
• A series of guidelines for safety assessment procedures to be followed at
various stages of the development of GMOs have been adopted from time to
time.
• GEAC is the apex body that allows for the commercial release of GM crops.
• GEAC shall have powers to revoke approvals in case of:
• Any new information on the harmful effects of GMOs.
• GMOs cause such damage to the environment as could not be envisaged
when approval was given.

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 • Non-compliance with any conditions stipulated by GEAC.

Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)

• The top biotech regulator in India is Genetic Engineering Appraisal

Committee (GEAC).
• The committee functions as a statutory body under the Environment
Protection Act 1986 of the Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF).
• It was earlier known as Genetic Engineering Approval Committee. Under
the EPA 1986 Rules for Manufacture, Use, Import, Export, and Storage of
Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, GEAC is
responsible for granting permits to conduct experimental and large-scale open
field trials and also grant approval for commercial release of biotech crops.

Polymerase Chain Reaction

• The polymerase chain reaction or PCR as it is commonly known was invented

by Kerry Mullis in 1985.
• It results in the selective amplification of a specific region of a DNA
molecule and so can also be used to generate a DNA fragment for cloning.
• The basic principle underlying this technique is that when a double-stranded
DNA molecule is heated to a high temperature, the two DNA strands
separate giving rise to single-stranded molecules which can be made to
hybridise with small oligonucleotide primers (single-stranded) by bringing
down the temperature.
• If to this an enzyme called DNA polymerase and nucleotide triphosphates are
added, much like what happens during replication, i.e primer extension occurs.
• This procedure is repeated several times ultimately results in amplification of
the DNA stretch between the two primers (one on each strand of the DNA).
• A single PCR amplification cycle involves three basic steps of denaturation,
annealing, and extension.
• In the denaturing step, the target DNA is heated to a high temperature,
above 80 C which results in DNA strand separation.
• PCR-based diagnosis is faster, safer, and more specific – because it does
not use live pathogens; instead, DNA from the infected tissue is isolated and the
PCR technique is carried out using primers having specific complementary
sequences to the pathogen DNA.
• It is interesting that archaeologists are using combinations of PCR and
fingerprinting analysis to relate and establish ancient Egyptian
dynasties from samples obtained from mummies.

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Molecular farming

• Molecular farming is a new technology that uses plants to produce large

quantities of pharmaceutical substances such as vaccines and
antibodies. It relies on the same method used to produce genetically
modified (GM) crops – the artificial introduction of genes into plants.
• A number of vaccines, antibodies, and other therapeutic substances made
in plants such as tobacco, maize, potato, and carrot are already
commercially available or in advanced clinical trials. Producing pharmaceuticals
in plants is easy and efficient compared to conventional production methods.
• Typically, animal or microbial cell cultures are used to produce vaccines but costs
associated with maintenance, safety; storage and transport are 80% higher
compared to plant-derived vaccines.

Edible Vaccines

• A genetically manipulated food containing organisms or related antigens that may

provide active immunity against infection.
• Edible vaccines against many microorganisms are being developed, with the goal
of using them to vaccinate children in nonindustrialized countries where there are
obstacles to the use of the traditional injectable vaccine.
• Examples of Edible vaccines: Transgenic Potatoes for Diarrhoea:
• They were tested and found to be effective, however raw potatoes are
non-edible and cooking destroys protein antigens.

Advantages of Edible vaccines

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 • They are cheap therefore they can be mass-produced.
• They are stable at room temperatures.
• Need to process and purify do not occur
• Most importantly they trigger immunity at the mucosal surface. For e.g.: Those
that line the mouth.
Disadvantages of edible vaccines

• Will the antigen be able to survive the hostile condition of the stomach and even if
they will then be trigger immune system in the right way.
• Continued vaccine production might not be guaranteed due to changes in plants
• Glycosylation in patterns in plants differ from humans and could affect the
functionality of vaccine.

Three Parent Baby / Mitochondrial Gene Therapy

• A team of Greek and Spanish doctors has produced a baby (in Greece)
using genetic material from two women and a man.
• The procedure replaces a small amount of faulty DNA in a mother’s
egg with healthy DNA from a second woman, so that the baby would
inherit genes from two mothers and one father. The idea is to prevent
certain genetic diseases being passed on to children.
• The technique used is called as ‘Maternal Spindle transfer’ in which maternal
DNA is put into the egg of a donor woman, which is then fertilized using the
father’s sperm.
• The procedure was developed to help existing IVF treatments in which
mothers have mitochondrial diseases.
• The technique is considered controversial by some doctors.
• Mitochondrial diseases are long-term, genetic, often inherited disorders that
occur when mitochondria fail to produce enough energy for the body to function
properly.
• In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) is a medical procedure in which mature egg cells are
removed from a woman, fertilized with male sperm outside the body, and
inserted into the uterus of the same or another woman for normal gestation.
• Britain became the first country to allow for a three-parent baby and in 2017
the first 3 parent baby was born.

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Risks:

• Several people argue that this leads to designer babies

• Experts have warned that three-parent babies could be at greater risk of cancer
and premature ageing, and would need to be monitored all their lives.
• Since this is uncharted territory and the children born from this technology would
have heritable genetic changes, there are also significant unknown risks to future
generations.
• There are numerous serious risks associated with this technology. These include
most notably the possibility that developmentally disabled or deceased babies will
be produced.
• Aberrations could also lead to developmental defects in babies or also manifest
in later life as increased rates of ageing of cancer.

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 Decoding Blood Group Concepts

• Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and

formed elements (Erythrocytes, leucocytes, and platelets).
• In a healthy person, approximately 5 liters (12 pints) of blood circulates
throughout their body. Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most
abundant of all the cells in the blood.
• RBCs are formed in the red bone marrow in adults. RBCs are devoid of the
nucleus in most mammals and are biconcave in shape. They have a red
coloured, iron-containing complex protein called hemoglobin, hence the
colour and name of these cells.
• Leucocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) as they are colorless
due to the lack of hemoglobin. They are nucleated and are relatively lesser
in number which averages 6000- 8000 mm-3 of blood.
• Leucocytes are generally short-lived. We have two main categories of
WBCs – granulocytes and agranulocytes. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and
basophils are different types of granulocytes, while lymphocytes and monocytes
are agranulocytes.
• The main function of platelets is to contribute to hemostasis: the process of
stopping bleeding at the site of interrupted endothelium. They gather at the
site and unless the interruption is physically too large, they plug the hole.
• Blood
• Blood accounts for 7% of body weight.
• An average adult has a blood volume of roughly 5 litres.
• Blood cell- RBC-45%, Plasma- 54.3% and WBC-0.7%
• Note: Plasma, which is 92 percent water, constitutes 55 percent of blood
volume. Plasma contains albumin (the chief protein
constituent), fibrinogen (responsible, in part, for the clotting of blood), and
globulins (including antibodies).

Blood Groups: ABO Blood Group and Rh Group System

Even though components of blood are the same for all humans, there are various blood
types. In fact, there are more than 40 blood groups, but all of them are not clinically
significant. The discovery of the ABO blood group created great excitement as until
then, all blood had been assumed to be the same.

Karl Landsteiner, an Austrian scientist discovered the ABO blood group system in
the year 1900.

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There are four principal types: A, B, AB, and O.

There are two antigens and two antibodies that are mostly responsible for the
ABO types. The specific combination of these four components determines an
individual’s type in most cases.

The table below shows the possible permutations of antigens and antibodies with
the corresponding ABO type (“yes” indicates the presence of a
component and “no” indicates its absence in the blood of an individual).

ABO Blood Type Antigen A Antigen B Antibody Anti-A Antibody Anti-B

A yes no no yes

B no yes yes no

O no no yes yes

AB yes yes no no

For example, people with type A blood will have the A antigen on the surface of their
red cells (as shown in the table below). As a result, anti-A antibodies will not be
produced by them because they would cause the destruction of their own blood.

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However, if B type blood is injected into their systems, anti-B antibodies in their plasma
will recognize it as alien and burst or agglutinate the introduced red cells in order to
cleanse the blood of alien protein.

ABO Blood Type Antigen A Antigen B Antibody Anti-A Antibody Anti-B

A yes no no yes

B no yes yes no

O no no yes yes

AB yes yes no no

Individuals with type O blood do not produce ABO antigens.

• Therefore, their blood normally will not be rejected when it is given to

others with different ABO types.
• As a result, type O people are universal donors for transfusions, but
they can receive only type O blood themselves.
Those who have type AB blood do not make any ABO antibodies.

• Their blood does not discriminate against any other ABO type.
• Consequently, they are universal receivers for transfusions, but their blood
will be agglutinated when given to people with every other type because they
produce both kinds of antigens.

ABO Blood Type Antigen A Antigen B Antibody Anti-A Antibody Anti-B

A yes no no yes

B no yes yes no

O no no yes yes

AB yes yes no no

• It is easy and inexpensive to determine an individual’s ABO type from a few

drops of blood. A serum containing anti-A antibodies is mixed with some of the
blood. Another serum with anti-B antibodies is mixed with the remaining sample.
• Whether or not agglutination occurs in either sample indicates the ABO type.

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 • It is a simple process of elimination of the possibilities. For instance, if an
individual’s blood sample is agglutinated by the anti-A antibody, but not the
anti-B antibody, it means that the A antigen is present but not the B
antigen. Therefore, the blood type is A.

Rh Blood Group System

• In addition to the ABO blood grouping system, the other prominent one is the Rh
blood group system.
• About two-thirds of the population (nearly 80 percent) contains the third
antigen on the surface of their red blood cells known as the Rh factor or Rh
antigen; this decides whether the blood group is positive or negative.
• If the Rh factor is present, an individual is rhesus positive (Rh+ve);
• if the Rh factor is absent individual is rhesus negative (Rh-ve) as they
produce Rh antibodies.
• An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies
against the Rh antigens. Therefore, the Rh group should also be matched
before transfusions.
• A special case of Rh incompatibility (mismatching) has been observed between
the Rh-ve blood of a pregnant mother with Rh+ve blood of the foetus.
• Rh antigens of the foetus do not get exposed to the Rh-ve blood of the mother in
the first pregnancy as the two bloods are well separated by the placenta.
• However, during the delivery of the first child, there is a possibility of exposure of
the maternal blood to small amounts of the Rh+ve blood from the foetus.
• In such cases, the mother starts preparing antibodies against Rh antigen in her
blood.

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 • In case of her subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from the mother (Rh-
ve) can leak into the blood of the foetus (Rh+ve) and destroy the foetal RBCs.
• This could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe anaemia and jaundice to
the baby. This condition is called erythroblastosis foetalis.
• This can be avoided by administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother
immediately after the delivery of the first child.

Diabetes

• Diabetes mellitus, commonly known as diabetes, is a metabolic disease that

causes high blood sugar.
• The hormone insulin moves sugar from the blood into our cells to be stored or
used for energy.
• With diabetes, our body either doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t effectively
use the insulin it does make.
• Untreated high blood sugar from diabetes can damage nerves, eyes, kidneys,
and other organs.
There are a few different types of diabetes:

• Diabetes Mellitus
1. Type 1 Diabetes
2. Type 2 Diabetes
• Diabetes Insipidus
• Gestational Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes

• It is also known as Diabetes Mellitus Type 1.

• It occurs when the pancreas fails to produce sufficient insulin.
• The consequent lack of insulin causes an increase in glucose levels in urine and
blood.
• Symptoms include excessive excretion of urine (polyuria), thirst (polydipsia),
constant hunger, weight loss, vision changes, and fatigue. These
symptoms may occur suddenly.
Type 2 diabetes

• It is also called Diabetes Mellitus Type 2.

• Type 2 diabetes (formerly called non-insulin-dependent, or adult-onset) results
from the body’s ineffective use of insulin.

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 • The prime reason for the occurrence of type 2 diabetes is obesity and lack
of exercise in people who are genetically biased. Type 2 diabetes comprises
the majority of people with diabetes around the world.
• Symptoms may be similar to those of type 1 diabetes but are often less marked.
As a result, the disease may be diagnosed several years after onset, once
complications have already arisen.
Diabetes Insipidus

• When the body is unable to respond or produce the Antidiuretic hormone (ADH),
which is secreted by the hypothalamus, Diabetes Insipidus occurs.
• This hormone helps the kidneys manage the amount of water in the human body.
Without this essential hormone, the kidneys pass an abnormally large volume of
urine that is insipid (meaning: odourless and dilute).
Gestational Diabetes

• This condition occurs in pregnant women who develop high blood sugar levels
without a previous history. The condition usually resolves after delivery.

National Diabetes and Diabetic Retinopathy Survey

The survey conducted during 2015-2019 by Rajendra Prasad Centre for Ophthalmic
Sciences, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi.

• The prevalence of diabetes in India has been recorded at 11.8% in the last four
years with almost the same percentage of men and women suffering from the
disease.
• The highest prevalence of diabetes (13.2%) was observed in the 70-79 years’
age group. Males showed a prevalence of diabetes (12%) compared to females
(11.7%).
• The prevalence of any form of diabetic retinopathy (DR) in the diabetic population
aged up to 50 years was found to be 16.9%.
• Prevalence of blindness among diabetics was 2.1% and visual impairment was
13.7%.
• Diabetes and diabetic retinopathy have been emerging as a significant
noncommunicable disease leading to ocular morbidity (blindness).
• It is estimated that diabetic retinopathy was responsible for 1.06% of blindness
and 1.16% of visual impairment globally in 2015.
• Scientists have recently demonstrated the role of a protein secretagogin (SCGN)
in increasing insulin action in obesity-induced diabetes.
• SCGN is now established as a functional insulin-binding protein with therapeutic
potential against diabetes.
• SCGN binds to insulin and protects it from various stresses, increases its
stability, and adds to its action.

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• SCGN is found in lower quantities in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients.

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 Vitamins and Minerals (Deficiency Diseases)

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins and minerals are both essential nutrients that are required in a daily
diet. Altogether, there are 13 essential vitamins and many minerals which are
required for the body to function properly and to maintain optimal health.

Both vitamins and minerals combine to perform hundreds of roles in the body. Eating a
healthy diet remains the best way to get sufficient amounts of the vitamins and
minerals you need.

Although they are all considered micronutrients, vitamins and minerals differ in basic
ways. Vitamins are organic and can be broken down by heat, air, or acid. Minerals
are inorganic and hold on to their chemical structure.

Together this vitamin quartet helps keep your eyes, skin, lungs, gastrointestinal
tract, and nervous system in good repair. Here are some of the other essential roles
these vitamins play:

• Build bones – Bone formation would be impossible without vitamins A, D, and

K.
• Protect vision – Vitamin A also helps keep cells healthy and protects your
vision.
• Interact favorably – Without vitamin E, your body would have difficulty absorbing
and storing vitamin A.
• Protect the body – Vitamin E also acts as an antioxidant (a compound that
helps protect the body against damage from unstable molecules).

Vitamins
• Vitamins are organic compounds that are required in small amounts in our diet
but their deficiency causes specific diseases.
• Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesized in our body but plants can synthesize
almost all of them, so they are considered as essential food factors.
• However, the bacteria of the gut can produce some of the vitamins required by
us.
• All the vitamins are generally available in our diet. Different vitamins belong to
various chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the basis of structure.
• They are generally regarded as organic compounds required in the diet
in small amounts to perform specific biological functions for normal
maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.

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 • Vitamins are designated by alphabets A, B, C, D, etc. Some of them are further
named as sub-groups e.g. B1, B2, B6, B12, etc.
• Vitamin A keeps our skin and eyes healthy.
• Vitamin C helps the body to fight against many diseases. Vitamin C gets
easily destroyed by heat during cooking.
• Vitamin D helps our body to use calcium for bones and teeth. It travels
through your bloodstream and into cells, telling them to turn genes on or
off. Almost every cell in your body has a receptor for vitamin D.
• Vitamin B12 is essential for blood formation, as well as brain and
nerve function.
• Excess of vitamins is also harmful and vitamin pills should not be taken without
the advice of doctor.
• The term “Vitamine” was coined from the word vital + amine since the earlier
identified compounds had amino groups.
• Later work showed that most of them did not contain amino groups, so the letter
‘e’ was dropped and the term vitamin is used these days.
Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.

Fat soluble vitamins

• Vitamins that are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water are kept in this
group. These are vitamins A, D, E, and K. They are stored in liver and adipose
(fat-storing) tissues.
• Many fat-soluble vitamins travel through the body only under escort by proteins
that act as carriers.

Water soluble vitamins

• B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water so they are grouped
together.
• Water-soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in the diet because they are
readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our
body.
• They are absorbed directly into the bloodstream as food is broken down
during digestion or as a supplement dissolves.
• Because much of your body consists of water, many of the water-soluble vitamins
circulate easily in your body. Your kidneys continuously regulate levels of
water-soluble vitamins, shunting excesses out of the body in your urine.

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Deficiency Diseases

• A person may be getting enough food to eat, but sometimes the food may not
contain a particular nutrient. If this continues over a long period of time, the
person may suffer from its deficiency.
• Deficiency of one or more nutrients can cause diseases or disorders in our body.
Diseases that occur due to lack of nutrients over a long period are called
deficiency diseases.

1. Vitamin A——— Night blindness

2. Vitamin B1———Beriberi
3. Vitamin B2——– Ariboflavinosis
4. Vitamin B3 ——–Pellagra
5. Vitamin B5 ——–Paresthesia
6. Vitamin B6 ——–Anemia
7. Vitamin B7 —— Dermatitis, enteritis
8. Vitamin B9 & Vitamin B12 —– Megaloblastic anemia
9. Vitamin C —— Scurvy, Swelling of Gums
10. Vitamin D —— Rickets & Osteomalacia
11. Vitamin E —— Less Fertility
12. Vitamin K —— Non-Clotting of Blood.

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Minerals
• These are inorganic nutrients that also play a key role in ensuring the health and
well
• They include the trace elements copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium,
and zinc together with the macro elements calcium, magnesium, potassium,
and sodium.
• Magnesium is essential for bone and teeth structure. Low intake and blood
levels of magnesium are associated with several conditions, including type 2
diabetes, metabolic syndrome, heart disease, and osteoporosis

Five Important Micronutrients

• Nutrients are the compounds in food that provide us with energy that
facilitates repair and growth and helps to carry out different life processes
• As with vitamins, minerals they are found in small quantities within the body, and
they are obtained from a wide variety of foods.

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 • No single food contains all of the vitamins and minerals we need and, therefore, a
balanced and varied diet is necessary for an adequate intake.
• Of course, we already know a huge amount about how these work, and the
importance they have in normal human growth and development.
• Based on this, an Expert Panel of nutritionist, NGOs, and development agencies
identified five micronutrients such as those below in their priority group:

Vitamin A

• This vital micronutrient is found in a range of different foods including carrots,

spinach, broccoli, milk, egg, liver and fish.
• It plays an essential role in vision (lack of Vitamin A is a common cause of
blindness), reproduction and growth, and the functioning of a healthy immune
system (it plays a key role in the development of white blood cells).
• Worldwide about 5 million children under the age of five are affected
by xerophthalmia, a serious eye disorder caused by vitamin A deficiency.
• These children are at risk of becoming blind and are more likely to die of
common childhood diseases.

Folate (folic acid)

• This is a generic term for a group of B vitamins including folic acid and
naturally occurring
• Folic acid is a synthetic folate compound used in vitamin supplements and
fortified food because of its increased stability.
• Folates are found in egg, dairy products, asparagus, orange juice, dark green
leafy vegetables, beans and brown bread.
• They play a key role in the metabolism of amino acids and the production of
proteins, the synthesis of nucleic acid (the molecules that carry genetic
information in the cells), and the formation of blood cells.

Iodine

• Seaweed and fish are rich sources but in many countries the addition of iodine
(known as iodization) to salt is an important source.
• Iodine is one of the most important elements required by the developing
foetus due to its effect on brain development.
• Iodine also serves a number of other important functions especially in
the production of hormones.
• Goitre is a visible sign of severe iodine deficiency.

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Iron

• Iron has a number of key functions within the body. It acts as a carrier for
oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissues – it does so in the form
of hemoglobin – and it also integral to the working of various tissues through the
role that it plays in enzymatic reactions.
• Iron deficiency ultimately leads to iron deficiency anemia, the most common
cause of anemia, a condition in which the blood lacks healthy red bloods cells
required to carry oxygen, and which results in morbidity and death.
• Iron deficiency is the most widespread health problem in the world, impairing
normal mental development in 40‐60% of infants in the developing world.
• Iron‐rich foods include lentils, red meat, poultry, fish, lentils, leaf vegetables and
chick‐

Zinc

• Found in a range of foodstuffs including liver, eggs, nuts, cereals and seafood.
• The absence of zinc is associated with a number of conditions including, short
stature, anemia, impaired healing of wounds, poor gonadal function, and
impaired cognitive and motor function.
• It can also lead to appetite disorders, as well as contributing to the increased
severity and incidence of diarrhea and pneumonia.
• The most important effect of zinc deficiency is its impact on children’s resistance
to infectious diseases including the risk of infection, the recurrence of infections,
and the severity of infection. This is well document in the case of diarrhoea. Zinc
nutrition is therefore an important determinant of mortality in children.

Food Sources of Vitamins and Minerals

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Name Food Sources Deficiency Diseases

Green leafy vegetables, ripe yellow fruits, guava, Hyperkeratosis, night

Vitamin A milk, liver, nuts, tomatoes, oranges, carrots, blindness, and
broccoli, watermelon etc. keratomalacia

Fresh fruits, potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas,

Vitamin B1
corn, cashew nuts, wheat, milk, black beans, Beriberi
(Thiamine)
dates etc.

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Vitamin B2 Banana, dates, mushrooms, grapes, mangoes,
Slow growth, sore eyes
(Riboflavin) peas, pumpkin, popcorn etc.

Vitamin B3 Meat, fish, eggs, milk products, cereals,

Pellagra
(Niacin) mushroom, guava etc.

Fresh fruits, black currant, broccoli, goat milk and

Vitamin C Scurvy
chestnuts.

Vitamin D Fish, egg, liver, beef, cod, chicken breast etc. Rickets and Osteomalacia

Potatoes, pumpkin, guava, mango, milk, nuts, Heart problems,

Vitamin E
seeds etc. Haemolysis and sterility

Tomatoes, broccoli, chestnuts, cashew nuts,

Vitamin K Haemorrhage
beef, lamb, mangoes, grapes etc.

MINERALS SOURCES FUNCTIONS

Blackberries, dates, milk, egg,

Important for healthy bones, teeth and
Calcium pomegranate, almonds, wheat,
immune system
soybeans etc.

Passion fruit, onions, fresh fruits, Helps in the regulation of blood pressure
Sodium sweet potato, broccoli, pumpkin and blood volume. It also helps in the
seeds, eggs, milk etc. proper functioning of nerves and muscles

Sea foods, iodised salt, milk and

Promotes healthy hair, nails, skin and teeth.
Iodine foods that are grown in iodine-rich
Also controls body weight and growth
places

Phosphorous along with calcium is

Passion fruit, pomegranate, dates,
Phosphorous necessary for the formation of bones, teeth
beef, tuna, oats etc.
etc.

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 Diseases: Types of Diseases and their Symptoms

Health is described as the state of complete physical, mental, and social well being.
Being healthy is far more than just being free from diseases.

The disease is a condition of disturbed functioning of the body caused by infection,

defective diet, heredity, environment, or deprived condition of the brain. Health is a state
of complete physical, mental, and social well being.

The disease may be a response to –

• Environmental factors (as malnutrition, industrial hazards, or climate)

• Specific infective agents (as worms, protozoans, fungi, etc)
• Inherent defects of the organism (as genetic anomalies.)
• Combination of these factors

Causes of Diseases/Disease Agents

A disease agent is an organism, substance, or force which causes disease due to its
excessive presence, deficiency, or absence.

• Pathogens/Biological Agents: They are biological entities which cause

infectious diseases, e.g., viruses (mumps, chickenpox, smallpox), mycoplasma
(e.g, bronchitis, acute leukemia), chlamydia (e.g, trachoma), bacteria (e.g.
cholera, tetanus), fungi (ringworm, thrush, moniliasis, pulmonary aspergillosis),
protozoa (e.g. giardiasis, sleeping sickness), helminths (e.g., filariasis, ascariasis,
taeniasis), other organisms (e.g., scabies).
• Nutrient Agents: Deficiency of vitamins (e.g., beriberi, scurvy, night blindness),
minerals (e.g., anaemmia, rickets), carbohydrates, fat, and proteins (e.g.,
kwashiorkar, marasmus), or excess of food (e.g., obesity).
• Chemical Agents: Endogenous Agents– Excess presence of uric acid, reduced
secretion of ADH (diabetes insipidus) or insulin (diabetes mellitus). Exogenous
Agents- Pollutants (e.g., pneumoconiosis), allergens (allergy).
• Physical Agents: Heat (e.g., stroke), cold (frostbite), radiations, sound (impaired
hearing), humidity, etc.
• Mechanical Agents: Fractures, sprains, dislocation, injury, chronic friction.
• Genetic Agents: Excess or deficiency of chromosomes, mutations, harmful
alleles, e.g, colour blindness, albinism, haemophilia, Turner’s syndrome.

Disease Causative Agent

Plague Pasteurella pestis

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 Cholera Vibrio comma (Vibrio cholera)

Tetanus Clostridium tetani

Anthrax Bacillus anthracis

Whooping cough Bordetella pertussis

Human papillomavirus infection Human papillomavirus

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
(AIDS)

Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Hepatitis D,

Hepatitis
Hepatitis E viruses

Chickenpox Varicella zoster virus (VZV)

Meningoencephalitis Naegleria fowleri (amoeba)

Classification of Disease
According to a very broad classification, diseases can also be classified under the
following – physical diseases, mental diseases, infectious diseases, non-
infectious diseases, deficiency diseases, inherited diseases, degenerative
diseases, social diseases, self-inflicted diseases.

Depending on certain characteristics, diseases can also be classified as an acute

disease where the onset of the disease is sudden, lasts for a short time, with rapid
changes; and chronic diseases where the effects of the disease can last for months or
years.

Diseases can also be classified in other ways, such as communicable versus non-
communicable diseases.

Type Explanation Example

Anatomic
This type refers to the affected organ or tissue Heart disease
Classification

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 Further classified into types such as vascular
An ENT specialist (Ear-
disease, chest disease, gastrointestinal disease,
Topographical Nose-Throat)
and abdominal diseases. These are then
Classification A Gastroenterology
handled by specializations in medicine that
specialist etc.
follow these topographical classifications

This type includes diseases that affect a process

Physiological
or a function (such as metabolism, digestion or Diabetes
Classification
respiration)

Neoplastic diseases
This type considers the nature of the disease. (uncontrolled cell growth
Pathological For instance, cancer is associated with that are characteristic of
Classification uncontrolled cell growth, and there are cancer)
variations or types in the disease. Inflammatory diseases
(autoimmunity)

This classification refers to the rate of Epidemic diseases such as

Epidemiological
occurrence, distribution and the control of the plague and Influenza
Classification
disease in a population. pandemic of 1918–1919

Infectious Diseases

• Diseases that spread from one person to another are called communicable
diseases.
• They are usually caused by microorganisms called pathogens (fungi, rickettsia,
bacteria, viruses, protozoans, worms).
• When an infected person discharges bodily fluids, pathogens may exit the
host and infected a new person (sneezing, coughing etc).
• Examples include Cholera, chickenpox, malaria etc.
Non-infectious Diseases

• These diseases are caused by pathogens, but other factors such as age,
nutritional deficiency, gender of an individual, and lifestyle also influence the
disease.
• Examples include hypertension, diabetes, and cancer.
• They do not spread to others and they restrain within a person who has
contracted them.
• Alzheimers, asthma, cataract and heart diseases are other non-infectious
diseases.

Bacterial Diseases

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Bacteria are prokaryotes, a minuscule single-celled organism that grows well in
varied environments. They can live inside soil, in the ocean, and inside the human
bowel. They can be differentiated by, by their shape, the nature of their cell walls and
genetic differences.

Bacterial diseases include any type of illness caused by bacteria. Bacteria are a
type of microorganism, which are tiny forms of life that can only be seen with a
microscope. Other types of microorganisms include viruses, some fungi, and some
parasites.

Examples are

• Diphtheria
• Anthrax
• Pneumonia
• Leprosy
• Tuberculosis
• Plague– Plague is caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, a zoonotic bacterium
usually found in small mammals and their fleas.
• Meningitis– Meningitis — an infection of the tissues that cover and protect the
brain and spinal cord — can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or fungi.
• Cholera
• Tetanus
• Typhoid fever
• Lyme disease
• Whooping cough
• Gonorrhea – It is a sexually transmitted disease. It is caused by the gonococcus,
Neisseria gonorrhoeae—a bacterium.
• Syphilis – a systemic disease that is caused by the spirochete bacterium,
Treponema pallidum. Syphilis is usually a sexually transmitted disease, but it is
occasionally acquired by direct nonsexual contact with an infected person, and it
can also be acquired by an unborn fetus through infection in the mother.

Viral Diseases
Virus – A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells
of other organisms. They’re made up of a piece of genetic material, such as DNA or
RNA, that’s enclosed in a coat of protein.

A viral disease is any illness or health condition caused by a virus.

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Viruses invade cells in your body and use components of those cells to help them
multiply. This process often damages or destroys infected cells.

Examples are

• Influenza-Flu by influenza virus

• Common Cold- Rhinovirus
• Hepatitis A– Liver
• Norovirus-Gastro-intestinal illness
• Rotavirus– Diarrhea
• Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
• Hepatitis B– Inflammation in the liver
• HIV
• Measles
• Rabies
• Smallpox
• Polio
• Rubella
• Chickenpox
• Japanese Encephalitis
• Zika Viral Fever

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 • Yellow Fever
• MERS-CoV (Middle East respiratory syndrome)
• SARS – Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

Protozoan Diseases
Protozoan infections are parasitic diseases caused by organisms formerly classified
in the Kingdom Protozoa.

Protozoal disease, a disease caused by protozoans. These organisms may remain in

the human host for their entire life cycle, but many carry out part of their reproductive
cycle in insects or other hosts. For example, mosquitoes are vectors of plasmodium,
the cause of malaria.

They are usually contracted by either an insect vector or by contact with an infected
substance or surface and include organisms that are now classified in the
supergroups Excavata, Amoebozoa, SAR, and Archaeplastida.

Examples –

• Malaria
• Amoebiasis
• Trichomoniasis
• African Sleeping sickness or Trypanosomiasis
• Leishmaniasis or Kala-azar
• Giardiasis
• Balantidiasis
• Toxoplasmosis

Name of the Vector Pathogenesis

Disease

The parasite attacks the liver and RBCs. It

multiplies within liver cells, enters the
Female Anopheles
Malaria bloodstream and ruptures RBCs. It releases a
mosquito
toxic substance called ‘hemozoin’, which causes
fever. The sporozoite is the infectious stage

None.
Invades intestinal mucosa and spreads to other
Amoebiasis or It gets transmitted by
parts like liver. Causes dysentery and liver
Amoebic dysentery contaminated food or
abscesses.The infected stage is trophozoites
water

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 African Sleeping
B-lymphocyte proliferation leading to tissue
sickness or Tsetse fly
damage
Trypanosomiasis

Destroys epithelial cells and cytotoxic substances

Sexually transmitted are released. Vaginal pH increases and the
Trichomoniasis
disease (STD) number of leukocytes also increases in response
to the toxic substance released by the pathogen

Transmission by
Sporozoites penetrate the intestinal cells and
contaminated water
multiply in the intestine. It invades the lymphatic
Toxoplasmosis and soil or get
system and blood and damages the tissue leading
attached to fur of
to necrosis
animals

Excystation occurs in the small intestine.

Balantidiasis Pigs
Sporozoites migrate to the colon

Mucosal damage is related to the mucosal

None.
inflammation and release of lectin or proteinases.
It gets transmitted by
Giardiasis Malabsorption may also be due to inhibition of
contaminated food or
pancreatic enzymes and depletion of bile
water
concentration

Female Sandflies (of The flagellated promastigotes of the parasite bind

Leishmaniasis or
the genus to macrophages present in the skin. There is
Kala-azar
Phlebotomus) marked suppression of cell-mediated immunity

Zoonotic Diseases
The word ‘Zoonosis’ (Pleural: Zoonoses) was introduced by Rudolf Virchow in 1880 to
include collectively the diseases shared in nature by man and animals.

Later WHO in 1959 defined that Zoonoses are those diseases and infections which are
naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man.

Zoonotic Diseases are diseases that can be passed between animals and humans.
Viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungi can cause zoonotic diseases.

Examples –

• Chikungunya

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 • Malaria
• Yellow Fever
• Zika Virus Disease
• Dengue Fever
• Ebola
• Hepatitis E
• Rabies
• Japanese Encephalitis
• Filariasis
• Lyme disease
• Babesiosis
• Ehrlichiosis
• Ringworm
• Swine flu, also known as the H1N1 virus – caused by type A influenza virus.
• West Nile virus – causes a viral infection that is typically spread by
mosquitoes and can cause neurological disease as well as death.

Neglected tropical diseases

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a diverse group of tropical infections that are
especially common in low-income populations in developing regions of Africa, Asia,
and the Americas.

Populations living in poverty, without adequate sanitation and in close contact with
infectious vectors and domestic animals and livestock are the worst affected.

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations
that looks into matters regarding public health.

They are caused by a variety of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa and
helminths.

Examples –

• Buruli Ulcer
• Rabies
• Dengue
• Chikungunya

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 • Leprosy (Hansen’s disease)
• Lymphatic Filariasis
• Yaws
• Trachoma
• Schistosomiasis

West Nile Virus

• West Nile Virus (WNV) can cause neurological disease and death in people.
WNV is commonly found in Africa, Europe, the Middle East, North America,
and West Asia.
• WNV is maintained in nature in a cycle involving transmission between birds and
mosquitoes. Humans, horses, and other mammals can be infected.
• West Nile Virus (WNV) is a member of the flavivirus genus and belongs to the
Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex of the family Flaviviridae. Birds are the
natural hosts of the West Nile virus.

Leishmaniasis
• Historically known as “Aleppo boil,” this parasitic infection has recently, as the
name suggests, become a problem among Syrian refugees.
• Producing disfiguring skin ulcerations, and occasionally spreading to internal
organs with fatal consequences, the increase of cases turning up in Europe
among migrants has made it the subject of considerable media interest.
• Leishmaniasis is spread by the bite of the sandfly, however, which means it
has a northern limit to its range.

Tuberculosis (TB)
• TB is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis, belonging
to the Mycobacteriaceae family consisting of about 200 members.
• In humans, TB most commonly affects the lungs (pulmonary TB), but it can
also affect other organs (extra-pulmonary TB).
• TB is a very ancient disease and has been documented to have existed in
Egypt as early as 3000 BC.
• TB is a treatable and curable disease.
• TB is spread from person to person through the air. When people with lung
TB cough, sneeze or spit, they propel the TB germs into the air.

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 • Symptoms: Common symptoms of active lung TB are cough with sputum and
blood at times, chest pains, weakness, weight loss, fever and night sweats.
• NIKSHAY– A web-based solution for monitoring of TB patients to monitor the
Revised National Tuberculosis Programme (RNTCP) effectively, a web-enabled
and case-based monitoring application called NIKSHAY has been developed by
National Informatics Centre (NIC).
• Global Impact of TB:
• In 2019, 87% of new TB cases occurred in the 30 high TB burden
countries.
• Eight countries accounted for two thirds of the new TB cases:
• India, Indonesia, China, Philippines, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh
and South Africa.
• India reported 1.8 million TB cases between January and
December 2020 as compared to 2.4 million the year before.
• In 2019, MDR-TB remained a public health crisis and a health security
threat.
• MultiDrug Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a strain of TB
that cannot be treated with the two most powerful first-line
treatment anti-TB drugs. Extensively Drug Resistant
Tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is a form of TB caused by bacteria that
are resistant to several of the most effective anti-TB drugs.
• BCG Vaccine:
• BCG was developed by two Frenchmen, Albert Calmette and Camille
Guerin, by modifying a strain of Mycobacterium bovis (that causes TB
in cattle). It was first used in humans in 1921.
• In India, BCG was first introduced in a limited scale in 1948 and
became a part of the National TB Control Programme in 1962.
• In addition to its primary use as a vaccine against TB, it protects against
respiratory and bacterial infections of the newborns, and other
mycobacterial diseases like Leprosy and Buruli’s ulcer.
• It is also used as an immunotherapy agent in cancer of the urinary
bladder and malignant melanoma.
• One intriguing fact about BCG is that it works well in some geographic
locations and not so well in others. Generally, the farther a country is
from the equator, the higher is the efficiency.
• It has a high efficacy in the UK, Norway, Sweden and Denmark;
and little or no efficacy in countries on or near the equator like
India, Kenya and Malawi, where the burden of TB is higher.

Leprosy

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 • Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is a chronic infectious disease
caused by Mycobacterium leprae.
• The disease mainly affects the skin, the peripheral nerves, mucosal
surfaces of the upper respiratory tract, and the eyes.
• Leprosy is known to occur at all ages ranging from early infancy to very old age.
Leprosy is curable and early treatment averts most disabilities.
• Leprosy is curable with a combination of drugs known as multidrug therapy
(MDT), as the treatment of leprosy with only one antileprosy drug (monotherapy)
will result in the development of drug resistance to that drug.
• The combination of drugs used in the MDT depends on the classification of the
disease. Rifampicin, the most important antileprosy medicine, is included in the
treatment of both types of leprosy.
• For the treatment of patients with multibacillary leprosy, WHO recommends a
combination of rifampicin, clofazimine, and dapsone; for patients with
paucibacillary leprosy, MDT uses a combination of rifampicin and dapsone.

Alzheimer’s Disease
• It is a progressive brain disorder that typically affects people older than 65. It
destroys brain cells and nerves and disrupts the message-carrying
neurotransmitters.
• When it affects younger individuals, it is considered early onset.
• Eventually, a person with Alzheimer’s loses the ability to perform day-to-day
activities.
• Symptoms include memory loss, difficulty in completing familiar
tasks, confusion with time or place, problems in speaking and
writing, decreased or poor judgment, and changes in mood and personality.
• There is no cure for Alzheimer’s because its exact causes are not known. Most
drugs being developed try to slow down or stop the progression of the disease.

Parkinson’s Disease
• Parkinson’s disease is a chronic, degenerative neurological disorder that affects
the central nervous system.
• It damages nerve cells in the brain dropping the levels
of dopamine. Dopamine is a chemical that sends behavioral signals from the
brain to the body.

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• The disease causes a variety of “motor” symptoms (symptoms related to the
movement of the muscles), including rigidity, delayed movement, poor balance,
and tremors.
• Medication can help control the symptoms of the disease but it can’t be cured.
• It affects the age group from 6 to 60 years. Worldwide, about 10 million
people have been affected by this disease.

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 Hepatitis – Causes, Treatment & Types | Hepatitis
B

Hepatitis
Hepatitis refers to an inflammatory condition of the liver. It disturbs various
metabolic processes such as bile production, excretion, fat and protein
metabolism, activation of enzymes, and synthesis of proteins.

It’s commonly caused by a viral infection, but there are other possible causes of
hepatitis. These include autoimmune hepatitis and hepatitis that occurs as a
secondary result of medications, drugs, toxins, and alcohol.

• Autoimmune hepatitis is a disease that occurs when your body makes

antibodies against your liver tissue.
It can be acute (inflammation of the liver that presents with sickness — jaundice, fever,
vomiting) or chronic (inflammation of the liver that lasts more than six
months, but essentially showing no symptoms).

World Hepatitis Day is observed each year on 28th July to enhance awareness of viral
hepatitis.

Your liver is located in the right upper area of your abdomen. It performs many
critical functions that affect metabolism throughout your body, including:

• bile production, which is essential to digestion

• filtering of toxins from your body
• excretion of bilirubin (a product of broken-down red blood cells), cholesterol,
hormones, and drugs
• breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
• activation of enzymes, which are specialized proteins essential to body
functions
• storage of glycogen (a form of sugar), minerals, and vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
• synthesis of blood proteins, such as albumin
• synthesis of clotting factors

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Causes
• Usually caused by a group of viruses known as the “hepatotropic” (liver-
directed) viruses, including A, B, C, D, and E.
• Other viruses may also cause it, such as the varicella virus that
causes chickenpox. SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing Covid-19 may injure the
liver, too.
• Other causes include drugs and alcohol abuse, fat buildup in the liver (fatty
liver hepatitis), or an autoimmune process in which a person’s body makes
antibodies that attack the liver (autoimmune hepatitis).

Types of Viral Hepatitis

Viral infections of the liver that are classified as hepatitis include hepatitis A, B, C, D,
and E.

A different virus is responsible for each type of virally transmitted hepatitis.

Hepatitis A is always an acute, short-term disease, while hepatitis B, C, and D are

most likely to become ongoing and chronic. Hepatitis E is usually acute but can
be particularly dangerous in pregnant women.

Hepatitis A

• It is an infectious disease of the liver that is caused by the Hepatitis A

virus. It is acute and in most of cases, symptoms could not be recognized in

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 young people. Symptoms include vomiting, nausea, fever, severe abdominal
pain, jaundice, weakness, and these symptoms might last longer till eight
weeks.
• It is transmitted to others by contaminated food, water, and by being in
close contact with the infected person. It can be diagnosed with some simple
blood tests. Hepatitis A vaccine helps in preventing disease.

Hepatitis B

• It is an infectious disease caused by an infection with the Hepatitis B virus. It

is contracted through flat tired wounds, contact with blood, saliva, fluids of
an infectious body.
• Sharing personal belongings such as razors or toothbrush of an infected
person can also cause Hepatitis B.
• Hepatitis B symptoms include abdominal pain, fatigue, and jaundice.
Symptoms do not come to the limelight until one to six months. It could be
diagnosed through a common blood test.
• Hepatitis B Vaccine could be done for both adults and children. It comprises
three intramuscular vaccines. Second and third vaccines are provided after one
and six months of the first vaccine.

Hepatitis C

• It is an infection that is caused by the Hepatitis C virus in the liver. This can
be transferred from needles that have been infected, at the time of birth (i.e.
transmitted from infected mother to child), through body fluids of an
infected person, having sex with multiple partners specifically with HIV-infected
persons. It is also rarely found in semen (cum) and vaginal fluids.
• Hepatitis C is mainly passed on through using contaminated needles and
syringes or sharing other items with infected blood on them. It’s also a
sexually transmitted infection (STI) that can be passed on through unprotected
sex, especially when blood is present.
• It does not spread through food or water.
• Symptoms include loss of appetite, tiredness, frequently occurring fever,
yellowing of your skin or eyes, joint pain, abnormalities in urine, and
abdominal pain. These signs occur after six or seven weeks of exposure to a
virus. Signs might take even several years to appear in rare cases.
• However, unlike hepatitis B, it is not sexually transmitted and there is no
known vaccine for hepatitis C.

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Hepatitis D

• It is one of the severe liver diseases that are caused by the virus Hepatitis
D (HDV). It spreads from infected blood or wound. Sometimes it might occur
in conjunction with Hepatitis B.
• Hepatitis D is a rare form of hepatitis that only occurs in conjunction with
hepatitis B infection. The hepatitis D virus can’t multiply without the presence of
hepatitis B.

Hepatitis E

• Hepatitis E is a waterborne disease caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV). It

might be circulated through food, water, and contaminated blood.
• Hepatitis E is mainly found in areas with poor sanitation and typically results
from ingesting fecal matter that contaminates the water supply. It could be either
acute or chronic.

Complications of hepatitis
Chronic hepatitis B or C can often lead to more serious health problems. Because the
virus affects the liver, people with chronic hepatitis B or C are at risk for:

• chronic liver disease

• cirrhosis
• liver cancer
When your liver stops functioning normally, liver failure can occur. Complications of liver
failure include:

• bleeding disorders
• a buildup of fluid in your abdomen, known as ascites
• increased blood pressure in portal veins that enter your liver, known as portal
hypertension
• kidney failure
• hepatic encephalopathy, which can involve fatigue, memory loss, and diminished
mental abilities due to the buildup of toxins, like ammonia, that affect brain
function
• hepatocellular carcinoma, which is a form of liver cancer
• death

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People with chronic hepatitis B and C are encouraged to avoid alcohol because it
can accelerate liver disease and failure. Certain supplements and medications can
also affect liver function.

Global Scenario:

• Hepatitis B and C together are the most common cause of deaths, with 1.3
million lives lost each year.
• In 2016, 194 governments across the globe adopted WHO’s global strategy
which aims at eliminating viral hepatitis by 2030.
Indian Scenario:

• 40 million people are chronically infected with Hepatitis B virus and 6 to 12

million with Hepatitis C virus.
• In 2018, the government launched the National Viral Hepatitis Program. The
program is the largest program for Hepatitis B and C diagnosis and treatment in
the world.
• Hepatitis B is included under India’s Universal Immunization
Programme (UIP) which provides free of cost vaccination against eleven
(excluding Hepatitis B) vaccine-preventable diseases i.e.
Tuberculosis, Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus, Polio, Pneumonia, and
Meningitis due to Haemophilus Influenzae type b (Hib), Measles, Rubella,
Japanese Encephalitis (JE) and Rotavirus diarrhea.

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 Nuclear Energy

Energy is the most fundamental requirement of every society or nation as it progresses

through the ladder of development.

In recent times, the world has been dealing with a power and energy crisis. While the
factors that caused this emergency differ country to country, the upshot has been a
clamour to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and look for viable alternatives.

In this context, Nuclear Energy has a lot to offer. On one side, it may be the cheapest,
greenest and safest source of energy currently known to man. On the other, it has
also been responsible for some of the worst disasters in the history of mankind

Nuclear energy is a form of energy released from the nucleus, the core of atoms,
made up of protons and neutrons. This source of energy can be produced in two
ways: fission – when nuclei of atoms split into several parts – or fusion – when nuclei
fuse together.

The nuclear energy harnessed around the world today to produce electricity is
through nuclear fission, while the technology to generate electricity from fusion is in
the R&D phase.

• Nuclear Fission:
• The nucleus of an atom splits into two daughter nuclei.
• This decay can be natural spontaneous splitting by radioactive decay, or
can actually be simulated in a lab by achieving necessary conditions
(bombarding with neutrons, alpha particles, etc.).
• The resulting fragments tend to have a combined mass which is less
than the original. The missing mass is usually converted into nuclear
energy.
• Currently, all commercial nuclear reactors are based on nuclear fission.
• Nuclear Fusion:
• Nuclear Fusion is defined as the combining of two lighter nuclei into a
heavier one.
• Such nuclear fusion reactions are the source of energy in the Sun and
other stars.
• It takes considerable energy to force the nuclei to fuse. The conditions
needed for this process are extreme – millions of degrees of temperature
and millions of pascals of pressure.
• The hydrogen bomb is based on a thermonuclear fusion reaction.
However, a nuclear bomb based on the fission of uranium or plutonium
is placed at the core of the hydrogen bomb to provide initial energy.

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Criticality:

• Criticality is the first step towards power production. A nuclear reactor is said
to be critical when the nuclear fuel inside a reactor sustains a fission chain
reaction.
• Each fission reaction releases a sufficient number of neutrons to sustain a
series of reactions. Heat is produced in the event, which is used to generate
steam that spins a turbine to create electricity.
• Fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or
more smaller nuclei, and some byproducts.
• When the nucleus splits, the kinetic energy of the fission fragments
(primary nuclei) is transferred to other atoms in the fuel as heat energy,
which is eventually used to produce steam to drive the turbines.

Fissile and Fertile materials

• Fissile material is one that can sustain a chain reaction upon bombardment by
neutrons.
• Fertile meaning that it can transmute into a fissile radioisotope (U-233) but
cannot itself keep a chain reaction going.
• Thorium is by itself fertile.
• In a thorium reactor, a fissile material like uranium or plutonium is blanketed by
thorium.
• The fissile material, also called a driver in this case, drives the chain reaction
to produce energy while simultaneously transmuting the fertile material into fissile
material.

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Isotopes

• Atoms and elements are made of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The nucleus
is made of protons and neutrons, and the electrons surround the nucleus. The
sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons is equal to the atomic
mass.
• Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but that have a different
number of neutrons. Since the atomic number is equal to the number of protons
and the atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons, we can also say
that isotopes are elements with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers.
• For example: U-233, U-235, U-238 (U – Uranium)
• Out of these three U-233 and U-235 are fissile whereas U-238 is fertile.
• The first two breakdowns to produce heat and neutrons as well as 2 lighter nuclei
whereas the third-one changes into Pu-239 which is fissile substance. Similarly,
Th-232 is also a fertile element, it changes into U-233.

Nuclear Reactor

• A nuclear reactor, or power plant, is a series of machines that can control nuclear
fission to produce electricity. The fuel that nuclear reactors use to produce
nuclear fission is pellets of the element uranium. In a nuclear reactor, atoms of
uranium are forced to break apart. As they split, the atoms release tiny particles
called fission products. Fission products cause other uranium atoms to split,
starting a chain reaction. The energy released from this chain reaction creates
heat.
• The heat created by nuclear fission warms the reactor’s cooling agent. A cooling
agent is usually water, but some nuclear reactors use liquid metal or molten salt.
The cooling agent, heated by nuclear fission, produces steam. The steam turns
turbines, or wheels turned by a flowing current. The turbines drive generators or
engines that create electricity.
• Rods of material called nuclear poison can adjust how much electricity is
produced. Nuclear poisons are materials, such as a type of the element xenon,
that absorb some of the fission products created by nuclear fission. The more
rods of nuclear poison that are present during the chain reaction, the slower and
more controlled the reaction will be. Removing the rods will allow a stronger chain
reaction and create more electricity.
Components of a nuclear power plant

• Fuel
• Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are
arranged in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel
assemblies in the reactor core.* In a 1000 MWe class PWR there might be
51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.

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• Moderator
• Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from fission
so that they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be heavy
water or graphite.
• Control rods or blades
• These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium,
hafnium or boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core to control
the rate of reaction, or to halt it.
• Coolant
• A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In
light water reactors the water moderator functions also as primary coolant
• Pressure vessel or pressure tubes
• Usually a robust steel vessel containing the reactor core and
moderator/coolant, but it may be a series of tubes holding the fuel and
conveying the coolant through the surrounding moderator.
• Steam generator
• Part of the cooling system of pressurised water reactors (PWR & PHWR)
where the high-pressure primary coolant bringing heat from the reactor is
used to make steam for the turbine, in a secondary circuit.

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Benefits of Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear energy offers many advantages as the emissions-free workhorse of
our energy grid. Its unique value cannot be found in any other energy source.
• Nuclear protects national security.
• U.S. leadership in nuclear energy maintains safety and nonproliferation
standards globally, supports a resilient electrical grid at home, and fuels a
strong navy.
• Nuclear fights climate change.
• Nuclear energy provides large amounts of 24/7 carbon-free electricity
now, which is irreplaceable in protecting the environment.
• Nuclear ensures U.S. leadership in technology.

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 • The United States pioneered nuclear energy for the world and, with
continued leadership, can respond to growing clean energy demand
worldwide with advanced reactors.
• Nuclear produces electricity reliably.
• Around-the-clock electricity is a must for our nation to prosper in the 21st
century. Clean, reliable nuclear energy is a critical part of U.S.
infrastructure because it runs nonstop for 18-24 months at a time.
• Nuclear generates jobs.
• Nuclear energy provides more than 100,000 well-paid, long-term jobs and
supports local economies with millions of dollars in state and local tax
revenues.
• Nuclear protects our air.
• Nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and mercury: all things
you don’t want in the air you breathe. Nuclear energy provides power 24/7
without a trace of those pollutants.
• Nuclear boosts international development.
• Nuclear energy helps developing nations meet sustainable development
goals.
• Nuclear power electric vehicles. Electrified transportation promises to reduce
carbon emissions. When powered by carbon-free nuclear energy, electric
vehicles can reach their full potential.

Why Nuclear Energy?

• Availability of Thorium: India is the leader of the new resource of nuclear
fuel called Thorium, which is considered to be the nuclear fuel of the future.
• With the availability of Thorium, India has the potential to be the first
nation to realise the dream of a fossil fuel-free nation.
• Cuts Import Bills: Nuclear energy will also relieve the nation of about $100
billion annually which we spend on importing petroleum and coal.
• Stable and Reliable Source: The greenest sources of power are definitely solar
and wind. But solar and wind power, despite all their advantages, are not stable
and are dependent excessively on weather and sunshine conditions.
• Nuclear power, on the other hand, provides a relatively clean, high-
density source of reliable energy with an international presence.
• Cheaper to Run: Nuclear power plants are cheaper to run than their coal or
gas rivals. It has been estimated that even factoring in costs such as managing
radioactive fuel and disposal nuclear plants cost between 33 to 50% of a coal
plant and 20 to 25% of a gas combined-cycle plant.

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Challenges to Adoption of Nuclear Energy
• Capital Intensive: Nuclear power plants are capital intensive and recent nuclear
builds have suffered major cost overruns. An illustrative example is the V.C.
Summer nuclear project in South Carolina (U.S.) where costs rose so sharply
that the project was abandoned — after an expenditure of over $9 billion.
• Insufficient Nuclear Installed Capacity: In 2008, the Atomic Energy
Commission projected that India would have 650GW of installed capacity by
2050; the current installed capacity is only 6.78 GW.
• Such targets were based on the expectation that India would import many
light-water reactors after the India-U.S. civil nuclear deal. But, the deal
has not led to the establishment of a single new nuclear plant, over
13 years after it was concluded.
• Lack of Public Funding: Nuclear power has never received the quantum of
generous subsidy the fossil fuel received in the past and renewable is
receiving currently.
• In absence of public funding, nuclear power will find it tough to compete
against natural gas and renewables in the future.
• Acquisition of Land: Land acquisition and selection of location for Nuclear
Power Plant (NPP) is also a major problem in the country.
• NPP’s like Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu and Kovvada in Andhra Pradesh
have met with several delays due to the land acquisition related
challenges.
• Impact of Climate Change: Climate change will increase the risk of nuclear
reactor accidents. During the world’s increasingly hot summers, several
nuclear power plants have already had to be temporarily shut down or taken off
the grid.
• Further, nuclear power plants depend on nearby water sources to cool
their reactors, and with many rivers drying up, those sources of water
are no longer guaranteed.
• The frequency of such extreme weather events is likely to increase in the
future.
• Deployment at Insufficient Scale: It might not be the appropriate choice for
mitigating India’s carbon emissions since it cannot be deployed at the
necessary scale.
• Nuclear Waste: Another side effect of nuclear power is the amount of nuclear
waste it produces. Nuclear waste can have drastically bad effects on life,
causing cancerous growths, for instance, or causing genetic problems for
many generations of animals and plants.
• In a densely populated country such as India, land is at a premium
and emergency health care is far from uniformly available.

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India’s Initiatives Regarding Nuclear Energy
• India has consciously proceeded to explore the possibility of tapping nuclear
energy for the purpose of power generation.
• In this direction a three-stage nuclear power programme was
formulated by Homi Bhabha in the 1950s.
• The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 was framed and implemented with the set
objectives of using two naturally occurring elements Uranium and Thorium as
nuclear fuel in Indian Nuclear Power Reactors.
• In December, 2021, the Government of India informed Parliament about building
ten indigenous Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) to be set up in
fleet mode and had granted “in principle approval” for 28 additional
reactors, including 24 to be imported from France, the U.S. and Russia.
• Recently, the Centre has given in-principle (first step ) approval for setting up
of six nuclear power reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra.
• Jaitapur would be the world’s most powerful nuclear power plant.
There would be six state-of-the-art Evolutionary Power Reactors
(EPRs) with an installed capacity of 9.6 GWe that will produce low carbon
electricity.
• The six nuclear power reactors, which will have a capacity of 1,650 MW
each, will be set up with technical cooperation from France.

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 Types of Nuclear Power Reactor

Nuclear reactors are machines that contain and control nuclear chain reactions while
releasing heat at a controlled rate.

A nuclear power plant uses the heat that a nuclear reactor produces to turn water into
steam, which then drives turbine generators that generate electricity.

There are several types of power reactors, but only one, the light-water reactor, is widely
used.

Light-water reactors
Light-water reactors (LWRs) are power reactors that are cooled and moderated with
ordinary water. There are two basic types: the pressurized-water reactor (PWR)
and the boiling-water reactor (BWR).

Pressurized-water reactor (PWR)

In the PWR, water at high pressure and temperature removes heat from the core and is
transported to a steam generator. There the heat from the primary loop is transferred to
a lower-pressure secondary loop also containing water. The water in the secondary loop
enters the steam generator at a pressure and temperature slightly below that required to
initiate boiling. Upon absorbing heat from the primary loop, however, it becomes
saturated and ultimately slightly superheated. The steam thus generated ultimately
serves as the working fluid in a steam-turbine cycle.

• Pros:
• Strong negative void coefficient — reactor cools down if water starts
bubbling because the coolant is the moderator, which is required to
sustain the chain reaction
• Secondary loop keeps radioactive stuff away from turbines, making
maintenance easy.
• Very much operating experience has been accumulated and the designs
and procedures have been largely optimized.
• Cons:
• Pressurized coolant escapes rapidly if a pipe breaks, necessitating lots of
back-up cooling systems.
• Can’t breed new fuel — susceptible to “uranium shortage”

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Boiling-water reactor (BWR)
A BWR operates on the principle of a direct power cycle. Water passing through the
core is allowed to boil at an intermediate pressure level. The saturated steam that exits
the core region is transported through a series of separators and dryers located within
the reactor vessel that promote a superheated state. The superheated water vapour is
then used as the working fluid to turn the steam turbine.

• Pros:

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 • Simpler plumbing reduces costs
• Power levels can be increased simply by speeding up the jet pumps,
giving less boiled water and more moderation. Thus, load-following is
simple and easy.
• Very much operating experience has been accumulated and the designs
and procedures have been largely optimized.
• Cons:
• With liquid and gaseous water in the system, many weird transients are
possible, making safety analysis difficult
• Primary coolant is in direct contact with turbines, so if a fuel rod had a
leak, radioactive material could be placed on the turbine. This complicates
maintenance as the staff must be dressed for radioactive environments.
• Can’t breed new fuel — susceptible to “uranium shortage”
• Does not typically perform well in station blackout events, as in
Fukushima.

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CANDU Reactors [ Canada Deuterium Uranium
(CANDU) reactor ]
The CANDU is a Canadian pressurized heavy-water reactor design used to generate
electric power. The acronym refers to its deuterium oxide moderator and its use of
uranium fuel.

It uses enriched Uranium as its fuel while Heavy water serves as coolant and neutron
moderator. The heavy water is kept under high pressure, allowing it to be heated to
higher temperatures without boiling, like in pressurized water reactor

• Pros:
• Requires very little uranium enrichment.
• Can be refueled while operating, keeping capacity factors high (as long as
the fuel handling machines don’t break).
• Are very flexible, and can use any type of fuel.
• Cons:
• Some variants have positive coolant temperature coefficients, leading to
safety concerns.
• Neutron absorption in deuterium leads to tritium production, which is
radioactive and often leaks in small quantities.
• Can theoretically be modified to produce weapons-grade plutonium
slightly faster than conventional reactors could be.

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Sodium Cooled Fast Reactor
A sodium-cooled fast reactor is a fast neutron reactor cooled by liquid sodium.
The initials SFR in particular refer to two Generation IV reactor proposals, one based on
existing liquid metal cooled reactor technology using mixed oxide fuel, and one based on
the metal-fueled integral fast reactor.

These reactors are cooled by liquid sodium metal. Sodium is heavier than hydrogen, a
fact that leads to the neutrons moving around at higher speeds (hence fast). These can
use metal or oxide fuel, and burn a wide variety of fuels.

Several sodium-cooled fast reactors have been built and some are in operation,
particularly in Russia.

• Pros:
• Can breed its own fuel, effectively eliminating any concerns about uranium
shortages (see what is a fast reactor?)
• Can burn its own waste

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 • Metallic fuel and excellent thermal properties of sodium allow for passively
safe operation — the reactor will shut itself down safely without any
backup-systems working (or people around), only relying on physics.
• Cons:
• Sodium coolant is reactive with air and water. Thus, leaks in the pipes
results in sodium fires. These can be engineered around but are a major
setback for these reactors.
• To fully burn waste, these require reprocessing facilities which can also be
used for nuclear proliferation.
• The excess neutrons used to give the reactor its resource-utilization
capabilities could clandestinely be used to make plutonium for weapons.

Fast Reactors
A fast-neutron reactor (FNR) or fast-spectrum reactor or simply a fast reactor is a
category of a nuclear reactor in which the fission chain reaction is sustained by
fast neutrons (carrying energies above 1 MeV or greater, on average), as opposed to
slow thermal neutrons used in thermal-neutron reactors.

Such a fast reactor needs no neutron moderator but requires fuel that is
relatively rich in fissile material when compared to that required for a thermal-neutron
reactor.

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Fast reactors are a class of advanced nuclear reactors that have some key advantages
over traditional reactors in safety, sustainability, and waste.

While traditional reactors contain moderators to slow down neutrons after they’re
emitted, fast reactors keep their neutrons moving quickly (hence the name). Fast
neutrons can unlock the energy in the dominant isotope of uranium (U238) and
thus extend known fuel resources by around 200x.

Pros

• Fast reactors get more neutrons out of their primary fuel than thermal reactors, so
many can be used to breed new fuel, vastly enhancing the sustainability of
nuclear power.
• Fast reactors are capable of destroying the longest-lived nuclear waste,
transforming it to waste that decays to harmlessness in centuries rather than
hundreds of millennia.
• Fast reactors typically use liquid metal coolants rather than water. These have
superior heat-transfer properties and allow natural circulation to remove the heat
in even severe accident scenarios. The result: if something goes very wrong at
the plant, and none of the operators are awake, AND none of the control rods
work, the reactor can just naturally shut itself down. This comes with a con
(see cons).
• Fast reactors can employ metallic fuel rather than oxides (thanks to chemical
compatibility with the liquid metal coolant). Since metal has very high thermal
conductivity, the reactor can shut itself down without surpassing temperature
limits. This enhances the safety of these reactors significantly.

Cons

• While fast reactors are up to 200x more resource efficient, they require 3x or
more fissile atoms to start up initially. This is the main reason why thermal
reactors were developed first.
• Time scales in fast reactors are typically faster than those in thermal reactors
(mostly because there are fewer delayed neutrons in fast reactors). Thus they
can go through unpredicted changes faster than thermal reactors.
• Bubbles in fast reactor coolant can cause the reactor to heat up rather than cool
down, as in a traditional reactor. Higher heat makes more bubbles, which make
more heat, and so on. This positive feedback is scary (but manageable, thanks
to overpowering negative feedback).
• To keep the neutrons moving quickly, fast reactors require exotic
coolants derived from heavy atoms. The most common coolant is liquid sodium,
which is well known but highly reactive with air and water. Another is liquid lead-
bismuth eutectic, which isn’t the most pleasant material either. These bizarre
materials require extra care and lower tolerance in many systems (such as
piping), possibly bringing costs up.

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Www.iasbio.com | Www.exammap.com | WhatsApp for Free NOTES +918987187161
 India’s Three Stage Nuclear Power Programme

This Programme was formulated in the 1950s by Dr. Homi Bhabha to secure the
country’s long-term energy independence, via the use of uranium and thorium reserves
found in the monazite sands of coastal regions of South India especially the state of
Kerala. The ultimate focus is on the Thorium Fuel Cycle.

In 1954 Asia’s first research reactor APSARA was installed. It was followed
by CIRUS from Canada under the “Atoms for peace program” later India
developed Dhruva which is still the largest supplier of Plutonium for weapons,
besides them, BARC has developed ZERLINA and PURNIMA I-II-III out of them
only DHRUVA is operating.

Indira Gandhi center for Atomic research has developed following research reactor –

• Kamini
• Fast Breeder test reactor
• Prototype fast breeder reactor – it has not yet started the operation.
India’s Three Stage Nuclear Power Programme are as follows:

• Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

• Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
• Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
Stag-1 (PHWR)

• The first stage involved using natural uranium to fuel PHWR to produce electricity
and producing Plutonium-239 as a by-product.
• Kindly note here that the PHWRs were chosen for the first stage because in
1960s, India had the efficient reactor design in terms of uranium utilisation.
• It was calculated that rather than going for creation of Uranium Enrichment
Facilities, it would be wiser to create heavy water production.
• Moreover, using Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors rather than Light Water
Reactors was also a correct and wise decision. While Pressurized Heavy Water
Reactors used unenriched uranium, Light Water Reactors required enriched
uranium. Further, India could domestically produce the components of PWHR, as
opposed to LWRs.
• Furthermore, the by-product plutonium-239 would be used in the second stage.
First Stage: Following Reactors

1. Boiling Water Reactor

2. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor

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 3. Pressurized Water Reactor
BWR:

• In 1962, India signed an agreement with USA and got two BWR.
• First installed reactor at Tarapore.
• Light water as moderator and coolant
• Enriched uranium as Fuel
PHWR:

• Also known as CANDU- Canadian Deuterium Uranium

• Heavy water as moderator and coolant
• Natural uranium as fuel
• Majority of India’s working reactor are this
PWR:

• Light Water Reactor

• Light water as the moderator and coolant
• Enriched uranium as fuel
• USP is safety mechanisms incorporated in them
• Belong to Generation III +
India is having PWR from Russia and France

VVER: Voda Voda Energy Reactor from Russia

Stag-2 (FBR)

• The second stage involves using plutonium-239 to produce mixed-oxide fuel,

which would be used in Fast Breeder Reactors. Plutonium 239 undergoes fission
to produce energy, and metal oxide is reacted with enriched uranium reacts with
mixed-oxide fuel to produce more plutonium-239.
• Furthermore, once a sufficient amount of plutonium-239 is built up, thorium will be
used in the reactor, to produce Uranium-233. This uranium is crucial for the third
stage.
Second stage: Only one type of reactor

Fast Breeder Reactor:

• First at Kalpakkam in TN
• Uses Pu-239 as fuel and u-238 is converted into Pu-239
• Also known as Fast Neutron Reactor

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 • No moderator
• Coolant is liquid Na
Stag-3 (AHWR)

• The main purpose of stage-3 is to achieve a sustainable nuclear fuel cycle. The
advanced nuclear system would be used as a combination of Uranium-233 and
Thorium. Thus, India’s vast thorium would be exploited, using a thermal breeder
reactor.
• Thorium use was reserved for the last stage because despite having significant
availability, the use of Thorium in the production of energy has been full of certain
challenges. It cannot be used directly.
• Since it is a fertile material, it can be only used with added fissile material that
can be enriched Uranium, Plutonium, or Uranium-233 (obtained after irradiation
of Thorium).
• Thorium absorbs neutrons, which can more efficiently produce more Plutonium in
a Fast Breeder Reactor for faster growth.
• Therefore, using Thorium in the first, or an early part of the second stage of the
nuclear power program will adversely affect the rate of growth of nuclear power
generation capacity in the initial periods.
• Due to these reasons, large-scale deployment of Thorium was postponed until
the later part of the second stage. Thorium is to be introduced only at an optimal
point during the operation of Fast Breeder Reactors in the second stage.
• Thorium, for power generation, is to be used mainly in the third stage.
AHWR: Advanced Heavy Water Reactor: BARC is developing

• Fuel is U-233 but it will use Thorium to make U-233, so very important
• Light water as coolant
• Heavy water as moderator

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 Nuclear energy in India

India’s Nuclear-weapons journey

India embarked on the path of nuclear weapons development after its face-off with
China in the 1962 war, followed by China carrying out nuclear tests in 1964 and in the
subsequent years.

• In 1974, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, India conducted its first nuclear
tests, Pokhran-I, dubbed as a “peaceful nuclear explosion”.
• Despite more than two decades of international pressure that followed to make
India abandon its pursuit of nuclear weapons, India again carried out a test in
May 1998, Pokhran-II, involving a fission device, a low-yield device, and a
thermonuclear device. Its successful execution meant that India had the ability to
introduce nuclear warheads into its fast-developing missile programme.
• A fortnight after the Pokhran-II tests, Pakistan also carried out similar tests,
confirming progress with its nuclear weapons programme; since that time its
nuclear arsenal has expanded rapidly.
In 1999, India came out with an explicit nuclear doctrine that committed, among other
things, to No first use(NFU) — that is it would never carry out a nuclear first-strike. This
doctrine emphasized “minimal deterrence, no first use and non-use against non-nuclear-
weapon states”, in the words of former National Security Adviser Shivshankar Menon.
The NFU promise thus went together with credible minimum deterrence (CMD).

Nuclear Energy in India

India’s nuclear power plants, mostly set up during the sanction years, provide only 3% of
the energy mix. After the historic Indo-US nuclear deal 2008, the first two plants
at Kundankulam – established with Russian assistance.

Nuclear fuel of the future: Thorium

According to the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD), a
constituent Unit of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), India has 11.93 million
tonnes of Monazite (ore) which contains about 1.07 million tonnes of thorium.

The country’s thorium reserves make up 25 per cent of the global reserves. It can easily
be used as a fuel to cut down on the import of Uranium from different countries.

• Through U-233 that could be produced from it releases 8 times the amount of
energy per unit mass compared to natural U.
• In waste generation also, it has a relative advantage over Uranium. Thorium
dioxide is much more stable the Uranium dioxide
• Higher thermal conductivity so in case of explosion heat energy will quickly flow
out and prevent a meltdown.

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 • The melting point is 500 degrees higher so in case of accident heat energy will
flow out quickly and prevent a meltdown.
Thorium Cycle – Working

Thorium-232 is a fertile material. The thorium cycle can be understood in following

figure:

Reasons it has not been developed

• First, one needs to produce U-233 from Th, and for this, reactors based on the
naturally available nuclear fuel material, Uranium-235, are required.
• Recovery of U-233 by large-scale reprocessing of irradiated thorium poses
certain practical hurdles.
• Thorium cannot be weaponized and world powers built nuclear energy plants
after they built the weapon.
Spent Fuel Reprocessing Process

• The nuclear fuel mix has a high amount of fissile material. Once it is used, the
amount of non-fissile material and by-products would increase and that material
cannot be used again as fuel in its present form. This is called spent fuel.
• It may or may not be re-usable. If spent fuel is not reprocessed, the fuel cycle is
referred to as an open fuel cycle (or a once-through fuel cycle); if the spent fuel is
reprocessed, it is referred to as a closed fuel cycle.
• India’s nuclear programme is oriented towards maximizing the energy potential of
available uranium resources and the utilization of the large thorium reserve.
• Available global uranium resources cannot sustain the projected expansion of
nuclear power without adopting the closed fuel cycle approach.

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Uranium Enrichment-
UE is an artificial process in which the percentage of U-235 is enhanced and for this
purpose, centrifuges are used. Naturally occurring U is comprised of two isotopes i.e. U-
235 and U-238. Natural Uranium consists of 99.3 % of U-238 which is not fissile material
i.e. not suitable as fuel and 0.7 % of U-235, which is very fissile and used as fuel.

So, it is required to convert it in maximum percentage for use.

In enrichment process the % of the fissile isotopes are increased by using centrifuges.

In enrichment isotopic separation is done by using lessors and diffusion. Enriched U falls
into two categories-

1. LEU (Low Enriched Uranium) In this case the % of U-235 is equal to or less than 20,
it is used for peaceful processes like fuel for the nuclear reactor for example Jaitapur
requires 5% enriched U as the fuel.

2. HEU (High enriched Uranium) HEU is also known as weapon-grade Uranium. The
% of U-235 can go beyond 90. It is used for conducting nuclear tests and configuring
nuclear weapons under any circumstance such as material can not be transferred to any
country.

Nuclear Cooperation Agreement

One of the plans of action devised by India to address climate change is to produce 25%
of its total electricity from nuclear by 2050, for 2032 the target is 27000 MWE, for 2020
the goal is 20,000 MWE and current production is 6780 MWE which is 2 to 3 % of total
electricity.

Domestically India can produce only 1/5 of total nuclear fuel, therefore, the Nuclear
cooperation agreement was a sign with Argentina, Australia, Canada, France, Japan,
Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Namibia, South Korea, Russia, UK, USA, Uzbekistan.

Under this agreement India was promised –

• Nuclear Fuel
• Nuclear reactor
• ENR Technology (enrichment and reprocessing)
Reprocessing is the extraction of useful elements from the spent fuel rods, but later the
USA, Russia, and France asked India to get the membership of NSG then only access
to ENR will be allowed.

India’s obligation –

1. Separation plan
2. Safeguard agreement

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As India is not a member of NPT, therefore, it was asked to classified it’s nuclear
facilities in civilian and military categories and those which are in civilian were to brought
under the inspection of IAEA through safeguard agreement, In 2006 India was having 21
reactors out of them 14 were brought in the civilian list and 8 in the military list. India is
the only country other than the 5 nuclear weapon states which are allowed to maintain
military reactors. It implies India’s recognition as a country with nuclear weapons.

Additional Protocol – It was adopted by IAEA in the 1990s to increase its presence in the
nuclear programme of non-nuclear weapon states. In 1993 IAEA adopted a programme
i.e. 93+2 to address the weaknesses of safeguard mechanism, this led the genesis of
the additional protocol. The difference between safeguard agreement and additional
protocol is that under former only declared sites can be brought under the inspection
whereas under additional protocol both declared as well as undeclared sites can be
inspected.

India refused to sign the protocol which has been signed by non-nuclear weapon state
rather it negotiated a new one and gave 3 commitments-

1. To bring 14 civilian reactors under IAEA inspection

2. It will inform IAEA if Uranium is exported to non-nuclear weapon states
3. It will communicate to IAEA if Th is being exported to non-nuclear to weapon
states.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

• The International Atomic Energy Agency is an international organization that

seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and inhibit its use for any
military purpose, including nuclear weapons.
• As the preeminent nuclear watchdog under the UN, the IAEA is entrusted with
the task of upholding the principles of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of
1970.
• It was established as an autonomous organisation on July 29, 1957, at the height
of the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
• Headquartered in Vienna, Austria, the IAEA is a UN agency.
• Though established independently of the UN through its own international treaty,
the agency reports to both the UN General Assembly and the UNSC.
• India became a member in 1957 itself.
• The IAEA has regional offices in Geneva, New York, Toronto and Tokyo; and
research laboratories in Austria, Italy and Monaco.
• What are its safeguards?
• Safeguards are activities by which the IAEA can verify that a State is
living up to its international commitments not to use nuclear
programmes for nuclear-weapons purposes.

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 • Safeguards are based on assessments of the correctness and
completeness of a State’s declared nuclear material and nuclear-related
activities.
• Verification measures include on-site inspections, visits, and ongoing
monitoring and evaluation.
• Basically, two sets of measures are carried out in accordance with the type of
safeguards agreements in force with a State.
• One set relates to verifying State reports of declared nuclear material
and activities.
• Another set enables the IAEA not only to verify the non-diversion of
declared nuclear material but also to provide assurances as to the
absence of undeclared nuclear material and activities in a State.

IAEA Governance
The IAEA has two policymaking bodies. They are:

1. General Conference
2. Board of Governors
General Conference

• It consists of all the member countries of the IAEA.

• It meets in a regular annual session.
• The annual general conference usually takes place in September.
Board of Governors

• Here, there are 35 members.

• The Board generally meets five times a year.
• It examines and makes recommendations to the IAEA’s General Conference on
the organisation’s programme, financial statements and budget.
• The Board considers membership applications, approves safeguards agreements
and the publication of the safety standards of the IAEA.
• It also appoints the Director-General of the IAEA, with the approval of the
General Conference.
Secretariat

• The IAEA also has a Secretariat which comprises the organisation’s professional
and general service staff. It is headed by the Director-General.

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 India’s Nuclear Policy

Nuclear diplomacy and India: controversies and

relations
Voluntary restriction on Nuclear Testing – also described as safe guard moratorium on
nuclear testing. In order to define liability in case of nuclear accident a law will be
passed.

The indo-US nuclear deal is popularly described as 1 2 3 agreement because it was

signed as per section 1 2 3 of the US atomic energy act 1954. The section says if a
country has signed an NPT and US president is satisfied then US can share nuclear
technology for peaceful use, in case of India the problem was it has not adopted NPT
therefore in 2006 US amended section 1 2 3 through Hyde act which removed the
requirement of NPT, the deal was concluded in 2007 and ratified by the Indian
parliament in 2008.

The highlights of agreement are –

1. The US will supply nuclear fuel to India rather it will help in maintaining the
strategic reserves of Uranium i.e. at least one-year fuel in advance for the
reactors in the civil category, in case the US is not able to fulfill requirement then
it will ask others to supply the nuclear fuel.
2. The US will give India a nuclear reactor one of their suppliers is exporting 6
reactors for kovvada in Andhra Pradesh.
3. The US was very reluctant to allow the reprocessing of the spent fuel. Their
argument was that such a facility is not been extended to any country.

The text of agreement says India will set up a centralized reprocessing facility
where the spent fuel of all the 14 reactors will be brought and it should be
safeguard with IAEA.
US was looking to establish a connection between termination of deal and nuclear
testing, which was outrightly rejected by India. The agreement says that if India conducts
the nuclear test then US will try to understand the circumstances that will be followed by
negotiation b/w two countries which should conclude within a year.

Any of two, terminate the deal by giving one-year notice in advance. The deal is
reviewed annually by the US president.

Implication of the deal –

1. India’s nuclear isolation was broken.

2. Access to the latest nuclear technology which is vital for energy security.
3. Recognition as a country with nuclear weapon.

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 4. Retaining the right of conducting the nuclear test.
5. De-hyphenation of India-Pakistan by USA.

Indo-Japan Nuclear deal-

India is only non-NPT country with whom Japan has signed the nuclear cooperation
agreement. The agreement was finalised in Nov-2016. This deal was important for two
reasons-

1. Japan along with China and Russia enjoyed the monopoly over the steel which
requires the core of the Nuclear reactor.
2. The French supplier Areva is controlled by Mitsubishi, general electric, and
Westinghouse of USA are controlled by Hitachi and Toshiba respectively, in the
absence of an agreement with Japan the French and American suppliers would
have failed to get the consent for supplying the nuclear reactor. When the
negotiation started with Japan, they proposed highly unrealistic conditions that
India has to make unequivocal conditions that it will never conduct the nuclear
test. This was refused by India rather it was insisting on 1 2 3 models.
Following the Fukushima accident in 2011, the talks got suspended. Later when they
were resumed India changed the proposal from purchasing the steel to purchase of
reactors. The nuclear agreement with Japan has two set of documents –

1. Notes on views and understanding, it carries two commitments by India

• No first use
• Voluntary restricting on nuclear testing
2. The second set of documents is the main agreement. According to Japan, both
the document was binding whereas the Indian position is that only main
agreement is binding. Japan is trying to establish a connection b/w the
conduction of the nuclear test and the termination of the nuclear deal. India can
not accept this interpretation because then the others will also start demanding
similar provisions and one more possible is negative fallout is the dilution of
predictability among the nuclear agreement which might hurt the prospect of NSG
membership.
Given the geopolitical scenario where the US is withdrawing and China is expanding it is
highly unlikely that Japan will do anything to undermine India’s position. Realistically
India will conduct the nuclear test if China carries out some serious provocation, given
the fact that China is as big a security threat to Japan as it is to India, Japan will have a
sympathetic view.

According to the agreement Indian companies and their Japanese counterpart will form
the joint venture to built nuclear reactors. This arrangement will facilitate the transfer of
technology. India will reprocess the spent fuel for Japan, this is how the japan has been
made a stack holder in the process of having the NSG membership.

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India’s Nuclear Policy
After the success of Cyrus, and indigenous reactor with the name Dhruva was
developed so as to have an indigenous source of Pu for the weapons. The first nuclear
test was in May-1974 with the name operation Smiling Buddha which was described
as a peaceful nuclear explosion by PM Gandhi, their explosion was carried out all of
them were fission devices and sub-kiloton devices.

The yield of the nuclear test is expressed in kiloton with respect to TNT(Trinitrotoluene).
In response to the nuclear test by India a cartel came into existence in the form of
Nuclear Supplier Group. Initially, it was also called London club, its purpose is to control
the transfer of nuclear technology and to do so it takes decisions to consensus if a
country is looking to receive nuclear technology but not a membership then it has to
fulfill two conditions –

1. Sign NPT
2. Adopt full scope safeguard i.e. bring all the present and future nuclear facilities
under the inspection of IAEA.
For the membership there are 5 conditions –

1. Should be in a position to export the technology

2. Compliance with the guidelines
3. Contribution in preventing nuclear proliferation at the international level.
4. Should have taken the step to address proliferation domestically
5. Sign NPT or any one of the following treaties which have declared a nuclear-
weapon-free zone.
1. Treaty of Bangkok – it has declared southeast as nuclear-weapon-free
2. Treaty of Pelindaba – to declare Africa as a nuclear-weapon-free
3. Treaty of Tlatelolco – to declare Latin America as a nuclear-weapon-free
4. Treaty of Rarotonga – which has declared small island nations as a
nuclear-weapon-free
5. Treaty of Semipalatinsk – to declare central Asia as nuclear-weapon-free
When India started the negotiation for nuclear cooperation agreement, one of the
questions was – why would NSG will permit the USA, Russia, France to share nuclear
technology with India. In Sep-2008 the external affairs minister Mr. Pranav Mukherji
address NSG and gave to commitments-

• No first use
• Self-imposed moratorium on nuclear testing
Very next day US brought a resolution that in case of India none of two conditions will
apply and it can receive Nuclear technology from the member. This is described as
special clean waiver till date NSG has granted such exemption only to one country.

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Following the disagreement over nuclear liability act USA pushed NSG chairman to write
a letter to IAEA regarding the fulfilment of condition. Following this development US,
Russia, and France especially USA started insisting that India should get membership of
NSG.

The liability issue was resolved in 2015 and for the first time claim for membership was
made in June-2016 When the NSG meeting was held in Seoul. During voting, China and
9 other countries voted against us. Their argument was India is not a member of NPT
which is a mandatory clause.

On the other hand, is instead of a criteria-based approach the approach should be

based on performance where non-proliferation credentials should be considered.
Following that China proposed that all the non-NPT countries like Israel, North Korea,
Pakistan should also be made members along with India and for that it will devise a two-
step formula, spent more than 2 years there is no hint for that formula. They are just
looking to delay if not deny the entry.

India is working on a multipronged strategy –

• It has got the membership of multilateral export control regimes like MTCR,
Australia Group, Wassenaar Arrangement, along with NSG these three forms of
technology denial regime.
• India is looking to improve relations with China in that regard two informal
summits have taken place in Wuhan and Chennai. If China does not agree then
the next option is to have the support of 47 other members to isolate it.
The membership will have the following positives –

1. It will facilitate access to sensitive nuclear technologies which in turn will push the
nuclear power programme in the desired direction.
2. By virtue of being the member India will be able to export nuclear technology
especially in the neighborhood.
In 1998 five nuclear tests were conducted under operation Shakti. Out of them 4 were
fission devices and one was a thermonuclear device, a few days later Pakistan
conducted its first nuclear test to give a message to the global community that the
purpose is not to attack rather it is to defend that is why National Security Advisory
Board headed by Mr. K. Subramanyam asked to drafted the nuclear doctrine. It was
made public in 1999 and adopted on 4 Jan-2003.

The highlights of doctrine are-

1. No first Use

When the nuclear doctrine was discussed and debated there were three school of
thought –

• Pragmatism (favouring no first use)

• Maximalism (supporting first use)

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 • Rejectionism
Finally, pragmatic school of thought prevails and No first use was adopted. It says India
will not be first to use a nuclear weapon but if attacked it will carry out massive retaliation
to cause unacceptable damage.

This is known as second-strike capability. To have second-strike nuclear tried is required

i.e. all the 3 wings (Army, Navy, Airforce) must have the mechanism to deliver nuclear
weapons. Especially the navy must have a submarine that can use nuclear missiles. The
tried was completed when INS-Arihant was inducted, it uses the missile Sagarika which
can carry nuclear Warhead but to have credible tried just should be at least 4-5
submarine i.e. being negotiated by India with other countries like Russia and France.

In 2003 when the doctrine was adopted there was a slight modification b/c of the
following clause which says irrespective of the fact whether a country is a nuclear
weapon state or non-nuclear weapon state, if it uses biological or chemical weapons
against us then the retaliation will be in the form of nuclear weapons.

This might sound like a dilution of no first use but it is a deterrent that India has to project
as it does not have the stocks nor the production facility of biological or chemical
weapons rather it is a signatory of the biological and toxic logical convention as well as
Chemical weapon convention. United Nations has officially recognized that we neither
produce nor we have the stocks of such weapons.

In 2010 National security advisor said no first use is pledge only towards non-nuclear
weapon state, at times there is debate that India should move from no first use to first
use policy which is supported by the following structural factors –

1. India’s technological today is much better compared to 2003 therefore the shift is
possible.
2. The gap b/w India and China in terms of conventional war have increased, one of
the options to neutralize that edge enjoyed by china is to carry out the first strike.
3. Pakistan had adopted terrorism as an instrument as state policy against India
these attacks over a period of time have caused huge looses therefore the option
of the first strike should be considered.
No first Use has also many positives associated with it-

1. If two countries are having no first use policy then the possibility of nuclear war is
minimum, On the contrary, if both countries are having first use policy then the
chances of nuclear war maximum.
2. No first use saves political leadership from unnecessary psychological pressure.
3. By adopting no first use participating in arms race can be avoided but in first use
the attacker must have more weapons and missile than the adversary.
4. No first use was one of the critical factors when nuclear deals were signed and
NSG granted India especially clean waiver the change in policy will adversely
affect these arrangements, Instead of changing the policy the focus should be on

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 anti-ballistic missile system as well as improving the nuclear tried through
submarine and better fighter aircraft. It will enhance the credibility of deterrence.
2. India will not use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon states – India will
continue with the policy of voluntary restriction on nuclear testing.

3. For decision making, there is nuclear command authority comprising of the political
council headed by the PM. Executive council under national security adviser, National
security advisory board, and Strategic force command under the officer of the rank of Air
marshal. The final decision lies with the political council, but the responsibility of
execution is on strategic forces command, as per protocol whenever PM is not available
the responsibility is delegated to someone else.

4. Credible Minimum deterrence

As per this policy India will always maintain certain minimum no. of a nuclear weapon to
cause unacceptable damage to work out what is unacceptable to our country it is
important to understand their society, polity, economy, and defense setup.

A. China
B. Japan
C. Singapore
D. India

Answer – D

India’s and Asia’s first nuclear reactor was the Apsara research reactor at
Mumbai.

On 4th August 1956, the APSARA reactor attained criticality. The design of
APSARA, a pool type reactor, using enriched uranium fuel was conceptualized in 1955
by Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha, the great visionary and father of the Indian nuclear
program.

International Atomic Energy Agency

• About:
• Widely known as the world’s “Atoms for Peace and
Development” organization within the United Nations family, the IAEA is
the international centre for cooperation in the nuclear field.
• Establishment:
• The IAEA was created in 1957 in response to the deep fears and
expectations generated by the discoveries and diverse uses of nuclear
technology.
• Headquarter: Vienna, Austria.
• Objective:

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 • The Agency works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide
to promote safe, secure and peaceful use of nuclear technologies.
• In 2005, it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their work for a
safe and peaceful world.
• Functions:
• It is an independent international organization that reports annually to
the United Nation General Assembly.
• When necessary, the IAEA also reports to the UN Security Council in
regards to instances of members’ non-compliance with safeguards and
security obligations.
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited

• The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is an Indian public

sector undertaking, Headquartered at Mumbai.
• It is wholly owned by the Government of India and is responsible for the
generation of nuclear power for electricity.
• NPCIL is administered by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).
As of 2020, there are 22 reactors with an installed capacity of 6780 MWe operating
above 80% plant load factor in the country.

• Among these eighteen reactors are Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors

(PHWRs) and four are Light Water Reactors (LWRs).

The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)

• The SIPRI is an independent international institute dedicated to research into

conflict, armaments, arms control and disarmament.

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 • Established in 1966 at Stockholm, SIPRI provides data, analysis and
recommendations, based on open sources, to policymakers, researchers, media
and the interested public.
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT)

• The NPT is a landmark international treaty whose objective is:

• to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology,
• to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy,
• and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament.
• The Treaty represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the
goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States.
• Opened for signature in 1968, the Treaty entered into force in 1970.
• A total of 191 States have joined the Treaty, including the five nuclear-weapon
States.

Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010

• The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 aims to cater to the civil
requirements for victims of those who were affected due to nuclear
disasters. This act ensures apt compensation as a helping hand for the victims.
• The aim of the Nuclear Damage Act is to provide a helping hand to the victims
of nuclear damage or disaster in terms of compensation or other means.
• This act was adopted to activate the 2008 Indo-U.S. civilian nuclear
agreement as the United States nuclear reactor manufacturing companies will
require the liability bill to get insurance in their home state.
• It effectively caps the maximum amount of liability in case of each nuclear
accident at ₹15 billion (US$200 million) to be paid by the operator of the
nuclear plant, and if the cost of the damages exceeds this amount, special
drawing rights up to 300 million will be paid by the Central Government.
• The Act made amendments in the Atomic Energy Act 1962 allowing private
investment in the Indian nuclear power program.
• The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 empowers the Government to produce,
develop, use and dispose of atomic energy either by itself or through any
authority or Corporation established by it or a Government company.
• It legally and financially binds the operator and the government to provide
relief to the affected population in the case of a nuclear accident.

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 • It defines the share of financial liability. It states that the liability of an operator
for each nuclear incident shall be:
• for nuclear reactors having power equal to 10 MW or above Rs. 1,500
crores (i.e. Rupees 15 billion)
• in respect of spent fuel reprocessing plants, rupees 300 crores
• in respect of the research reactors having thermal power below 10 MW,
fuel facilities other than spent fuel reprocessing plants and transportation
of nuclear materials, Rupees one hundred crores (Rupees 1 billion).
However, the Central government may review the operator’s liability from
time to time and specify a higher amount and the remaining amount will be
paid by the Indian government.
• It limits the time to make a claim within 10 years.

CSC
• Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC) is
an important strategy aimed at building an effective worldwide liability regime
and to enhance the supply of the compensation available to the victims of
nuclear accidents.
• A state has to comply with the norms and annexure of the CSC and abide by its
rules to become an eminent part of it.
• Therefore, the state should check all the norms of the act before planning to
become a part of it.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

• The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as

the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective
is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to
promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further
the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete
disarmament.
• It is the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of
disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States.
• Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by the Eighteen Nation
Committee on Disarmament, a United Nations-sponsored organization based in
Geneva, Switzerland.
• It was opened for signature in 1968 and the Treaty entered into force in
1970 and in 1995 it was extended indefinitely.

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 • Treaty aims to:
• Prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology.
• Promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
• Nuclear disarmament.
• The three objectives viz. non-proliferation, disarmament, and the right to
peacefully use of nuclear technology, are sometimes called the three pillars of
NPT.

Member countries

• A total of 191 States have joined the Treaty, including the five nuclear-weapon
States
• Four UN member states have never accepted the NPT, three of which
possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons: India, Israel, and
Pakistan.
• In addition, South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined.
• North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985, then withdrew in 2003.
• The Treaty represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to
the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States.

Important Treaty Articles

Articles Provision

Articles I The nuclear-weapon states(NWS) agree not to help non-nuclear-weapon states(NNWS), develop or
and II acquire nuclear weapons, and the NNWS permanently forswear the pursuit of such weapons

This article tasks the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) with the inspection of the non-nuclear-
Article III
weapon states’ nuclear facilities

It acknowledges the “inalienable right” of states-parties to research, develop, and use nuclear energy
Article IV for non-weapons purposes. It also supports the “fullest possible exchange” of such nuclear-related
information and technology between NWS and NNWS

It commits states-parties to “pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to

Article VI cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on
general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control

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Objectives:

• To further the goal of non-proliferation and as a confidence-building measure

between States parties, the Treaty establishes a safeguards system under the
responsibility of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
• Safeguards are used to verify compliance with the Treaty through
inspections conducted by the IAEA.
• The Treaty promotes cooperation in the field of peaceful nuclear technology
and equal access to this technology for all States parties, while
safeguards prevent the diversion of fissile material for weapons use.
• The provisions of the Treaty, particularly article VIII, envisage a review of
the operation of the Treaty every five years,a provision which was reaffirmed
by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference.

Implications:

• States without nuclear weapons will not acquire them.

• States with nuclear weapons will pursue disarmament.
• All states can access nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, under
safeguards.

Key provisions:

• The Treaty defines nuclear weapon states (NWS) as those that had
manufactured and detonated a nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January
1967. All the other states are therefore considered non-nuclear weapon states
(NNWS).
• The five nuclear weapon states are China, France, Russia, the United
Kingdom, and the United States.
• The Treaty does not affect the right of state parties to develop, produce,
and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.

Role of States:

• Nuclear weapon states are not to transfer to any recipient whatsoever

nuclear weapons and not to assist, encourage, or induce any NNWS to
manufacture or otherwise acquire them.
• Non-nuclear weapons states are not to receive nuclear weapons from any
transferor, and are not to manufacture or acquire them.

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 • NNWS must accept the International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) safeguards on all nuclear materials on their territories or under their
control.

India and the NPT

Before the Treaty Decision

• Even when initial disarmament negotiations in the early years of the 1960s
veered around issues like ‘non-spread’ and ‘non-dissemination’ of nuclear
weapons, the Indian quest was largely for a comprehensive disarmament
instrument that could also address issues like nuclear test-ban, ending production
of fissile materials as well as delivery systems, reducing stockpiles and facilitating
their total elimination
• However, the Indian approach began to change on the eve of the
impending Chinese nuclear test in 1964
• So, India’s position on the NPT was probably set in concrete when it became
clear that the treaty would recognise NWS only those countries that had exploded
a nuclear device prior to January 1, 1967.
• That meant China would be included and India excluded; and this would
be discriminatory on India’s part who had contributed so much to Nuclear
development earlier.
Why India hasn’t signed the treaty yet?

• India argues that the NPT creates a club of “nuclear haves” and a larger
group of “nuclear have-nots” by restricting the legal possession of nuclear
weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never
explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid
• India considers NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for
universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment
• Further, the demonstration of a nuclear weapons capability in the 1974 explosion
guaranteed India the ability to effectively hedge in an asymmetric
international system
• India’s assertion to maintain a degree of Political Autonomy has shaped
better foreign policy choices as well.

Has not signing NPT, cost India?

• Reduced accessibility to Nuclear Energy

• If India had signed the Treaty, it would probably have had ten times more
than the 6,780 MW of nuclear power that it has today.
• Nuclear power, if one goes strictly by the book, is safe and also clean and
cheap; and this could have had a multiplier effect on economy as well

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 • Good example is the 500 MW Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor that India
began building in 2004, at Kalpakkam and is yet to complete apparently,
because of the fear of handling the tricky coolant, liquid sodium
• Despite India testing its Nuclear bomb first, it has lost its superiority with
Pakistan
• In 1998, Pakistan first tested it Nuclear weapon
• Now, India and Pakistan both are nuclear weapon owners, but this
rendered India’s conventional military superiority irrelevant
• Had India signed NPT after its first Nuclear test in 1974, it would be
difficult to see Pakistan being assisted by China; which would retain the
military edge with India.

Concessions, India has secured in Nuclear perspective

• India despite being a non-signatory to NPT has secured the following concession
form nuclear perspective:
• In 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of
criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear
technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22
nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them under
IAEA safeguards
• In 2006, United States Congress approved the United States-India
Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal, which
allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India
• In 2011, Australia announced to allow Uranium exports to India, with
strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and
not end up in nuclear weapons.

Criticism against NPT

• Over the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as
“a conspiracy of the nuclear ‘haves’ to keep the nuclear ‘have-nots’ in their
place”
• India has criticized the NPT, because it “discriminated against states not
possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967
• The “NPT has one giant loophole“:
• Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the “inalienable right” to
pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power.
• The United Nations has argued that they can do little to stop states using
nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons
• Further, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals
made by NPT signatories, notably the United States

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Should India join NPT now?

• Yes, why?
• Being the non-signers of the NPT, several trade sanctions were imposed
on India, straining several international relations.
• One of the biggest reasons for India to join the NPT was the access to
“peaceful nuclear technology” from the nuclear countries to the non-
nuclear countries so the latter could develop their programs.
• The restricted international trade prevented India from obtaining nuclear
resources to develop their nuclear program, leading to a temporary dead
end.
• Also, India wishes to be on a member of the UNSC (United Nations
Security Council). And all the members of the UNSC are members of the
NPT, it is speculated that this might be the source of some friction for
India.
• No, why?
• The spirit of the NPT creates a divide, between countries that did develop
nuclear power before 1967 and those that didn’t develop nuclear power
before 1967. It only gives the ‘Permanent 5’ the right to hold weapons.
• Although it permits the use of nuclear energy for constructive purposes, it
puts all the other nations at risk.
• India, despite being a nuclear weapons state, would have had to sign the
treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state, and in addition has to
undergo inspections. The NPT, in India’s opinion doesn’t explain the
need for this distinction and loss of national sovereignty
• So, India should rather keep up with its ”no first use” treaty, going
ahead.

Multilateral Export Control Regimes

A multilateral export control regime is an informal group of like-minded supplier

countries that seek to contribute to the non-proliferation of weapons of mass
destruction, delivery systems, and advanced conventional weapons through the
national implementation of guidelines and control lists for exports.

• MECR are voluntary and non-binding agreements, and independent of the

United Nations.
• Their regulations apply only to members and it is not obligatory for a
country to join.

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 • India is now a member of three of the four MECRs, except the Nuclear
Supplier Group.
There are currently four such regimes:

• The Wassenaar Arrangement (WA) on Export Controls for Conventional Arms

and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies
• The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), for the control of nuclear and nuclear-
related technology
• The Australia Group (AG) for the control of chemical and biological
technology that could be weaponized
• The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) for the control of rockets and
other aerial vehicles capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction

Nuclear Suppliers Group

• The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is a group of nuclear supplier countries that
seeks to contribute to the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons through the
implementation of two sets of Guidelines for nuclear exports and nuclear-related
exports.
• The NSG came into being as a response to the 1974 nuclear tests by
India. There is a Trigger List and items from the list are forbidden to be exported
to Non-NPT member countries.
• It has 48 participating governments. China is a member of the NSG but not
of the Wassenaar Arrangement or the MTCR.
• India is not a member of the NSGbecause all its efforts were consistently
blocked by China and some other members.
• India’s bid for membership being blocked on the ground of India being a
non-signatory to the nuclear non-proliferation treaty(NPT).
• China demanded for non-discriminatory procedures for entry of the
countries that haven’t signed NPT.
• China to further obstruct India’s membership demand, had clubbed
India’s membership bid with that of Pakistan’s. However, Pakistan’s
credentials for membership is extremely inaccurate.

Australia Group
• The Australia Group (AG) is an informal forum of countries which, through the
harmonisation of export controls, seeks to ensure that exports do not
contribute to the development of chemical or biological weapons.
• The formation of the Australia Group (AG) in 1985 was prompted by Iraq’s
use of chemical weapons during the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)

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 • Coordination of National export control measures assists Australia Group
members to fulfil their obligations under the Chemical Weapons Convention and
Biological & Toxin Weapons Convention.
• The Australia Group has a list of 54 compounds that are identified to be
regulated in global trade. This list includes more items than the Chemical
Weapons Convention.
• It has 43 members (including the European Union). The members work on a
consensus basis. The annual meeting is held in Paris, France.
• India joined the Australia Group (AG) on 19 January 2018.
• The Australia Group decided to admit India as the Group’s 43rd Participant
through a consensus decision.
• India’s entry into the Group would be mutually beneficial and further contribute to
international security and non-proliferation objectives.
• The entry was expected to strengthen India’s concerted bid for
membership of Nuclear Supplier Group.

Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)

• It is an informal and voluntary partnership among 35 countries to prevent
the proliferation of missile and unmanned aerial vehicle technology capable
of carrying greater than 500 kg payload for more than 300 km.
• The members are thus prohibited from supplying such missiles and
UAV systems that are controlled by the MTCR to non-members.
• The decisions are taken by consensus of all the members.
• This is a non–treaty association of member countries with certain guidelines
about the information sharing, national control laws and export policies for missile
systems and a rule-based regulation mechanism to limit the transfer of such
critical technologies of these missile systems.
• It was established in April 1987 by G-7 countries – USA, UK, France,
Germany, Canada, Italy, and Japan.
• In 1992, the focus of the regime extended to on the proliferation of missiles for
the delivery of all types of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), i.e., nuclear,
chemical and biological weapons.
• It is not a legally-binding treaty. Hence, no punitive measures could be
taken against non-compliance to the guidelines of the regime.
• These efforts of non-proliferation of ballistic missile systems had further been
strengthened by “The International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile
Proliferation”, also known as the Hague Code of Conduct (HCOC), which was
established on 25 November 2002 as an arrangement to prevent the proliferation
of ballistic missiles with 136 UN member countries including India.

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 • India was inducted into the Missile Technology Control Regime in 2016 as
the 35th member.
• India has joined MTCR as a full member and also agreed to join the
Hague Code of conduct which bolstered its position as a responsible
nuclear state and strengthen its case for the membership of Nuclear
Suppliers Group.
• India can procure high-end missile technology and run joint programmes
for development of unmanned aerial vehicles with other countries. eg.
Procurement of theater missile interceptor “Arrow II ” from Israel, military
drones like “Avenger” from the USA etc.
• India being a member of the regime will have some obligations like
sharing critical information about its military and technological assets,
consulting other member countries regarding the export of any MTCR
items, especially those notified or denied by another partner.
• China is not a member of this regime but it had verbally pledged to adhere to
its original guidelines but not to the subsequent additions.

Wassenaar Arrangement
• The Wassenaar Arrangement is a voluntary export control regime. The
Arrangement, formally established in July 1996, has 42 members who
exchange information on transfers of conventional weapons and dual-use
goods and technologies.
• Dual-use refers to the ability of a good or technology to be used for
multiple purposes – usually peaceful and military.
• The Wassenaar Arrangement has been established in order to contribute to
regional and international security and stability, by promoting transparency and
greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and
technologies
• Wassenaar Arrangement’s Secretariat is in Vienna, Austria.
• It has 42 member states comprising mostly NATO and EU states.
• Participating States seek, through their national policies, to ensure that
transfers of these items do not contribute to the development or
enhancement of military capabilities which undermine these goals, and
are not diverted to support such capabilities. The aim is also to prevent the
acquisition of these items by terrorists.
• Participating States are required to report their arms transfers and
transfers/denials of certain dual-use goods and technologies to
destinations outside the Arrangement on a six-monthly basis.
• It is a successor to the Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export
Controls (COCOM) from the Cold War era.
• The Wassenaar Arrangement has control lists that document the dual-use goods
and technologies. These lists are updated regularly.

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 • The Wassenaar Arrangement Plenary is the decision-making body of the
Arrangement.
• It is composed of representatives of all Participating States and normally
meets once a year, usually in December.
• The position of Plenary Chair is subject to annual rotation among
Participating States.
• In 2018 the Plenary Chair was held by the United Kingdom, and in 2019
the Chair is held by Greece.
• All Plenary decisions are taken by consensus.
• India was inducted to the Wassenaar Arrangement on 7 December, 2017 as
the 42nd member.
• India joining the Wassenaar Arrangement implies that India is also
recognised to have dual use technology. There is an exchange of notes
when countries meet in such arrangements. So, India will gain access to
high technology which will help to address the demands of its defence
& space sectors.

Benefits to India by becoming a member of a Multilateral export

control regime:
The membership of a multilateral export control regime is beneficial for India due to the
following reasons:

• It would open the way for India to buy high-end missile technology from
member nations for use in peaceful purposes like its space programme under
the MTCR.
• India can export the most advanced UAVs for use in security and counter-
terrorism purposes under the MTCR for example, the Predator drone from the
USA.
• The range of the Brahmos missile can be extended beyond the 300km that it
has been limited to under the MTCR.
• India will be a part of the rule-making system and will not only adhere to the
rules but have a say in their formulation.
• It will allow India to ensure that the waiver due to the Indo-US 123 Agreement
(Civil nuclear agreement) stays and is not modified. This can only be done if
India becomes a member of the NSG.
• The membership of the MECRs also shows that India is a mature and
responsible nation and strengthens its bid for other major reforms in the
international order like reform of the UNSC.
• The fact that India was made a member of the Wassenaar Arrangement even
though it is not a signatory to the Nuclear NPT shows the strict adherence to non-
proliferation that India has maintained.

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• It would allow access to dual-use goods and technologies under the
Wassenaar Arrangement.
• It gives strategic significance to India’s stance as now India is a member of three
of the four MECRs where China is not a member. This will allow India a better
bargaining chip in its quest to gain a position in the NSG.

Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)

• The Nuclear Suppliers Group is a multilateral export control regime and a

group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear
proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment, and technology
that can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons.
• The NSG was formed in the wake of the nuclear tests conducted by India in
May 1974 which proved that certain non-weapons nuclear technology could be
used to develop nuclear weapons.
• The group had its first meeting in November 1975. A series of meetings held
in London produced agreements on export guidelines (Thus it is popularly
referred to as the “London Club”).
• Although initially there were only 7 countries as members, there are 48
participating governments as of 2022. India is not one of them. China
became a participating government in 2004. The European Commission and the
Zangger Committee Chair participate as observers.
• The NSG guidelines require that importing states provide assurances to
NSG members that proposed deals will not contribute to the creation of
nuclear weapons.
• Certain eligibility needs to be fulfilled for a country to become a member of the
NSG.
• A set of guidelines have been specified by NSG which need to be fulfilled
by every NSG country in order to be a part of the Nuclear Suppliers
Group. These guidelines have been divided into Part 1 and Part 2
guidelines. The first part of the guidelines comprises governing the export
of items that are especially designed or prepared for nuclear use. These
items are known as Trigger List Items as the transfer of an item triggers
safeguards.
• The second part of NSG guidelines is dedicated to the export of nuclear-
related dual-use items and technologies, that is, items that can make a
major contribution to an uncovered nuclear fuel cycle or nuclear explosive
activity. These items would, however, continue to be available for peaceful
nuclear activities that are subject to International Atomic Energy Agency
(IAEA) safeguards, as well as for other industrial activities where they
would not contribute to nuclear proliferation.

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 • Who can become a member of NSG?
• Signatories to the NPT can join the NSG.
• NSG works on the basis of consensus, i.e any decision needs to be
ratified by all member countries.
• Functions of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG):
• Controlling the export of nuclear material, equipment, and technology.
• Transfer of nuclear-related dual-use materials, software, and related
technology.
• Each member country must be informed about the supply, import, or
export of any nuclear-based product.
• NPT will not be the only body responsible for governing the export of
nuclear products. It will be divided between NPT and NSG.

NSG and India

• India is not a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group. India has been
pursuing member countries of NSG to become a member.
• India’s entry is being opposed by China, New Zealand, Ireland, Turkey, and
Austria stating India
• has not signed Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty(NPT).
• refuses to open its military nuclear sites to the IAEA.
• and has not ruled out the possibility of another nuclear test device in
the future.
• Following the India-US civil nuclear deal of 2006, the US lobbied hard for an
exception for India, citing the country’s impeccable record.
• Russia, France, UK, Germany, Italy, Turkey, and several other countries
have subsequently supported India’s membership bid.
• In 2008 the USA pressed the NSG to drop its long-time ban on exporting civilian
nuclear technology to India.
• So, NSG worked out “India-specific” conditions under which India would be
obliged to open only its civilian nuclear reactors to the IAEA.
• NSG members agreed to grant India a “clean waiver” from its existing rules, in
exchange for a commitment to “no nuclear trade with non-NPT countries.
• Since 2008, India has been trying to be a member country of the Nuclear
Suppliers Group and there are various reasons for India to constantly push the
US for accepting their offer to join.
• Given below are the reasons how joining NSG will be beneficial for India:

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 • It will provide the country with access to foreign-sourced nuclear
material and equipment, reducing the risk faced by foreign nuclear
industries in doing business with India.
• Increasing the business of these nuclear materials will enable India to
make better versions of nuclear breeders and export them to smaller
countries, thereby increasing the economic growth of the country.
• The Make In India program will also see a boost if India becomes a
member of NSG because nuclear power production would increase.
• Membership will increase India’s access to state-of-the-art technology
from the other members of the Group.
• It will also gain India an opportunity to initiate talks about the plutonium
trade for its thorium program and gain massive domestic profits.
• India aims to minimize the use of fossil fuels by 50 percent and use
more natural and renewable resources of energy. This is possible if
India gets access to nuclear raw materials and increases nuclear power
generation.
• Namibia is the fourth-largest producer of uranium and it agreed to sell the
nuclear fuel to India in 2009. However, that hasn’t happened, as Namibia
has signed the Pelindaba Treaty, which essentially controls the
supply of uranium from Africa to the rest of the world. If India joins the
NSG, such reservations from Namibia are expected to melt away.

Defence Research and Development

Organisation

Defence Research and Development Organisation

(DRDO)
DRDO works under the administrative control of the Ministry of Defence, Government of
India.

It is working to establish world-class science and technology base for India and provides
our Defence Services decisive edge by equipping them with internationally competitive
systems and solutions.

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Genesis & Growth

• DRDO was established in 1958 after combining Technical Development

Establishment (TDEs) of the Indian Army and the Directorate of Technical
Development & Production (DTDP) with the Defence Science Organisation
(DSO).
• Starting with 10 laboratories, DRDO has now grown to a network of 52
laboratories which are deeply engaged in developing defense technologies
covering various disciplines, like aeronautics, armaments, electronics, combat
vehicles, engineering systems, instrumentation, missiles, advanced computing
and simulation, special materials, naval systems, life sciences, training,
information systems, and agriculture.
• Presently, the Organisation is backed by over 5000 scientists and about 25,000
other scientific, technical, and supporting personnel.
• Several major projects for the development of missiles, armaments, light combat
aircraft, radars, electronic warfare systems, etc are on hand and significant
achievements have already been made in several such technologies.

Mission

• Design, develop, and lead to the production of state-of-the-art sensors, weapon

systems, platforms, and allied equipment for our Defence Services.
• Provide technological solutions to the Services to optimize combat effectiveness
and to promote the well-being of the troops.

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 • Develop infrastructure and committed quality manpower and build a strong
indigenous technology base.

Defence Space Research Agency

The Cabinet Committee on Security headed by Prime Minister has cleared the setting up
of this new agency called the Defence Space Research Agency (DSRO) which has been
entrusted with the task of creating space warfare weapon systems and technologies.

• The agency would be provided with a team of scientists who would be working in
close coordination with the tri-services integrated defense staff officers.
• The agency would be providing the research and development support to
the Defence Space Agency (DSA) which comprises members of the three
services.
• The DSA has been created to help the country fight wars in space.
• The Defence Space Agency is being set up in Bengaluru under an Air Vice
Marshal-rank officer and will gradually take over the space-related capabilities of
the three forces.
• India’s existing military space agencies — including the Defence Imagery
Processing and Analysis Centre, located in New Delhi, and the Defence Satellite
Control Centre, located in Bhopal — will be merged with DSA.

Defense Acquisition Organization (DAO)

In an effort to make the procurement process more effective and accountable and
secure defense procurement system and realize the ‘Make in India‘ move, the Indian
MoD is also planning to have a separate body for defense procurement.

The Defence Acquisition organization as recommended by Pritam Singh Committee, to

be a new autonomous organization created under the Ministry of Defence (MoD) to deal
with the procurement of the Armed Forces.

It will function within the defense ministry and will be in charge of formulating policy,
planning, and executing weapons purchases for the Armed Forces.

The motive is to create an organization that will not fall under the ambit of normal rules
of the government. To make the organization autonomous, it would be funded with a
certain percentage of the funds that it utilizes every financial year. In the first year, the
amount would be approximately Rs 400 crore.

Principles and Organizational Structure

Basic guiding principles suggested for its functioning to be an autonomous,
decentralized decision-making defense procurement organization(DPO) with
accountability and transparency with a manage delivery within the agreed PTCR

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(Performance, Cost, Time, and Risk) envelope as per the annual acquisition plans
based on:

• Risk management rather than risk avoidance

• Individual rather than group accountability.
• A quarterly measure of performance with the internal customers (Army, Navy, Air
Force)
• The process should be differentiated into three broad steps with autonomy and
accountability.
• Technical requirements identification.

Nuclear Command Authority

The Nuclear Command Authority (NCA) of India is the authority responsible for
command, control and operational decisions regarding India’s nuclear weapons
programme.

On 4 January 2003, the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) constituted the Political
Council and the Executive Council of the NCA. The Executive Council gives its opinion
to the Political Council, which authorises a nuclear attack when deemed necessary.
While the Executive Council is chaired by the National Security Advisor (NSA), the
Political Council is chaired by the Prime Minister.

This mechanism was implemented to ensure that Indian nukes remain firmly in civilian
control and that there exists a sophisticated Command and Control (C2) mechanism to
prevent their accidental or unauthorised use.

The Strategic Forces Command (SFC) sometimes called Strategic Nuclear Command,
forms part of India’s Nuclear Command Authority (NCA). It is responsible for the
management and administration of the country’s tactical and strategic nuclear weapons
stockpile.[

The directives of the NCA are to be operationalized by the Strategic Forces Command
under the control of a Commander-in-Chief of the rank of Air Marshal (or its equivalent)
in charge of the management and administration of the tactical and strategic nuclear
forces.

The Defence Planning Committee was notified by the Ministry of Defence (MoD) in
April 2018, the National Security Adviser (NSA) was appointed as the chairperson of the
committee, with the chairperson, Foreign Secretary, Defence Secretary, Chief of
Defence Staff, Chief of the Army Staff, Chief of the Air Staff, Chief of the Naval Staff,
and expenditure secretaries of Ministry of Finance being its members and the chief of
the Integrated Defence Staff (CIDS) being its member-secretary,[2][3][4] the NSA was
also given the mandate to co-opt members as they see fit.

According to the notification issued by the Indian Government the DPC will have several
mandates namely to

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 1. Prepare a draft National Security Strategy.
2. Develop a capability development plan.
3. Work on defence diplomacy issues.
4. Improving the defence manufacturing ecosystem in India
The Chief of Defence Staff of the Indian Armed Forces (CDS) is the head of the
military staff of the Indian Armed Forces and the chief executive of the Department of
Military Affairs. As the highest-ranking serving officer in the Indian Armed Forces, the
CDS is the commanding officer and chairperson of the Joint Commanders and Staff
Committee – making him the chief military adviser to the government of India and the
Ministry of Defence. As the professional head of the armed forces, the Chief of Defence
Staff is also aided by the newly formed office of Vice Chief of Defence Staff, the nation’s
second highest ranking military officer, and the three chiefs of staff of the army, navy
and air force, who are the leaders of each respective branch. The first and current CDS
is General Bipin Rawat, who took office on 1 January 2020

The CDS is a four-star officer selected from among the serving officers of the Indian
Armed Forces. While being “first among equals” among the service chiefs, the CDS is a
single-point military advisor to the defence minister. The CDS is assisted by a deputy,
the Vice Chief of the Defence Staff. The CDS heads the Department of Military Affairs
under the Ministry of Defence, as its secretary. Apart from heading the DMA, the CDS is
the Permanent Chairperson of the Chiefs of Staff Committee

Chief of Defence Staff is a critical position in today’s era of hybrid warfare, and will help
increase coordination, tri-service effectiveness and integrate overall combat capabilities
of Indian armed forces. The Defence Secretary, a civil servant, remains as the main
defence adviser, whilst the CDS has been sanctioned the role of being the main military
adviser, acting as the single-point military adviser to the government and Defence
Minister. India was the only large democracy which did not have a single point military
advisor; with all P5 countries having one.

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 Defence Technology in India

Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile

The terms ‘ballistic missile’ and ‘cruise missile’ appear in news articles wherever there is
a missile test. It is essential for us to understand these terms to understand various
Indian missile defense systems.

Ballistic Missile

• A ballistic missile follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver one or more warheads on

a predetermined target.
• A ballistic trajectory is the path of an object that is launched but has no active
propulsion during its actual flight (these weapons are guided only during
relatively brief periods of flight).
• Consequently, the trajectory is fully determined by a given initial velocity,
effects of gravity, air resistance, and motion of the earth (Coriolis Force).
• Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Longer-ranged intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), are launched on a sub-
orbital flight trajectory and spend most of their flight out of the atmosphere.

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Image Credits: Wikipedia

Types of ballistic missiles based on the range

• Short-range (tactical) ballistic missile (SRBM): Range between 300 km and

1,000 km.
• Medium-range (theatre) ballistic missile (MRBM): 1,000 km to 3,500 km.
• Intermediate-range (Long-Range) ballistic missile (IRBM or LRBM): 3,500 km
and 5,500 km.
• Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): 5,500 km +

Cruise missile

• A cruise missile is a guided missile (target has to be pre-set) used against

terrestrial targets.
• It remains in the atmosphere throughout its flight.
• It flies the major portion of its flight path at an approximately constant speed.
• Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with
high precision.

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 • Modern cruise missiles are capable of traveling at supersonic or high subsonic
speeds, are self-navigating, and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-
altitude trajectory.

Types of cruise missiles based on speed

• Hypersonic (Mach 5): these missiles would travel at least five times the speed of
sound (Mach 5). E.g. BrahMos-II.
• Supersonic (Mach 2-3): these missiles travel faster than the speed of sound.
E.g. BrahMos.
• Subsonic (Mach 0.8): these missiles travel slower than the speed of sound.
E.g. Nirbhay.

Differences between Ballistic Missile and Cruise Missile

Ballistic Missile Cruise Missile

It is propelled only for a brief duration after the

Self-propelled till the end of its flight.
launch.

Similar to a rocket engine. Similar to a jet engine.

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 Long-range missiles leave the earth’s atmosphere The flight path is within the earth’s
and reenter it. atmosphere.

Low precision as it is unguided for most of its path

Hits targets with high precision as it is
and its trajectory depends on gravity, air
constantly propelled.
resistance, and Coriolis Force.

Can have a very long-range (300 km to 12,000 The range is small (below 500 km) as it
km) as there is no fuel requirement after its initial needs to be constantly propelled to hit the
trajectory. target with high precision.

Heavy payload carrying capacity. Payload capacity is limited.

Can carry multiple payloads (Multiple

Usually carries a single payload.
Independently targetable Re-entry Vehicle)

Developed primarily to carry conventional

Developed primarily to carry nuclear warheads.
warheads.

E.g. Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II, and Dhanush

E.g. BrahMos missiles
missiles.

Air to Air Missile (AAM)

Air to Air Missile (AAM) is a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of destroying
another aircraft or any airborne object.

AAM is broadly classified into 2 types depending on the range factor of the missile.

1. Short Range Air to Air Missile (SRAAM) or Within Visual Range Air to Air
Missile (WVRAAM) – These Missiles are designed to engage aerial
targets within a range of 30 km. Most of these missiles use infrared guidance
and are called heat-seeking missiles. These missiles are designed for better
agility, hence they are also called dogfight missiles.

2. Beyond Visual Range Air to Air Missile (BVRAAM) – These missiles can hit
targets beyond the range of 37 Km. These are radar-guided missiles. They
don’t use infrared detector since the infrared signatures of aerial targets would be
too weak at long ranges.
Astra is the Beyond Visual Range Air to Air Missile (BVRAAM) developed by DRDO
(Defence Research and Development Organisation). It can engage aerial targets at a
range of 80 km – 110 km. It has been integrated with Sukhoi 30 Mki, Mirage 2000,
LCA, MiG-29 fighter aircraft.

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India’s Missile Systems
Missile Type Range

Astra air-to-air 80 km

Trishul surface-to-air 9 km

Akash surface-to-air 30 km

Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) surface-to-air 2000 km

Nag surface-to-surface Anti-tank missile 4 km

Prahaar surface-to-surface 150 km

BrahMos land, naval, air 300 km

Nirbhay land, naval, air 1000 km

K-15 Sagarika underwater-to-surface 700 km

Dhanush sea-to-sea/surface 350 km

Shaurya surface-to-surface 1900 km

Missile Features

Astra is a beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile (AAM).

In terms of size and weight, the Astra is the smallest missile developed by the DRDO.
Astra It was envisaged to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft at supersonic speeds.
Active radar seeker to find targets.
Electronic counter-measure capabilities.

Used as anti-sea skimmer (to fly low to avoid radar) from ships against low-flying
attacks.
Trishul Short-range, quick reaction, all-weather surface-to-air missile designed to counter
a low-level attack.
Has necessary electronic counter-measures against all known aircraft jammers.

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 It has the capability to “neutralize aerial targets like fighter jets, cruise missiles, and
air-to-surface missiles” as well as ballistic missiles.
Akash Medium-range, surface-to-air missile with multi-target engagement capability.
Multiple warheads capable.
High-energy solid propellant and ram-rocket propulsion system.

Anti-ballistic missile developed to intercept incoming ballistic missiles outside the

PAD
atmosphere (exo-atmospheric).

3rd generation anti-tank ‘fire and forget’ guided missile (lock-on before launch
system) where the target is identified and designated before the weapon is
launched.
Nag Developed indigenously as an anti-armor weapon employing sensor fusion
technologies for flight guidance.
HELINA (Helicopter Launched NAG) is the air-to-surface version of the NAG
integrated into Dhruv Helicopters.

India’s latest surface-to-surface missile with a range of 150 km.

High maneuverability, acceleration, and accuracy.
Prahaar
Primary objective is to bridge the gap between the unguided Pinaka multi-barrel
rocket launcher and the guided Prithvi missile variants.

It is a supersonic cruise missile developed as a joint venture between Indian and

Russia.
BrahMos
It is the fastest supersonic cruise missile in the world.
It is the world’s fastest anti-ship cruise missile in operation.

Subsonic missile which is ancillary (providing necessary support) to the BrahMos

range.
Capable of being launched from multiple platforms on land, sea and air.
Nirbhay
A terrain hugging, stealth missile capable of delivering 24 different types of
warheads depending on mission requirements.
Can reach up to 1,000 km.

It forms the crucial third leg of India’s nuclear deterrent vis-à-vis its submarine-
K-15 launched ballistic missile (SLBM) capability.
Sagarika It was subsequently integrated with India’s nuclear-powered Arihant class
submarine.

It is capable of carrying nuclear warheads.

Dhanush Sea-based, short-range, liquid-propellant ballistic missile.
Dhanush missile is also known as Prithvi-III.

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 Naval version of Prithvi II.
Maximum range 350 km.

Surface-to-surface ballistic missile (SSM) variant of the K-15 Sagarika.

Shaurya The nuclear capability of the missile enhances India’s second-strike capability.
It reduces the dependence on the K-15 which was built with Russian assistance.

Prithvi Missiles
All the Prithvi variants are surface-to-surface SRBMs (short-range ballistic missile).

Name Version Range Payload in kg

Prithvi I Army version 150 km 1000

Prithvi II Air force version 350 km 500

Prithvi III Naval version 600 km 1000

Agni Missiles
Name Type Range Payload in kg

Agni-I MRBM 700 – 900 km 1,000

Agni-II MRBM 2,000 – 3,000 km 750 – 1,000

Agni-III IRBM 3,500 – 5,000 km 2,000 – 2,500

Agni-IV IRBM 3,000 – 4,000 km 800 – 1,000

Agni-V ICBM 5,000 – 8,000 km (Testing) 1,500 (3 – 10 MIRV)

Agni-VI ICBM 8,000 – 10,000 km (Under development) 1,000 (10 MIRV)

MIRV: Multiple Independently targetable Re-entry Vehicle

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Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT)

• In March 2019, India successfully tested its ASAT missile.

• The ASAT missile destroyed a live satellite in Low Earth orbit (283-
kilometre).
• As per DRDO, the missile is capable of shooting down targets moving at a speed
of 10 km per second at an altitude as high as 1200 km.

Integrated Guided Missile Development Program(IGMDP)

• IGMDP was the brainchild of renowned scientist Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam.
• It was intended to attain self-sufficiency in the field of missile technology.
• After keeping in mind the requirements of various types of missiles by the
defense forces, the program recognized the need to develop five missile
systems.
• The IGMDP formally got the approval of the Indian government on July 26,
1983.
• It brought together the country’s scientific community, academic institutions, R&D
laboratories, industries, and the three defense services in giving shape to the
strategic, indigenous missile systems.
The missiles developed under IGMDP are:

1. Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile – Prithvi

2. Intermediate-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile – Agni
3. Short-range low-level surface-to-air missile – Trishul
4. Medium-range surface-to-air missile – Akash
5. Third-generation anti-tank missile – Nag

Agni I

• Single stage, solid fuel, Medium Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM).

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 • Using solid propulsion booster and a liquid propulsion upper stage.
• Range of 700-800 km.
Agni II

• Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM).

• Range more than 2000 km.
Agni III

• Two stage IRBM

• Support a wide range of warhead configurations.
• Strike range of more than 2,500 Km
Agni IV

• Two stage missile powered by solid propellant.

• Can fire from a road mobile launcher.
• Range is more than 3,500 km.
• Equipped with indigenously developed ring laser gyro and composite rocket
motor.
Agni V

• Three-stage solid fueled, indigenous Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM).

• Capable of carrying 1.5 tonnes of nuclear warheads.
• Latest and most advanced variant in terms of navigation and guidance, warhead
and engine.
• After induction in the military, India will join an exclusive club of countries like the
US, Russia, China, France, and Britain which have intercontinental ballistic
missile capability.
• Canister launches missile system for operational flexibility.
• Range is more than 5,000 km.
Prithvi

• First indigenously built ballistic missile under IGMDP.

• Surface-to-surface battlefield missile.
• Demonstrates higher lethal effects and high-level capability with field
interchangeable warheads.
• Range from 150 km to 300 km.
BrahMos

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 • The name BrahMos is a portmanteau formed from the names of two rivers,
the Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of Russia.
• Supersonic cruise missile that can be launched from submarines, ships,
aircraft, or land.
• It is a two-stage (solid propellant engine in the first stage and liquid ramjet in
second) air to surface missile with a flight range of around 300 km.
• However, India’s entry into the Missile Technology Control Regime
(MTCR) has extended the range of the BRAHMOS missile to reach 450
km-600km, a shade above its current MTCR capped range of 300 km.
• Manufactured by BrahMos Aerospace Limited, a joint venture between the
Defence Research and Development Organisation and Russia’s Military
Industrial Consortium NPO Mashinostroyenia.
• Multi-platform cruise can strike from various types of platforms.
• Among the world’s fastest supersonic cruise missiles with speeds ranging
between Mach 2.5 – 2.8.
• Brahmos is the heaviest weapon to be deployed on Su-30 MKI fighter
aircraft, with a weight of 2.5 tonnes.
• A ‘fire and forget’ weapon i.e. requiring no further guidance from the
control centre once the target has been assigned.
MTCR

• The Missile Technology Control Regime was started in 1987 by the G-

7 industrialized countries namely, the USA, UK, Canada, France, Germany,
Japan, and Italy. It was started to check the proliferation of unmanned delivery
systems for nuclear weapons (particularly systems that could carry a payload of
500 kg to a range of 300 km).
• It is not a legally binding treaty on the members. It is only an informal
political understanding.
• Currently, there are 35 members in the regime including India. China is not a
member of the regime.
• Every member is supposed to establish national export control policies for
ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles, space launch
vehicles, drones, remotely piloted vehicles, sounding rockets, and
underlying components and technologies.
• Every member should look into the following five factors while deciding on a
possible export of controlled items:
1. Whether the intended recipient is pursuing or has ambitions for acquiring
weapons of mass destruction;
2. The capabilities and purposes of the intended recipient’s space and
missile programs;
3. The potential contribution the transfer could make to the recipient’s
development of delivery systems for weapons of mass destruction;

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 4. The credibility of the recipient’s stated purpose for the purchase; and
5. If the potential transfer conflicts with any multilateral treaty.
MTCR and India

India applied for a membership to the MTCR in June 2015. India was supported by the
USA and France in its application. India became a member of the MTCR in 2016.

Given below are the benefits of the Missile Technology Control Regime:

1. India’s space program will get a fillip as ISRO will now have access to restricted
high-end technologies for developing its cryogenic engines.
2. India’s arms exports will be enhanced as now, India can export BrahMos
to Vietnam, Philippines, and other nations.
3. This will help India procure Israel’s Arrow II missile, which will help develop
India’s ballistic missile system.
4. India can buy surveillance drones from the US.
5. This will be a boost to the ‘Make in India’ program.
Pralay

• It is a newly developed surface-to-surface tactical missile.

• The trial of the missile was recently deferred by the Defence Research and
Development Organisation (DRDO) due to the cyclone Phethai.
• It is a derivative of Prithvi Defence Vehicle (PDV) exo-atmospheric interceptor
which can destroy enemy weapons at high altitudes.
• It has a payload of 1 tonne and it has the capacity to strike targets 350 km away.
• It can travel up to 500 km if the payload is halved.
• It is propelled by solid-fuel rocket.
• It can fly faster than the conventional missiles in its class and can evade ballistic
missile defence system.
• It will be launched from its own canister-based transport erector launcher.

Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air missiles (QRSAM)

DRDO has successfully test-fired indigenously developed Quick Reaction Surface-to-
Air missiles (QRSAM) from a test range off the Odisha coast.

It has been developed to replace the ‘Akash’ missile defence system, and has 360-
degree coverage.

Features

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 • It uses solid fuel propellant and has a strike range of 25-30 km with capability
of hitting multiple targets.
• It is capable of hitting the low flying objects.
• The missile is an all-weather, all-terrain surface-to-air missile equipped
with electronic counter measures against jamming by aircraft radars
• The missile can be mounted on a truck and is stored in a canister.
• The missile is equipped with a midcourse inertial navigation system with a two-
way data link and a DRDO-developed terminal active seeker. The system has the
capability to search and track targets while moving.
• QRSAM is a compact weapon system and is mobile. It has a fully automated
Command and Control System. The missile system comprises of two four-
walled radars both of which encompass a 360-degree coverage, namely, the
Active Array Battery Surveillance Radar and the Active Array Battery
Multifunction Radar, apart from the launcher.

Nuclear and Conventional Submarines

The main difference between conventional submarines and nuclear submarines is
the power generation system.

Nuclear submarines
Nuclear submarines are powered by a nuclear reactor which is modified for use in a
confined , underwater environment. These nuclear reactors produce heat , which in turn
produces steam , which works on the steam turbines and turns a shaft. This shaft is
connected to the propeller as well as a generator which recharges the battery for
onboard use. This nuclear reactor gives them an unlimited range, and the ability to stay
underwater for months without surfacing. On-board oxygen generating systems and a
large supply of food and water give them a realistic 90 days of continuous underwater
time before they need to be re-supplied.

Conventional submarines
Conventional Diesel submarines run on diesel and electricity. They have a huge
network of batteries which depend on the diesel generator for charging. These
submarines have to surface to charge their batteries. They can also snorkel, which
means to travel just below the surface of the water with the periscope and the exhaust
pipe above the water surface. Since they become vulnerable when they surface, these
subs usually snorkel while charging their batteries. Once they charge the batteries, they
dive into the ocean and run silently on battery power with the diesel generators shut
down.

A diesel-electric submarine‘s biggest advantage is that it has a smaller hull that is easier
to manoeuvre in shallow waters and harder to detect.

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Attack Submarine
An attack submarine or hunter-killer submarine is a submarine specifically designed
for the purpose of attacking and sinking other submarines, surface combatants, and
merchant’s vessels. In the Soviet and Russian navies, they were and are called “multi-
purpose submarines“.

They are also used to protect friendly surface combatants and missile submarines.
Some attack subs are also armed with cruise missiles mounted in vertical launch tubes,
increasing the scope of their potential missions to include land targets. Attack
submarines may be either nuclear-powered or diesel-electric (“conventionally”)
powered.

In the United States Navy naming system, and in the equivalent NATO system
(STANAG 1166), nuclear-powered attack submarines are known as SSNs and their
diesel-electric predecessors were SSKs. In the US Navy, SSNs are unofficially called
“fast attacks”.

Ballistic Submarine
A ballistic missile submarine is a submarine capable of deploying submarine-
launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) with nuclear warheads. The United States
Navy’s hull classification symbols for ballistic missile submarines are SSB and SSBN –
the SS denotes submarine (or submersible ship), the B denotes ballistic missile, and
the N denotes that the submarine is nuclear powered.

These submarines became a major weapon system in the Cold War because of their
nuclear deterrence capability. They can fire missiles thousands of kilometers from
their targets, and acoustic quieting makes them difficult to detect (see acoustic

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signature), thus making them a survivable deterrent in the event of a first strike and a
key element of the mutually assured destruction policy of nuclear deterrence.

Their deployment has been dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union /
Russia, with smaller numbers in service with France, the United Kingdom, China, and
India.

Akula Class Submarines

• The Akula Class Submarine uses a nuclear reactor for propulsion, allowing it to
remain underwater for an extended period of time which makes its detection
impossible.
• This class of Submarine can be used for multiple tasks like hunting enemy
submarines, intelligence surveillance etc.

INS Chakra

• INS Chakra is a Russia-made, nuclear-propelled, hunter-killer akula class

submarine.
• INS Chakra is one of the quietest nuclear submarines around, with noise levels
next to zero.
• INS Chakra has been taken on lease from Russia for 10 years and would provide
the Navy the opportunity to train personnel and operate such nuclear-powered
vessels.
• The INS Chakra joined the Eastern Naval Command at Visakhapatnam in 2012.

INS Arihant

• INS Arihant is the first of five nuclear missile submarines planned for induction.
• It is to be equipped with K 15 (or BO-5) shortrange missiles with a range of over
700 km and the K 4 ballistic missile with a range of 3,500 km.
• At present, the only nuclear – powered platform in service is the INS Chakra, a
Akula class SSN on lease from Russia.
• The induction of INS Arihant marks the completion of India’s nuclear triad.
• A nuclear triad refers to the nuclear weapons delivery via land, air and sea i.e.
land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), strategic bombers, and
submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).

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INS Kiltan

• It is the indigenously-built anti-submarine warfare stealth corvette.

• It has been recently inducted into the Indian Navy.
• It is the latest indigenous warship after Shivalik Class, Kolkata Class, and sister
ships INS Kamorta and INS Kadmatt.
• It is India’s first major warship to have a superstructure of carbon fiber composite
material resulting in improved stealth features.
• The ship derives its name from one of the islands in the Aminidivi group of the
Lakshadweep and Minicoy group of islands.

Losharik (AS-12 or AS-31)

• It is a highly advanced Nuclear powered submarine of Russia.

• This week a fire accident was reported on the submarine within the Russian
territorial waters.
• It is a deep-diving special missions ship, operated by the Russian Navy.
• It is capable of withstanding high pressures at great depths, enabling it to survey
the ocean floor.
• It’s interior hull is built using titanium spheres which makes the vessel dive up to
6000 metres. A regular submarine can go to the depth of only 600 metres.
• It is generally carried under the hull of a larger submarine and is capable of
releasing a smaller submarine itself.
• According to Russian military the submarine was carrying out ‘bathymetric
measurements’ or underwater mapping.
• But the the US and its allies feared that Russia might be developing new,
secretive ways to tap or even cut undersea Fiber-optic cables that carry
transatlantic Internet traffic.
• In recent years, U.S. and British military officials have warned that Russian
submarines have been spotted close to the cables.

INS Shivalik and INS Sindhukirti

• These are the Indian Navy’s indigenously conceived design and constructed
frontline stealth frigate.
• INS Shivalik is the Shivalik-class advanced, stealth-minded, guided-missile
frigate warship.

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 • It is the first stealth warship built by India at Mazagon Dock Limited in Mumbai
s part of the Indian Navy’s Project 17.
• It is equipped with a wide range of electronics and sensors.
• In addition, it uses HUMSA (hull-mounted sonar array), ATAS/Thales Sintra
towed array systems.
• It is equipped with a mix of Russian, Indian and Western weapon systems.
• It also has improved stealth and land attacking features over the
preceding Talwar-class frigates.
• It is the first Indian navy ship to use the CODOG (Combined Diesel Or Gas)
propulsion system.
• INS Sindhukirti is the seventh Sindhughosh-class, diesel-electric
submarine of the Indian Navy, built at the Admiralty Shipyard and Sevmash in
the Soviet Union.
• It is among the oldest operational submarines in the Navy.
• It has been virtually rebuilt with modern sensors weapons and systems which
make it “a hole in the water” for the Navy.

INS Sagardhwani

• It is the Oceanographic research vessel of DRDO.

• It is maintained and operated by the Indian Navy.
• It is a ‘Marine Acoustic Research Ship’ (MARS) designed and developed by
‘Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory’ (NPOL), Kochi.
• NPOL is a premier systems laboratory of DRDO.
• The ship is fitted with state-of-the-art equipments like the latest wave height
measuring radars, marine radio etc.
• It is exclusively used for the scientific and research programmes of NPOL.

INS Tarkash

• It is a state-of-the-art stealth frigate of the Indian Navy.

• It is the 5th Talwar-class frigate constructed for the Indian Navy, built at the
Yantar shipyard in Kaliningrad, Russia.
• It is equipped with a versatile range of weapons and sensors capable of
addressing threats in all three dimensions.

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INS Nilgiri

• INS Nilgiri is the first ship of the Project-17A.

• Project 17A frigates is a design derivative of the Shivalik class stealth
frigates with much more advanced stealth features and indigenous weapons
and sensors.
• The P17A frigates incorporate new design concepts for improved survivability,
sea keeping, stealth and ship manoeuvrability.
• These frigates are being built using integrated construction methodology.

India’s Aircraft Carrier

• Currently, the Indian Navy opera only a single carrier, the 44,000-tonne INS
Vikramaditya bought from Russia.
• INS Vikrant is an indigenous aircraft carrier being built in Cochin Shipyard.
• It is a 40000-tonne carrier and expected to join service by 2021.
• INS Vishal proposed to be India’s 2nd indigenous aircraft carrier has stalled
since 2017 awaiting the defense ministry’s clearance.
• It was conceived as a 65,000-tonne class carrier. The clearance was mainly
delayed owing to its production cost.
• Recently, the Indian government has approached UK to build a state of the art
aircraft carrier along the lines of Britain’s HMS Queen Elizabeth.
• The talks are underway to buy detailed plans for the 65,000-ton British warship to
build a so-called “copycat supercarrier” to be named INS Vishal in 2022.
• This India-UK Naval deal would follow the sale of INS Viraat to India in 1987,
which was decommissioned 2 years ago.

INS VISHAL:

• INS Vishal, also known as Indigenous Aircraft Carrier 2(IAC-2), is a

planned aircraft carrier to be built by Cochin Shipyard Limited for the Indian Navy.
• It is intended to be the second aircraft carrier to be built in India
after INS Vikrant(IAC-1), and the first supercarrier to be built in India.
• The proposed design of the second carrier class will be a new design, featuring
significant changes from Vikrant, including an increase in displacement.
• An Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS) CATOBAR system is also
under consideration. Its name Vishal means ‘giant’ in Sanskrit.

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INS Sahyadri

• INS Sahyadri is an indigenously built stealth frigate.

• It participated in trilateral Malabar war games with Japan and the U.S. off the
coast of Guam.
• It recently participated in RIMPAC and has been adjudged runner-up in an
innovation competition.
• INS Sahyadri presented the ‘idea of integrating yoga into our daily life as the
technology for well-being during extended deployments for ships’.
• The idea was appreciated by representatives of participating countries.

Submarines list of the Indian Navy

Class Type Boats Origin

Nuclear-powered
submarines (2)

Chakra (Akula II) class Attack submarine (SSN) INS Chakra Russia

Ballistic missile
Arihant class INS Arihant India
submarine (SSBN)

Diesel-electric submarines
(14)

INS Shishumar
INS Shankush West
Shishumar class Attack submarine
INS Shalki Germany India
INS Shankul

INS Kalvari
Kalvari class Attack submarine France India
INS Khanderi

INS Sindhughosh
INS Sindhudhvaj Soviet
Sindhughosh class Attack submarine
INS Sindhuraj Union Russia
INS Sindhuratna

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 INS Sindhukesari
INS Sindhukirti
INS Sindhuvijay
INS Sindhurashtra

Planned

Class Type Boats Origin

Nuclear submarines

Arihant class Ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) INS Arighat India

Diesel-electric submarines

INS Karanj
INS Vela
Kalvari class Attack submarine France – India
INS Vagir
INS Vagsheer

Ramjet engine vs Scramjet engine

Jet Engine – A jet engine is a machine that converts energy-rich, liquid fuel into a
powerful pushing force called thrust. The thrust from one or more engines pushes a
plane forward, forcing air past its scientifically shaped wings to create an upward force
called lift that powers it into the sky.

A ramjet is a form of air-breathing jet engine that uses the vehicle’s forward motion to
compress incoming air for combustion without a rotating compressor. Fuel is
injected in the combustion chamber where it mixes with the hot compressed air and
ignites.

Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (three times the
speed of sound) and can operate up to speeds of Mach 6. However, the ramjet
efficiency starts to drop when the vehicle reaches hypersonic speeds.

A scramjet engine is an improvement over the ramjet engine as it efficiently

operates at hypersonic speeds and allows supersonic combustion. Thus it is
known as Supersonic Combustion Ramjet or Scramjet.

Air Breathing Propulsion System which uses hydrogen as fuel and oxygen from the
atmosphere air as the oxidizer.

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Unmanned aerial vehicles
Drones are unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) either controlled by ‘pilots’ from the
ground or increasingly, autonomously following a pre-programmed mission. Drones
basically fall into two categories: those that are used for reconnaissance and
surveillance purposes and those that are armed with missiles and bombs.

UAVs typically fall into one of six functional categories (although multi-role airframe
platforms are becoming more prevalent):

• Target and decoy – providing ground and aerial gunnery a target that simulates
an enemy aircraft or missile
• Reconnaissance – providing battlefield intelligence
• Combat – providing attack capability for high-risk missions (see Unmanned
combat air vehicle)
• Logistics – UAVs specifically designed for cargo and logistics operation

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 • Research and development – used to further develop UAV technologies to be
integrated into field deployed UAV aircraft
• Civil and Commercial UAVs – UAVs specifically designed for civil and
commercial applications

UAV of India
Nishant

Nishant is a multi mission Unmanned Aerial Vehicle with Day/Night capability used for
battlefield surveillance and reconnaissance, target tracking & localization, and artillery
fire correction.

Rustom

Rustom (Warrior) is a Medium Altitude Long Endurance unmanned combat air vehicle
(UCAV) being developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation.

• The design for Rustom UAV has been derived from National Aerospace
Laboratories’ light canard research aircraft developed under the leadership of late
Prof Rustom Damania.
• It will replace the Heron UAVs of the Indian armed forces.
• Rustom UAV will be able to enter 250 km inside the enemy territory and can carry
a variety of cameras and radars for surveillance.
• Rustom-H variant is a multi altitude long endurance UAV that has a twin-engine
for carrying out surveillance and reconnaissance missions. It will have a payload
capacity of 350 kg.
Variants of Rustom

• Rustom I tactical unmanned aerial vehicle with the endurance of 12 hours. The
design of Rustom I will be based on National Aerospace Laboratories’ LCRA.
• Rustom H will be a larger unmanned aerial vehicle having a flight endurance of
more than 24 hours. The design will be different from Rustom I and will have a
comparatively higher range and service ceiling
• Rustom II will be an unmanned combat aircraft based on the Rustom H model.
UAV Panchi

It is the wheeled version of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) Nishant, capable of taking-
off and landing by using small airstrips. Panchi UAV has autonomous flight capabilities
and is controlled from a user friendly Ground Control Station (GCS).

AURA

AURA is stealth UCAV, capable of releasing missiles, bombs and precision-guided

munitions.

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(a) India’s indigenously developed Unmanned aerial vehicle.
(b) India’s indigenously developed Air Droppable Container.
(c) A defense collaboration between India and South Korea.
(d) An Israeli radar system

Answer: (b)

SAHAYAK-NG is India’s first indigenously designed and developed Air Droppable

Container.

It is a GPS aided air dropped container with the capacity to carry a payload of up to 50
kg and can be dropped from a heavy aircraft.

Anti-tank Guided Missile (ATGM)

• An anti-tank guided missile, anti-tank missile, anti-tank guided weapon, or anti-

armor guided weapon is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and destroy
heavily armored military vehicles.
• ATGMs range in size from shoulder-launched weapons, which can be
transported by a single soldier, to larger tripod-mounted weapons, which
require a squad or team to transport and fire, to a vehicle and aircraft-mounted
missile systems.
• This type of guided missiles relies on an electro-optical imager (IIR) seeker,
a laser, or a W-band radar seeker in the nose of the missile.
• These are ‘fire-and-forget’ missiles where the operator can retreat right after
firing as there is no more guidance required.
• They’re guided missiles that use various guiding algorithms like wire-guided
missiles, laser guide guided missiles, etc. and having various parameters
which are discussed in the table below:
• Size: ATMs (Anti-tank Missiles) come in various sizes:
• Small ATMs that can be carried by a single person and shoulder-
launched.
• Medium-sized ones which need a team of soldiers to carry and
launch.
• Large ATMs can be mounted on Aircraft or Main Battle Tanks and
can be launched from large distances.
• Technology
• Initially, ATMs would need to be launched close to the targeted
armoured vehicle due to their lack of penetration firepower.

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 • With the latest technology, they can be fired from a significant
distance and still do damage to light and medium armoured
vehicles.
• Warhead
• Different ATMs use different warheads depending upon the size
and armour of the target. One of those warheads is known as the
High Explosive Anti Tank (HEAT) Warhead. HEAT warhead has a
metal spike that goes through the metal armour.
• Guidance System
• 1st Generation: Guided by manual commands and the missile is
steered to the target.
• 2nd Generation: Semi-automatic commanded missiles. The
operator would need to keep the sight fixed on the target until
impact.
• 3rd Generation: This type of guided missile relies on an electro-
optical imager (IIR) seeker, a laser or a W-band radar seeker in the
nose of the missile. These are ‘fire-and-forget’ missiles where the
operator can retreat right after firing as there is no more guidance
required.
• Laser-Guided ATGM:
• The all-indigenous Laser Guided ATGM employs a tandem High
Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT) warhead to defeat Explosive Reactive
Armour (ERA) protected armoured vehicles.
• The ATGM has been developed with multi-platform launch capability and
is currently undergoing technical evaluation trials from the 120 mm
rifled gun of MBT Arjun.

Anti-Tank Missiles in India

DRDO ATM

• The DRDO Anti-Tank Missile is a first-generation wire-guided anti-tank

guided missile (ATGM) developed in India by the Defence Research and
Development Laboratory (DRDL), a part of the Defence Research and
Development Organisation (DRDO).
• It has a subsonic speed up to 300 ft/s (91 m/s) with a range of 1.6 km (0.99
mi) and carries a 106 mm high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead.
AMOGHA

• The Amogha-1 is a guided anti-tank missile with a range of up to 2.8 km (1.7 mi).
It is under development by Bharat Dynamics at Hyderabad.

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 • It is the first missile designed and tested by Bharat Dynamics. The missile will be
produced in two versions. The land version has already been tested. The infrared
version of the missile uses a “thermal intelligent vision” to attack its target.

NAG

• The Nag missile also called “Prospina” for the land-attack version, is an
Indian third-generation, all-weather, fire-and-forget, lock-on after launch,
anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) with an operational range of 500 m to 20 km.
• It has a single-shot hit probability of 90% and a ten-year, maintenance-free
shelf life.
• The Nag has five variants under development:
• a land version, for a mast-mounted system;
• the helicopter-launched Nag (HELINA) also known as Dhruvastra;
• a “man-portable” version (MPATGM);
• an air-launched version which will replace the current imaging infra-red
(IIR) to millimetric-wave (mmW) active radar homing seeker;
• and the Nag Missile Carrier (NAMICA) “tank buster”, which is a
modified BMP-2 infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) produced under license in
India by Ordnance Factory Medak (OFMK).

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HELINA/Dhruvastra

• It has a maximum range of seven kilometers and has been designed and
developed for integration on the weaponized version of the ALH (Advanced
Light Helicopter).
• The missile system has all-weather, day, and night capability and can
defeat battle tanks with conventional armour as well as explosive reactive
armour.

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SANT

• It is a Smart Stand-off Anti-Tank Missile being developed for launch from

the Mi-35 Helicopter for the Air Force’s anti-tank operations.

MPATGM

• It stands for Man-Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile which has a range of 2.5
kilometers, with fire-and-forget and top attack capabilities for infantry use.
ATGM for MBT Arjun

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• ATGM for MBT Arjun is a laser-guided, precision-guided munition that is
launched from the 120mm rifled gun of the Arjun tank to engage and
defeat Explosive Reactive Armour-protected armoured targets.

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 Artillery Gun system of India

Artillery Guns are utilized to upgrade the operational abilities of the Infantry Units. They
give spread and backing to them in battle situations. Their long-extend and enormous
capability help to devastate the foe without any problem. The Artillery Guns was a
distinct advantage for the Indian Armed Forces during the Kargil Operations.

Artillery Gun system of India

Artillery refers to the large caliber guns used in modern warfare on land.

Artillery Guns are divide into 3 Major Parts

1. Field Artillery (Howitzer or Towed artillery)

2. Mortars Artillery
3. Self-Propelled Artillery

Field Artillery Gun

They are smaller guns that could be easily moved and can accompany the field
army on the march. Its position can also be changed on the battlefield with the
changing circumstances.

6 types of Field Artillery Gun used by Indian army-

• 105 MM Indian Field Gun

• 105 MM Light Field Gun
• 122 MM D-30 Howitzer
• 130 MM M-46 Field Gun
• 155 MM Metamorphosis Gun
• 155 MM Haubits FH77
Howitzer: It is characterized by a relatively short barrel length. Small propellant charges
are used to propel projectiles at high trajectories, thus giving them a steep angle of
descent. Some howitzer types of equipment used in the Indian army regiment are M777,
Haubits FH77/B, M46, Metamorphosis 155vmm gun, M101 howitzer. Howitzer comes
from the word ‘HOUFE’ meaning heap or mass. Thus, the howitzer type is used against
mass enemies.

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Mortars Artillery
A mortar is usually a simple, lightweight, man-portable, muzzle-loading weapon,
consisting of a smooth-bore metal tube fixed to a base plate (to absorb recoil)
with a lightweight bipod mount. They launch explosive shells in high-arcing ballistic
trajectories. Mortars are typically used as an indirect fire weapon for close fire support
with a variety of ammunition.

types of Mortars used by Indian army-

• OFB E1 51mm
• OFB E1 81mm
• OFB E1 120mm
• L16 81mm mortar

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Self-Propelled Artillery
Self-propelled artillery (also called mobile artillery or locomotive artillery) is
artillery equipped with its own propulsion system to move towards its
target. Within the term are covered self-propelled guns (or howitzers) and rocket
artillery. They are high mobility vehicles, usually based on continuous tracks carrying
either a large howitzer, field gun, a mortar, or some form of rocket or missile launcher.
They are usually used for long-range indirect bombardment support on the battlefield.

Types of Self Propelled Artillery –

• FV433 Abbot SPG

• 2S1 Gvozdika
• M-46 Catapult
• K9 Vajra-T

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Multiple Rocket Launchers: It is a type of unguided rocket launching system. Some
MRL presently in the Indian Army Artillery Regiment are: Smerch 9K58 MBRL, Pinaka
MBRL, and BM21. Although the MRLs are much less accurate and have low rate of fire,
but they have the ability of dropping many hundreds of kilograms of explosives over an
enemy with devastating effects.

Dhanush Artillery Gun

• Dhanush is the first indigenous artillery gun with a caliber of 155mm x 45mm. It is
the first long-range artillery gun to be produced in India, having a range of 38 km,
which is equipped with a navigation-based sighting system, on-board ballistic
computation, and an advanced day and night direct firing system.
• It has been developed by Ordnance Factory Board (OFB), Kolkata based on
requirements of the Indian Army and manufactured by Jabalpur-based Gun
Carriage Factory (GCF) and 81 % of its components are indigenously sourced.
• It is also referred to as Desi Bofors because Bofors had played a crucial role in
targeting Pakistani military positions during the 1999 Kargil War, and similarly has
a 155 mm caliber.
• The gun has passed tests under severe cold conditions in Sikkim and Leh and in
hot and humid weather in Balasore, Odisha, Babina in Jhansi, and in the desert
of Pokhran in Rajasthan.

Sharang Artillery Gun

The Ordnance Factory Board (OFB) has handed over Sharang, the first 130mm M-46
artillery gun upgraded to 155mm to the Indian Army.

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 • Sharang is the 130mm artillery gun ‘up-gunned’ to 155mm, 45 caliber up-gunning
based on the Army’s tender.
• The gun’s range has now gone from 27km to over 36km with the upgrade.
• It also has the more explosive capability and hence and more damage potential.
• This step will reduce the logistic trail of the Army as it does away with the need to
carry 130mm shells and support equipment as the mainstay of the Army’s long-
range artillery is 155mm guns.

K9 Vajra
• The K9 VAJRA-T 155mm/ 52 is a tracked self-propelled howitzer, which has its
roots in the K9 Thunder, the mainstay of the South Korean Army.
• The Vajra offers a high rate of fire at a long-range and is compatible with Indian
and standard NATO ammunition.
• The K9 Thunder platform is made of all-welded steel armour protection material.
• The K9 gun has been developed under the `Buy Global’ programme of
the Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP) where foreign companies are
allowed to participate —in this case Hanwha Techwin of South Korea is the
technology partner of L&T.
• The first 10 K9 Vajra guns have been imported from South Korea and have been
assembled by L&T in India. The balance 90 guns will be largely manufactured in
the country.

M777
• The 155mm, 39 Calibre Ultra light Howitzers have been procured from the USA
under Government to Government Foreign Military Sales in 2016 and will be
assembled by U.S.A.’s BAE Systems in partnership with Mahindra Defence.
• It is one of the lightest guns that was actively used in Iraq and Afghanistan, the
M777 will be deployed on the high altitude borders with China and Pakistan and
is especially useful with the Chinook helicopters that can transport them quickly.
• It is smaller and lighter, as it is made of titanium and aluminum alloys and weighs
just 4 tonnes. It has an effective firing range of 24 km.
• It has been procured through the Foreign Military Sales (FMS) route under the
`Buy Global’ programme of the Defence Procurement Procedure (DPP).

Enhanced Version of Pinaka Mk-1

• The Enhanced Pinaka Mk-1 will eventually replace the Pinaka Mk-1
missiles, which are currently used by regiments of the Indian Army along India’s
frontiers with China and Pakistan.

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 • While the Mark-1 has a range of 38 km, the enhanced version of Mark-1
has a range of 45 km and some key additional features.
• The latest test is in continuation of a number of missile trials conducted by
the DRDO in the last two months.
• The test comes months after the Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced that
its acquisition wing signed contracts with three Indian private companies for the
supply of six regiments of Pinaka Rocket System, to be deployed along borders
with Pakistan and China.
• The MoD had said that the induction would be completed by
2024. These six Pinaka Regiments would comprise 114 Launchers with
Automated Gun Aiming and Positioning System (AGAPS), 45 command
posts, and 330 vehicles.
Pinaka Missile

• Development: The development of the Pinaka multi-barrel rocket systems

was started by the DRDO in the late 1980s, as an alternative to the Multi
Barrel Rocket Launcher systems of Russian make called the ‘Grad’, which
are still used by some regiments.
• After successful tests of Pinaka Mark-1 in late 1990, it was first used
successfully on the battlefield during the 1999 Kargil
War. Subsequently, multiple regiments of the system came up over the
2000s.
• Features:
• The Pinaka, a multi-barrel rocket launcher (MBRL) system named after
Shiva’s bow, can fire a salvo of 12 rockets over a period of 44 seconds.
• One battery of the Pinaka system consists of six launch
vehicles, accompanied by loader systems, radar, and links with network-
based systems and a command post. One battery can neutralize an area
of 1 km by 1 km.
• As a key tactic of long-range artillery battle, the launchers have to
‘shoot and scoot’ to ensure they themselves do not become the
targets, especially being detectable due to its backblast.
• Multiple Variants: DRDO has also developed and successfully tested the Mk-
II and guided variants of the Pinaka, which has a range of around 60 km, while
the Guided Pinaka system has a range of 75 km and has integrated navigation,
control, and guidance system to improve the end accuracy and enhance the
range.
• The navigation system of the Guided Pinaka missile is also aided by
the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).

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 The
Pinaka 214 MM Multi Barrel Rocket Launcher System

Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System

• It is a 155mm, 52 caliber gun being developed by the DRDO.
• Indian Army has recently begun finalizing the Preliminary Specifications
Qualitative Requirements (PSQR) for the gun system.
• The gun is currently weighing about 18 tonnes while the ideal weight is 14-15
tonnes.
• Significant features of the gun system – All-electric drive, high mobility, quick
deployability, auxiliary power mode, advanced communications system,
automated command, and control system.

Smart Anti-Airfield Weapon

• It is an indigenously developed lightweight glide bomb, capable of targeting large
enemy infrastructure, like airfields.
• It was recently flight tested from Indian Air Force‘s Jaguar aircraft successfully.
• It is an accurate bomb and is termed a precision-guided munition (PGM).
• It has ―Inertial navigation system‖ which guides it precisely to its target, typically
an enemy airfield up to 100 km away.
• This precisely guided one bomb is more economical than traditional free-fall
bombs which are less accurate.

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 • It has another advantage that it can release the bomb at a safer distance to the
enemy airfield and return without exposing itself to enemy anti-aircraft defenses.

Smerch Multiple Barrel Rocket Launchers

• It is designed to defeat soft and hard-skinned targets, artillery and missile
systems.
• It features an automatic rocket preparing and launching system and a range of up
to 90km.
• It was developed by Russia in the early 1980s and entered service with the
Russian Army in 1988.
• In December 2005, India placed an order for an initial 38 systems and deliveries
began in May 2007.
• A tender for mobility vehicles to carry this Smerch system and missiles developed
by DRDO was opened by the Indian government earlier in 2015.
• For the first time, an Indian vehicle manufacturer (Ashok Leyland) has acquired
the tender and it will deliver heavy-duty, high mobility vehicles for the above-
stated purpose.

Indian Military Aircrafts and Helicopter

Any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed force may be called
military aircraft. Military uses aircraft for both combat and non-combat applications.

• Combat aircraft are designed to destroy enemy equipment using their

own aircraft ordnance. Combat aircraft are typically developed and procured only
by military forces.
• Non-combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function but
may carry weapons for self-defense. These mainly operate in support roles and
may be developed by either military forces or civilian organizations.

Combat aircraft
Combat aircraft, or “Warplanes”, are divided broadly into multi-
role, fighters, bombers, attackers, and electronic warfare support.

Fighters aircraft
The primary role of fighters is destroying enemy aircraft in air-to-air combat, as part of
both offensive and defensive counter-air operations. Many fighters also possess a

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degree of ground attack capability, allowing them to perform surface attack and close air
support missions. In addition to their counter-air duties, they are tasked to perform
escort missions for bombers or other aircraft. Fighters are capable of carrying a variety
of weapons, including machine guns, cannons, rockets, guided missiles, and bombs.
Many modern fighters can attack enemy fighters from a great distance before the enemy
even sees or detects them.

Bombers
Bombers are normally larger, heavier, and less maneuverable than fighter aircraft. They
are capable of carrying large payloads of bombs, torpedoes or cruise missiles. Bombers
are used almost exclusively for ground attacks and not fast or agile enough to take on
enemy fighters head-to-head. Some have a single engine and require one pilot to
operate, while others have two or more engines and require crews of two or more.

Attack aircraft
Attack aircraft can be used to provide support for friendly ground troops. Some are able
to carry conventional or nuclear weapons far behind enemy lines to strike priority ground
targets. Attack helicopters attack enemy armor and provide close air support for ground
troops.

Electronic warfare aircraft

An electronic warfare aircraft is a military aircraft equipped for electronic warfare (EW) –
i.e. degrading the effectiveness of enemy radar and radio systems. They have
generally modified versions of other pre-existing aircraft.

Maritime patrol aircraft

A maritime patrol aircraft fixed-wing military aircraft designed to operate for long
durations over water in maritime patrol roles—in particular anti-submarine, anti-ship, and
search and rescue, and In order to detect, identify enemy ships and submarines and
destroy them using air-to-surface weapons, torpedoes, and underwater mines.

Multirole combat aircraft

Many combat aircraft today have a multirole ability. The MRCA roles may include air-to-
air combat, bombing operation, aerial photo-reconnaissance, etc. Normally only applied
to fixed-wing aircraft, this term signifies that the plane in question can be a fighter or a
bomber, depending on what the mission calls for.

Non-combat aircraft
Non-combat roles of military aircraft include search and rescue, reconnaissance,
observation/surveillance, Airborne Early Warning and Control, transport, training,
and aerial refueling.

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Military transport aircraft
Military transport (logistics) aircraft are primarily used to transport troops and war
supplies. Cargo can be attached to pallets, which are easily loaded, secured for flight,
and quickly unloaded for delivery. Cargo also may be discharged from flying aircraft
on parachutes, eliminating the need for landing. Also included in this category are aerial
tankers; these planes can refuel other aircraft while in flight.

Airborne early warning and control

An airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) system is an airborne radar system
designed to detect aircraft, ships and ground vehicles at long ranges and control and
command the battle space in an air engagement by directing fighter and attack aircraft
strikes.

AEW&C units are also used to carry out surveillance, including over ground targets, and
frequently perform C2BM (command and control, battle management) functions similar
to an Airport Traffic Controller given military command over other forces.

Used at a high altitude, the radars on the aircraft allow the operators to distinguish
between friendly and hostile aircraft hundreds of miles away.

Reconnaissance and surveillance

Reconnaissance aircraft are primarily used to gather intelligence. They are equipped
with cameras and other sensors.

Experimental aircraft
Experimental aircraft are designed in order to test advanced aerodynamic, structural,
avionic, or propulsion concepts. These are usually well instrumented, with performance
data telemetered on radio-frequency data links to ground stations located at the test
ranges where they are flown.

Aircrafts and Helicopter

Rafale Combat Aircraft
Rafale is a twin-engine manufactured by Dassault Aviation of France, being
produced for both the French Air Force and for carrier-based operations in the French
Navy. It is primarily used by the French Air Force.

Rafale fighter Jets will be operated by Indian Air Force, a deal was signed for 36 Rafale
Fighter Jets. The deal was signed in 2016, it includes a package of spares and weapons
including the highly acclaimed Meteor Beyond Visual Range Air to Air Missile

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(BVRAAM). Apart from Indian Airforce, Rafale has been chosen by the Egyptian Air
Force, Qatar Air Force.

Rafale fighter jets were used in combat operations in Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria,
Libya, Mali.

Specification

• Air Supremacy: Equipped with a wide range of weapons, the Rafale is intended
to perform air supremacy, interdiction (the act of disrupting), aerial
reconnaissance (observation to locate an enemy), ground support, in-depth
strike, anti-ship strike, and nuclear deterrence missions.
• Wide Range of Weapons: Meteor missile, Scalp cruise missile, and MICA
weapons system will be the mainstay of the weapons package of the Rafale
jets.
• Meteor: It is the next generation of Beyond Visual Range (BVR) air-to-
air missile (BVRAAM) designed to revolutionize air-to-air combat.
• The Meteor missile can target enemy aircraft from 150 km away. It
can destroy enemy aircraft before they actually even get close to
the Indian aircraft.
• SCALP Cruise Missiles: It can hit targets 300 km away.
• MICA Missile System: It is a very versatile air-to-air missile. It comes
with a radar seeker and can be fired for the short-range to long-range as
well right up to 100 km.
• It’s already in service with the IAF i.e. Mirages and is the primary
weapon system of Rafales as well.
• Air to Air Target: The ability to strike air-to-air targets from up to 150 km away
and safely hit land targets 300 km within enemy territory makes them some of the
deadliest fighter jets flying in the world.
• Flight Hours: The aircraft has 30,000 flight hours in operations.
Significance For India

• Joint Strategic Vision: The Rafale would be an aid to the Joint Strategic
Vision of India-France Cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region to curb over-
flights and the threat of weapons of mass destruction in the area.
• Upgradation of Air Combat Capabilities: It will significantly bolster India’s air
combat capabilities especially when it is facing hostile neighbors like
Pakistan and China.
• Unmatched Capabilities: The aircraft proved its unmatched capabilities in air
combat missions in Afghanistan, Libya, Mali, Iraq, and Syria in the last few
years.
• India is the fourth country to have a strategic platform with Rafale after
France, Egypt, and Qatar.

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 • The Indian Air Force is also in the process of procuring a new generation
medium-range modular air-to-ground weapon system Hammer to
integrate with the Rafale jets. The Hammer (Highly Agile Modular
Munition Extended Range) is a precision-guided missile developed by
French defense major Safran.
• Game Changer: Rafales could be a game-changer for India after all the 36
jets join the Indian Air Force as no aircraft in possession of any country in the
neighborhood will be able to match their superior kinematic performance and
powerful electronic warfare systems.
• The Rafale jet is often compared with the USA stealth F-35 aircraft and
F-22.
• Border Clash with China: It is much more advanced and lethal than the current
fighter aircraft available with China i.e.jet J-20. Therefore, it is definitely a boost
to India’s defense preparedness especially at times of border clash with
China.

Sukhoi Su-30MKI

• Sukhoi Aircraft was developed by Russia. The license for building it was given
to Indian Air Force in the past 2 decades.
• It is a twin-finned, twin-jet multi-role aircraft capable of attaining speeds of
Mach 2 at high altitudes.
• It can carry guns, missiles, bombs, rockets, and other weaponry.
• The first indigenously overhauled Sukhoi Su-30MKI supersonic aircraft was
recently handed over to the
• Indian Air Force.
• During the overhaul, the aircraft was stripped completely and rebuilt from scratch,
replacing certain worn out parts/components.
• Range – 3000 Km
There are many variants of Sukhoi-30 aircraft, and the variant used by Indian Air Force
is Sukhoi 30 MkI.

Apart from the Russian and Indian Air Force, the other users of Sukhoi-30 aircraft are
Algeria, China, Vietnam, Venezuela, Malaysia.

Sukhoi 30 jets have been modified to carry BrahMos air-to-surface missiles with a
range of nearly 300 km, giving them the capacity to conduct long-range precision
strikes.

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Tejas

• It is an indigenous fighter aircraft inducted into the Indian Airforce in the

year 2016.
• It has recently commenced its operation.
• It is designed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) and
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
• It is a single-seat, single-jet engine, the multirole light fighter.
• It is the smallest and lightest multi-role supersonic fighter aircraft in its class.
• It can fire Air to Air Missiles, carry bombs and Precision Guided
ammunition.
• It has its root in the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) programme, which began in
the 1980s to replace the ageing MiG-21 fighters.
• MiG-21 fighters are purchased from Russia in 1961.
• Recent Developments – The naval variant of the LCA Tejas has made a first
successful “Arrested landing” test.
• Arrested landing means to rapidly decelerate an aircraft as it lands.
• An “arrested landing” on the deck of an aircraft carrier is a feat achieved by only a
handful of fighter jets developed in the US, Russia, the UK, France, and China.
• The aircraft has to land on a 100-meter runaway on an aircraft carrier (a normal
LCA lands on a one-kilometer
• runway).
• The Tejas will need to replicate this, out at sea when it attempts to land on the
deck of India’s only operational aircraft carrier, INS Vikramaditya.

• The Indian Air Force has successfully carried out the first-ever mid-air refuelling
of Tejas.
• A Russian-built IL-78 MKI tanker transferred fuel to a Tejas MK I aircraft.
• It is considered as a major milestone in its development cycle.
• The ability to carry out air-to-air refuelling is one of the critical requirements for
Tejas to achieve final operational clearance.
• Earlier, Tejas has successfully fired an air-to-air beyond visual (BVR) range
missile.
Planned Variants of Tejas

The following table provides details of the variants of the LCA Tejas planned by HAL.

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 LCA Navy: Twin- and single-seat carrier-capable for the Indian
Tejas Trainer: 2-seater
Navy. However, the Navy has declared that the Tejas is too
operational conversion trainer
heavy for it to be operational from aircraft carriers (like INS
for training air force pilots.
Vikrant, INS Vikramaditya, etc.)

LCA Tejas AF MK2: This is an

improvement over the LCA Tejas LCA Tejas Navy MK2: This is phase 2 of the LCA Navy variant.
Mk1 with a higher thrust engine.

Tejas LCA Mk.1A (Light Combat Aircraft)

1. As per recent media reports, the Government of India may soon give go-ahead
for the procurement of 83 Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas Mk.1A.
2. The size of the deal is likely to be more than $ 5 billion.
3. The manufacturer of Tejas LCA Mk.1A will be Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL).
4. Tejas LCA Mk.1A will be superior over previous variants of LCA Tejas, in terms of
avionics, performance, and weapons capabilities.
5. Tejas LCA Mk.1A will be able to fire different types of Beyond Visual Range
(BVR) missiles. This proves LCA Tejas Mk.1A will be flexible enough for smooth
hardware and software integration, which would be required for carrying a variety
of BVR missiles, which are available in the inventory of the Indian Air Force (IAF).

C-130J Super Hercules

The Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules is a four-engine turboprop military
transport aircraft.

India is one of the 17 countries to whom the US has sold its C-130J Super Hercules
aircraft. The Indian Air Force currently operates a fleet of five C-130J-30s. India has
placed an order for an additional six C-130J-30s Super Hercules aircraft.

In the summer of 2013, Indian Air Force performed the highest landing of a C-130J at
the Daulat Beg Oldi airstrip in Ladakh at the height of 16,614 ft. The aircraft was used
extensively by the US in Afghanistan and Iraq.

C-17 Globemaster
The Boeing C-17 Globemaster is a large military transport aircraft.

It was developed for the United States Air Force (USAF) from the 1980s to the early
1990s by McDonnell Douglas. The C-17 commonly performs tactical and strategic airlift
missions, transporting troops and cargo throughout the world. It can also perform
medical evacuation and airdrop duties.

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The C-17 is capable of strategic delivery of up to 170,900 pounds of personnel and/or
equipment to main operating bases or forward operating locations.

C-17 has a fully integrated electronic cockpit and advanced cargo

delivery system. It allows a crew of three: pilot, co-pilot, and loadmaster, to
operate the aircraft on any type of mission.

The aircraft is capable of short field landings with a full cargo load. It can also
perform tactical airlift and airdrop missions as well as transport
litters and ambulatory patients during aeromedical evacuation when required.

Sepecat Jaguar
The SEPECAT Jaguar is a fighter jet developed together by British Royal Air Force and
French Air Force. Only the Indian Air Force is currently using the upgraded Jaguar in
active duty. The SEPECAT Jaguar is known as Shamsher and serves IAF as primary
ground attack aircraft.

Indian Jaguar is quite different from the RAF’s Jaguar and is built locally by HAL under a
license agreement. IAF recently upgraded its entire fleet of Jaguar’s by adding
Avionics support. The only problem with the Jaguar is its inability to fly at high altitude
with a heavy load on board.

Mirage 2000 Fighter Jet

Indian Air Force Mirage 2000 fighters were used to destroy the Jaish-e-Mohammad
camps at Balakot along the Line of Control.

It is a French multirole, single-engine fourth-generation fighter jet.

It is manufactured by Dassault Aviation.

It gained prominence after their remarkable success rate in the 1999 Kargil war.

It has a maximum climbing speed of 60,000 feet per minute and is designed for all-
weather penetration at low altitude.

Apache Helicopters

• Apache is the most advanced multi-role heavy attack helicopter in the world.
• Its modern capabilities include fire-and-forget, anti-tank missiles, air-to-air
missiles, rockets, and other ammunition.
• Apaches have their ability to operate at much higher altitudes, unlike the aging
Russian Mi-24/Mi-35 attack helicopters.
• It also has modern electronic warfare capabilities to provide versatility in
network-centric aerial warfare.

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 • It carries a 30 mm chain gun with 1,200 rounds as part of the area weapon
subsystem.
• The helicopter carries the fire control Longbow radar, which has 360-degree
coverage.
• It also has a nose-mounted sensor suite for target acquisition and night-vision
systems.
• The Radar systems in the helicopter will enhance the capability of the IAF in
providing integrated combat aviation cover.
• It is day/night, all-weather capable, and has high agility and survivability
against battle damage.
• These are easily maintainable even in field conditions and are capable of
prolonged operations in tropical and desert regions.
Eight US-made Apache AH-64E stealth attack helicopters have been inducted into IAF.

The IAF has signed a contract with Boeing‘ and the US government for 22 Apache
attack helicopters.

It will replace the ageing Russian Mi-35 attack helicopters in service.

MiG-21 Fighter Jets

• MiG is a product of the Soviet Union which entered into the service in 1959.
• It is the first supersonic fighter aircraft of the Indian Air Force.
• India inducted the MiG-21 in 1963 and got full technology transfer and
rights to license-build the aircraft in the country.
• Russia stopped producing the aircraft in 1985, while India continued operating
the upgraded variants.
• In the upcoming India-Russia Bilateral summit, India is likely to gift 3 MiG fighter
jets to Russia.
• MiG-21 fighter jets will be phased out of service by 2021-22.
• Tejas, an indigenous fighter aircraft will replace the ageing MiG-21.

Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft

• It is India‘s next indigenous fighter and expected to make its first flight by 2032.
• It is built under India‘s only fifth-generation aircraft programme.
• The aircraft will feature geometric stealth which is different from the material
stealth feature.
• In material stealth, radar-absorbing materials are used to absorb the radio
waves thus reducing the radar footprint.

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 • Whereas, in geometric stealth, the aircraft is designed at such angles to deflect
away maximum radar waves to minimize radar cross-section.
• Thus, the fighter will have a low radar cross-section, making it difficult for the
enemy to spot it.

Biojet fuel for Aircraft

• IAF flew an An-32 aircraft in ‘vic’ formation, whose lead plane used a mix of
Aviation Turbine Fuel blended with 10% biofuel.
• The biofuel has been extracted from Jatropha plant seeds using a technology
patented by the CSIR and the Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun.
• Following the clearance given by the Centre for Military Airworthiness and
Certification IAF is expected to use biofuel for its transport fleet and helicopters.
• The ‘vic’ formation comprises 3 or more aircraft flying in close formation with the
leader at the apex and the rest to left and right, the whole resembling the letter
‘V’.

Kamov Ka-226T

• Russia plans to deliver 200 Kamov Ka-226T military helicopters to India in a first
tranche as part of a $1 billion deal, signed in Indo-Russia Summit in Moscow,
2015.
• The Kamov 226T is a lightweight, twin-engine multi-role chopper that offers
services for both military and civilian purposes.
• It will replace India’s ageing fleet of Cheetah and Chetak.
• The military version is capable of working in extreme and difficult weather
conditions such as hot climate, marine areas, and high mountains.
• The helicopter has a maximum speed of 250 km/hour and the maximum takeoff
weight is 3,600 kg.
• The Ka-226T uses coaxial rotors, that is, it has two sets of rotors mounted one
on top of the other and typically no tail rotor.
• Coaxial rotors give helicopter improvements in lift and payload
capacity over conventional choppers.
• This is especially advantageous in high-altitude environments where
an aircraft’s performance at take-off tends to diminish due to the lower air
density.
• The Ka-226T also has a unique, detachable ‘mission’ compartment instead of
a conventional cabin.
• This allows the helicopter to be adapted for different roles such
as surveillance and cargo delivery.
• Issues with the Old Fleet of Helicopters:

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 • About 75% of the Army’s fleet of Cheetah and Chetak helicopters is
over 30 years old. Some of them are about 50 years old and they
need urgent replacements.
• Operational capability has been impacted due to deficiencies and
non-availability of replacement.
• The requirement of Helicopters in the Indian Army: There is a requirement of
around 400 such helicopters in the army.

HAL Dhruv
HAL Dhruv is a utility helicopter designed and developed by Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited (HAL).

The indigenously designed and developed Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH-

DHRUV) is a twin-engine, multi-role, multi-mission new generation helicopter in
the 5.5-ton weight class.

The basic Helicopter is produced in the skid version and wheeled version. Dhruv is “type
–Certified” for Military operations by the Centre for Military Airworthiness Certification
(CEMILAC) and civil operations by the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).

A total of 228 Dhruv Helicopters have been produced by March 2017 including 216 for
the Indian Armed Forces. It has been supplied to Nepal Army & Mauritius Police,
Maldives.

The major variants of Dhruv are classified as Dhruv Mk-I, Mk-II, Mk-III & Mk-IV.

HAL Rudra
The HAL Rudra, also known as ALH-WSI, is an armed version of HAL Dhruv which is
designed and manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).

It is equipped with Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) and Thermal Imaging Sights
Interface.

HAL Chetak
The Chetak Helicopter is a two-ton class helicopter. The seven-seater Chetak
helicopter is a versatile, multi-role, multi-purpose, and spacious.

The helicopter is suitable for commuting, cargo/material transport, casualty

evacuation, Search & Rescue (SAR), Aerial Survey & Patrolling, Emergency
Medical Services, Off-shore operations, and Underslung operations.

• The Chetak is being replaced by HAL Dhruv in the armed forces.

• HAL Chetak – Single engine

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 • Maximum speed – Over 210 km/hrs.

HAL Cheetah
HAL Cheetah built by Aérospatiale of France and have been built under
licence by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in India.

The Cheetah Helicopter is a high-performance helicopter designed for operation

over a very wide range of weight, the center of gravity, and altitude conditions.

The five-seater Cheetah helicopter is versatile, multi-role, multi-purpose, highly

maneuverable, and rugged in construction. It holds the world record in high altitude
flying among all categories of Helicopters.

Military Awards
Wartime Gallantry Awards

• Param Vir Chakra — Highest military award for, equivalent to the Victoria
Cross (which was replaced once India gained its independence).
• Maha Vir Chakra – Maha Vir Chakra is the second-highest military
decoration in India and is awarded for acts of conspicuous gallantry in the
presence of the enemy, whether on land, at sea, or in the air.
• Vir Chakra – Third in precedence in the awards for wartime gallantry.
Peacetime Gallantry Awards

• Ashok Chakra – An Indian military decoration awarded for valour, courageous

action, or self-sacrifice away from the battlefield. It is the peacetime equivalent of
the Param Vir Chakra.
• Kirti Chakra – Second in order of precedence of peacetime gallantry awards.
• Shaurya Chakra – Third in order of precedence of peacetime gallantry awards.

Military Exercises of India with Other Countries

The Indian military exercises can be segregated into 3 categories:

1. Domestic exercise
2. Bilateral Exercise
3. Multilateral exercise

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Domestic exercise – This exercise aims to improve internal engagements and there
can be inter-services or intra-services depending on nature and its application.

List of military domestic exercises:

1. Gandiv Vijay
2. Paschim Lehar
3. Vayu Shakti
4. Vijay Prahar

Bilateral Exercises:
Bilateral Exercise is the exercise that is conducted between two countries. Below is a
table that shows the list of bilateral exercise:

Indian Army:

S. Partner
Exercise name Remarks
No. Nation

The annual joint training exercise, 7th edition held in

1. China Ex Hand in Hand Oct 2018, it was suspended in 2017 because of Doklam
Plateau standoff.

Conducted biannually (every six months), alternatively

2. Nepal Ex Surya Kiran
in India and Nepal.

It is aimed to strengthen and broaden the aspects of

3. Bangladesh Ex Sampriti interoperability and cooperation between the Indian
and Bangladesh Armies.

Its inception was in 2012 in response to China’s efforts

4. Sri Lanka Ex Mitra Shakti to strengthen its influence in the Indian Ocean region &
Southeast Asia.

Annual combat exercise started in 2004, 14th edition

5. USA Ex Yudh Abhyas
held in Uttarakhand in 2018.

Conducted between Special Forces of both countries to

6. USA Ex Vajra Prahar
deal with operations for counter-terrorism.

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 It is aimed at strengthening closer relations with armies
7. Myanmar IMBAX-2017
of the neighboring countries.

Ex HARIMAU It is a 1st bilateral military training exercise between

8. Malaysia
SHAKTI India and Malaysia in May 2018.

Annual military exercise, started in 2012, 6th edition

9. Indonesia Ex Garuda Shakti
held in 2018 in Bandung, Indonesia.

First military exercise between the two countries, to

10. Vietnam VINBAX-2018 carry out training for Peacekeeping Operations under
United Nations (UN) mandate.

Annual bilateral military exercise started in 2009.

11. Maldives Ex Ekuverin
Hosted alternatively in India and the Maldives.

Transformed into tri-services Military Exercise in 2017.

12. Russia Ex INDRA The 10th edition conducted in 2018 at Babina Military
Station, Jhansi.

It is a joint military exercise first conducted in 2015. It

13. Oman AL NAGAH
is aimed at interoperability & weapons.

DHARMA First joint military exercise between India and Japan,

14. Japan
GUARDIAN conducted in 2018 in Mizoram.

It was targeted at evolving drills & procedures involved

15. Thailand EX MAITREE
in counter-terrorist operations.

Ex AJEYA
16. UK The biennial military exercise started in 2013.
WARRIOR

Ex PRABAL
17. Kazakhstan 2016-first edition, 2017-second edition.
DOSTYK

Annual bilateral military exercise started in 2006.

Ex NOMADIC
18. Mongolia Designed to strengthen the partnership between the
ELEPHANT
armies of India & Mongolia

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 The 8th edition of this biennial military exercise
19. Seychelles Ex LAMITIYE conducted in May 2018 at Mahe island in Seychelles
Archipelago.

A bilateral armor exercise conducted at the BABINA

Ex BOLD
20. Singapore Field Firing Range (BFFR) in Central India between the
KURUKSHETRA
Singapore Army and the Indian Army (IA).

It is an exercise between Special Forces of India and

21. Kyrgyzstan Ex KHANJAR
Kyrgyzstan.

Indian Navy

S. Partner Exercise
Remarks
No. Nation name

SLINEX exercise started in 2005 was previously held

1. Sri Lanka SLINEX biennially; from 2018 onwards it has been converted into the
annual event.

INDRA Started in 2003, 4th edition took place in 2018 in the Bay of
3. Russia
NAVY Bengal.

Started in 2004, to build interoperability and share best

4. UK KONKAN
practices.

It started in 1983 between the navies of India & France.

5. France VARUNA
These exercises was later named as Varuna in 2001.

NASEEM-AL- Biennial bilateral exercise between the two navies, started in

6. Oman
BAHR 1993. Literally means “sea breeze”

Sahyog HOP First India Vietnam Coast Guard Exercise, held in 2018 in the
7. Vietnam
TAC Bay of Bengal.

India-Indonesia coordinated patrol (IND-INDO CORPAT), bi-

IND-INDO
9. Indonesia annual exercise, started in 2002, 32nd edition held at
CORPAT
Belawan, Indonesia in Oct, 2018.

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 It is an annual exercise between the Navies of Singapore &
10. Singapore SIMBEX India since 1994. It stands for Singapore India Maritime
Bilateral Exercise (SIMBEX).

Indo-Myanmar Coordinated Patrol (IMCOR), held annually

11. Myanmar IMCOR
since 2013.

Indian Air Force

Sr. Partner
Exercise name Remarks
No. Nation

This is an important aspect of the Indo-French bilateral

military cooperation, which is a cornerstone of the
1. France Ex GARUDA
strategic partnership between France and India,
established in 1998.

Ex EASTERN Conducted between the IAF and RAFO (Royal Air Force of
2. Oman
BRIDGE Oman)

Started in 2014, conducted biannually. The exercise is

3. Russia Ex AVIAINDRA-18
targetted towards anti-terrorist operations.

Humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR)

5. Thailand SIAM BHARAT
exercise.

A bilateral air combat exercise provides exposure

6. UAE Ex DESERT EAGLE towards mission planning and execution in a simulated
high threat combat environment.

To enhance to mutual operational understanding

Ex
7. UK between IAF and Royal Air Force. Four editions so far viz.
INDRADHANUSH
2006, 2007, 2010, and 2015.

It is 2-week aerial combat exercise organized by the

8. USA Ex RED FLAG Indian Air Force. It offers air combat training to military
pilots from the USA and its allies

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Multilateral Exercises:
They are those exercise which consists of more than one military partners.

Sr. Exercise
Remarks
No. Name

It is the world’s largest maritime exercise. It was first conducted in 1971

and is held biannually near Honolulu, Hawaii (USA).The Exercise is
1. RIMPAC
overlooked by the US Navy’s Pacific fleet. The recent 2018 edition saw 26
countries participating which included India.

An annual trilateral naval exercise involving the United States, Japan, and
India as permanent partners. It originally began in 1992 as a bilateral
2. MALABAR
exercise between India and the US. Later in 2015, Japan became a
permanent partner

First joint military exercise between BIMSTEC countries, conducted in Pune,

Maharashtra. All member BIMSTEC countries, except Thailand and Nepal,
3. MILEX-18
took an active part in this exercise. The main aim is to promote practices in
areas of counter-terrorism.

A Counter Terror Military Exercise, held in Russia in September 2018, under

PEACE
4. the framework of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). For the first
MISSION
time, arch-rivals India and Pakistan took part in it.

The first multilateral Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR)

Samvedna-
5. exercise of Indian Air Force (IAF) in association with South Asian Region
2018
nations, was held off the coast of Kerala.

Ex COBRA
6. It is the largest Asia-Pacific military exercise held in Thailand every year.
GOLD

Started in 1993, it is a multilateral regional maritime engagement exercise

7. KAKADU hosted by the Royal Australian Navy. It derives its name from the Kakadu
National Park.

It stands for ASEAN Regional Forum Disaster Relief Exercise (ARF DiR Ex). It
is aimed at organizing a large-scale disaster relief exercise. It was 1st held
8. ARF DiR Ex
in 2009, & takes place biannually. It is co-hosted by one ASEAN member
states and one non-ASEAN ARF member.

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 A biennial multilateral Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR)
Ex
9. exercise, conducted for the first time by the Indonesian Navy in April 2014
KOMODO
at Batam, Indonesia.

INS Vikrant: First Indigenous Aircraft Carrier

• INS Vikrant was named after the warship that played a crucial role in the 1971
war.
• Designed: By the Indian Navy’s Directorate of Naval Design (DND), the
carrier has been built at Cochin Shipyard Limited, a public sector shipyard
under the Ministry of Shipping.It is a shining example in the nation’s quest for
‘Atma Nirbhar Bharat’ and ‘Make in India Initiative,’ with more than 76 percent
indigenous content.”
• It is the largest and most complex warship ever to be designed and built in
India.
• INS Vikrant will complement the INS Vikramaditya, currently the navy’s lone
carrier, which was acquired from Russia in 2013.
• It will have an air component of 30 aircraft, comprising MiG-29K fighter
jets, Kamov-31 airborne early warning helicopters, and the soon-to-be-
inducted MH-60R multi-role helicopter, besides the indigenous Advanced
Light Helicopters.
• It is expected to have a top speed of 30 knots (approximately 55 kmph) and is
propelled by four gas turbines. Its endurance is 7,500 nautical miles at 18 knots
(32 kmph) speed.
• The shipborne weapons include Barak LR SAM and AK-630, while it
has MFSTAR and RAN-40L 3D radars as sensors. The vessel has a Shakti EW
(Electronic Warfare) Suite.
• It has a pair of runways and a ‘short take-off but arrested recovery’ system to
control aircraft operations.

Significance for India

An aircraft carrier is a command platform epitomizing ‘dominance’ over a large area,
‘control’ over vast expanses of the ocean, and all aspects of maritime strength. It makes
India only the fifth country after the US, Russia, Britain, and France to have such
capabilities of developing indigenous aircraft carriers.

• In support of Land Battles

• During the 1971 operations for liberation of Bangladesh, the aircraft
onboard INS Vikrant was employed very successfully to strike strategic
targets deep inside the erstwhile East Pakistan. It is important to note that

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 as long as much of India’s land boundary (stretching from north-west to
north-east) remains disputed, the potential of a border conflict, and
thereby the likelihood of such a need, will persist. Thus the new Aircraft
carrier would give strategic advantage to India in case of future conflicts.
• Security of Sea-Lines of Communication
• In the event of a military conflict, a carrier is the only naval asset that can
provide a comprehensive protection to merchant shipping carrying
strategic commodities to India. The Indian naval chief recently expressed
apprehensions on the future vulnerability of energy imports through the
Strait of Hormuz due to China’s strategic “foothold” in Pakistan’s Gwadar
port.
• Like Gwadar, many other locations (“pearls”) in the Indian Ocean littoral
dispersed along the arterial shipping routes bear a similar potential. Owing
to the ongoing diversification of energy sources away from the Persian
Gulf area, these distant Security of Sea-Lines of Communication (SLOCs)
and thereby Aircraft carriers are also assuming strategic significance for
India.
• Maintaining Influence in IOR:
• India’s security is directly linked to and closely enmeshed with that of the
Indian Ocean and the adjoining littoral region (IOR)—the area of its
primary strategic interest. The Chinese “pearls” in the Indian Ocean,
besides addressing Beijing’s strategic vulnerability in terms of its energy
imports, is likely to be aimed at “displacing” India’s influence in the IOR.
• A possible Chinese politico-military intervention in the region will seriously
impinge on India’s security. In that sense, an aircraft carrier like Vikrant
can bestow on India a capability to maintain its influence in these waters
and achieve a strategic “dissuasion” against any inimical extra-regional
power.
• Safeguarding Vital Interests Overseas:
• Carrier aviation will enable India to safeguard its strategic interests
overseas, not only in the IOR but also beyond. India’s economic/strategic
stakes are conspicuously increasing in Afro-Asian states, many of which
are plagued by political, socio-economic and ethnic instabilities.
• Besides, many Indian citizens are working in these countries, and past
events have amply demonstrated how their lives and property can be
jeopardised. New Delhi will need to safeguard these interests in
conjunction with the host nations. When the operational situation warrants,
it may be preferable to carry out precision air-strikes to “soften” the target
before inserting ground forces, since to do otherwise may lead to
avoidable casualties.
• Security of Island Territories:
• Integral naval aviation is essential for defence of India’s far-flung island
territories, particularly the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (A&N) that lie
more than 1,000 km from the Indian mainland. These islands are also

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 extremely vulnerable due to their geographical spread, and the fact that
most of these are uninhabited.
• The possibility of foreign military occupation or claim may be unlikely in
the foreseeable future, but cannot be ruled out altogether. The take-over
of the Falklands Islands by Argentina was also considered a remote
possibility until it actually occurred in 1982. By all indicators, high-value
naval/air assets are unlikely to be based in the A&N Islands. This makes
the aircraft carrier indispensable, even as a deterrent.
• Non-military Missions:
• Although the concept of a carrier is essentially centered on its military
role, such a platform would substantially increase India’s operational
options to respond to a natural disaster in the regional seas or littoral.
While it has begun inducting large sealift platforms with integral
helicopters like the INS Jalashwa Landing Platform Dock (LPD), a disaster
of a large magnitude may necessitate the employment of a carrier.
• Akin to a floating city, a carrier like Vikrant can provide virtually unlimited
sealift, substantial airlift and all conceivable essential services ranging
from freshwater to electric supply, and medical to engineering expertise.
There is an effort to further enhance the usefulness of a carrier for such
roles, such as by incorporating a modular concept. It incorporates modular
spaces/containers carrying specialized personnel, engineering equipment,
medical facilities, etc., which can be rapidly deployed for specific missions.

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 Defence Indigenization

• Indigenisation is the capability of developing and producing any defence

equipment within the country for the dual purpose of achieving self-reliance and
reducing the burden of imports. It involves creating an ecosystem to design,
develop and manufacture different types of equipment indigenously.
• Self-reliance in defence manufacturing is one of the key objectives of the
Department of Defence Production.
• Defence Research Development Organisation (DRDO), Defence Public
Sector Undertakings (DPSUs), Ordnance Factory Board (OFB) and private
organisations are playing a critical role in the indigenisation of defence industries.
• A country like India with its immense potential and strategic location requires to
be self-reliant, hence it is important to pursue the idea of indigenisation for:
• Self-defence: The presence of hostile neighbours like China and Pakistan
makes it improbable for India to boost its self-defence and preparedness.
• Strategic advantage: Self-reliance will make India’s geopolitical stance
strategically stronger as a net security provider.
• Technological advancement: Advancement in the defence technology
sector will automatically boost other industries hence catapulting the
economy further ahead.
• Economic drain: India spends around 3% of GDP on defence and 60%
of that is spent on imports. This leads to an immense economic drain.
• Employment: Defence manufacturing will need the support of numerous
other industries which generate employment opportunities.

Background
• Overdependence on the Soviet Union brought about a change in India’s
approach to defence industrialisation from licence-based production to
production based on indigenous design.
• From the mid-1980s, the government pumped resources into R&D to enable the
DRDO to undertake high-profile projects.
• A significant beginning in defence indigenisation was made in 1983 when the
government sanctioned the Integrated Guided Missile Development
Programme (IGMDP) to develop five missile systems:
• Prithvi (surface-to-surface)
• Akash (surface-to-air)
• Trishul (the naval version of Prithvi)
• Nag (anti-tank)

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 • Agni Ballistic missiles with different ranges, i.e. Agni (1,2,3,4,5)
• In 1990 Self Reliance Review Committee (SRRV) under A.P.J. Abdul Kalam,
had formulated a 10-year self-reliance plan under which, the self-reliance
index (SRI), (defined as the percentage share of indigenous content in total
procurement expenditure), was to be increased from 30% in 1992-1993 to 70 %
by 2005.
• This target has not been achieved till today.
• The indigenous efforts were not adequate to meet the requirements of the armed
forces, this resulted in the shift of focus towards co-development and co-
production in partnership with foreign companies.
• A beginning was made in 1998 when India and Russia signed an inter-
governmental agreement to jointly produce the Brahmos supersonic cruise
missile.
• Apart from Russia, India has also partnered with other countries such as Israel
and France for a number of projects.

Why Indigenisation?
• Reducing Fiscal Deficit: India is the second largest arms importer in the world
(after Saudi Arabia).
• Higher import dependency leads to increase in the fiscal deficit.
• Despite having the fifth largest defence budget in the world, India
procures 60% of its weapon systems from foreign markets.
• India can export its indegeneous defence technology and equipment to
the neighbouring nations.
• Security Imperative: Indigenisation in defence is critical to national
security also. It keeps intact the technological expertise and encourages spin-off
technologies and innovation that often stem from it.
• Indigenisation is needed in order to avert the threats associated with the
frequent ceasefire violations like that of the Uri, Pathankot and Pulwama
attacks.
• India being surrounded by porous borders and hostile
neighbours needs to be self sufficient and self reliant in defence
production.
• Employment generation: defence manufacturing will lead to the generation of
satellites industries that in turn will pave the way for a generation of employment
opportunities.
• As per government estimates, a reduction in 20-25% in defence-related
imports could directly create an additional 100,000 to 120,000 highly
skilled jobs in India.

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 • Strategic Capability: self-sufficient and self-reliant defence industry will place
India among the top global powers.
• Nationalism and Patriotism can increase with indigenous production of defence
equipment, that in turn will not only boost the trust and confidence of the Indian
forces but will also strengthen a sense of integrity and sovereignty in them.

Government Initiatives

• Defence Procurement Policy: based on the recommendations of the Dhirendra

Singh committee, Defence Procurement Procedure 2016 (replaced DPP 2013)
added an additional category “Buy (Indian-IDDM)” i.e Indigenously Designed,
Developed and Manufactured, as the most preferred way of defence goods
acquisition.
• DPP allowed the Defence Acquisition Council to take a “fast-
track” route to acquire weapons, something which was limited to only the
armed forces till now.
• E-Biz Portal: the process of applying for an Industrial License (IL) and Industrial
Entrepreneur Memorandum (IEM) has been made completely online on ebiz
portal.
• Restriction of annual capacity in the industrial license for the defence sector
has been removed.
• Outsourcing and Vendor Development Guidelines: for DPSUs (defence public
sector undertaking) and OFB (ordnance factory board) to promote the
participation of the private sector, particularly SMEs (small manufacturing
enterprises) for defence manufacturing.
• The guidelines mandate that each DPSU and OFB to have a short-
term and long-term outsourcing and vendor development plan to
gradually increase the outsourcing from the private sector including SMEs.
• The guidelines also include vendor development for import substitution.
• Uniform custom duty: In order to establish a level-playing field between the
Indian private sector and the public sector, all Indian industries (public and
private) are subjected to the same kind of excise and custom duty levies.
• The FDI policy: composite foreign investment upto 49% is allowed through the
Government route (FIPB) and beyond 49% with the approval of the Cabinet
Committee on Security (CCS) on a case-to-case basis.
• Restrictions such as single largest Indian shareholder to hold at
least 51% equity and complete restrictions on Foreign Institutional
Investors (FII) have been removed to facilitate investment in the sector.
• Preference to ‘Buy (Indian)’, ‘Buy & Make (Indian)’ & ‘Make’ categories of
acquisition over ‘Buy (Global)’ category, thereby giving preference to the Indian
industry in procurement.

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Present Scenario
• INS Vikrant, also known as Indigenous Aircraft Carrier 1 (IAC-1), is the first
aircraft carrier to be built in India for the Navy.
• It is expected to commence sea trials in 2020.
• Tejas aircraft: DRDO is not able to develop its indigenous Kaveri engine due to
restricted access to high-end defence technology by countries such as the USA,
JAPAN etc.
• Project75: Indian Navy in 2017, initiated a submarine programme called Project-
75 (India), the “mother of all underwater defence deals” with France,
Germany, Russia, Sweden, Spain and Japan to build six advanced stealth
submarines.
• Project 75 Submarines INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Vela, S53, S54
and S55 are constructed by Mazagon Dock Limited and designed by
French company DCNS in Mumbai.
• Long-range artillery gun “Dhanush”: first indigenous long-range artillery gun
also called the “desi Bofors”.
• It has a strike range of 38 kilometres and 81% of its components are
indigenously sourced.
• Arihant: first indigenous nuclear submarine was developed in association
with BARC and DRDO.
• But due to insufficient fuel inventor it cannot go for long deployment and is
in a need for further improvement.
• AGNI V has given India the status of ICBM (Intercontinental ballistic missile)
holder country in 2013, though the project on integrated guided missile
development was started in 1983.
• Apart from AGNI V, Dhanush, Nirbhaya, Prithvi, Akash missiles have also
contributed to indigenisation of defence.
• The Pinaka Multi Barrel Rocket Launcher: was developed by armament
Research Development Establishment (Pune).
• Pinaka is a precision system with near zero-error probability.
• Supersonic Cruise Missile BRAHMOS: is a Joint Venture between India and
the Russian federation.
• The Indian contribution is 50.5% and the Russian contribution is 49.5%
• Arjun Tank is a third-generation main battle tank developed by DRDO.
• DRDO is working on using composites to reduce the weight.
Facts and Findings

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 • According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), India
was the world’s second-largest importer of major arms in 2014-18 and
accounted for 9.5% of the global total.
• According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI),
India’s military expenditure rose by 3.1%.
• In a 2011 report to the Parliament, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India
(C&AG) highlighted the 90% import dependency of Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd
(HAL) for ‘raw materials and bought out items’ for the production of indigenous .
• India has been spending around 2.4% of its GDP on defence.
• The Self-Reliance Index (SRI) which may be defined as the ratio of indigenous
content of defence procurements to the total expenditure on defence
procurements in a financial year is at an abysmal 0.3.

Challenges
• Lack of an institutional capacity and capability to take different policies aimed
at indigenisation of defence to its logical conclusion.
• Dispute Settlement body: There is an urgent need for a permanent arbitration
committee which can settle disputes expeditiously.
• In the USA, the procurement agency DARPA has a permanent arbitration
committee which resolves such issues amicably and their decision is final.
• Infrastructural deficit increases India’s logistics costs thus reducing the
country’s cost competitiveness and efficiency.
• Land acquisition issues restrict entry of new players in the defence
manufacturing and production.
• Policy dilemma offset requirements under the DPP are not helping it achieve its
goal. (Offsets are a portion of a contracted price with a foreign supplier that must
be re-invested in the Indian defence sector, or against which the government can
purchase technology.

Way Forward
To ensure indigenisation of defence the government no doubt is heading in the right
direction by laying emphasis on “Make in India”. It is the implementation that needs to
be fine tuned. Some of the steps that can be taken in this direction are:

• Permanent Arbitration Cell can be set up to deal with all objections and
disputes.
• Private Sector boost is necessary as it can infuse efficient and effective
technology and human capital required for modernisation of indegenious defence
industry.

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 • The private sector must be allotted big ticket contracts in order to
strengthen their confidence and reduce the trust deficit between private
and government sector.
• Ensure a level playing field for the private industry, DRDO, DPSUs and
OFB.
• Export capability: If the aim is to achieve export capability, then the weapon
system must first be in service with our armed forces.
• Software Industry and technologies like Artificial intelligence and cyber
security should be used to develop and manufacture the “chip” indigenously.
• Providing Financial and Administrative autonomy to DRDO in order to
enhance its confidence and authority.
• Training and Tenure: The staff at the Department of Defence
Production need to be trained and given longer tenures to ensure continuity.
• Investee Company should be structured to be self-sufficient in areas of
product design and development. The investee/joint venture company along
with manufacturing facility should have maintenance and life cycle support facility
of the product being manufactured.
• In⎯house design capability should be improved amongst the three services,
the Navy has progressed well on the path of indigenisation primarily because of
the in⎯house design capability, the Naval Design Bureau.
• Hence, they do not have to depend on the DRDO for the design &
development of the complete ship, but outsource the sub⎯systems for
them to develop.
• Robust supply chain is critical for a defence manufacturer looking to optimize
costs.
• Indian SMEs are playing a key role in the global supply chain of OEMs
(Original Equipment Manufacturer).

Major Milestones in Indian Space Programme

YEAR MILESTONE

Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) formed

by the Department of Atomic Energy and work on
1962
establishing Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS)
started.

1963 First sounding rocket launched from TERLS(November 21, 1963).

1965 Space Science & Technology Centre (SSTC) established in Thumba.

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1967 Satellite Telecommunication Earth Station set up at Ahmedabad.

1968 TERLS dedicated to the United Nations (February 2, 1968).

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) formed under Department

1969
of Atomic Energy (August 15, 1969).

Space Commission and Department of Space set up(June 1, 1972).

1972
ISRO brought under DOS.

1972-
Air-borne remote sensing experiments.
1976

Becomes Government Organisation (April 1, 1975).

1975
ISRO First Indian Satellite, Aryabhata, launched (April 19, 1975).

1975-
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) conducted.
1976

1977 Satellite Telecommunication Experiments Project (STEP) carried out.

Bhaskara-I, an experimental satellite for earth observations, launched

(June 7, 1979).
1979
First Experimental launch of SLV-3 with Rohini Technology Payload on
board (August 10, 1979). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

Second Experimental launch of SLV-3, Rohini satellite successfully

1980
placed in orbit. (July 18, 1980).

First developmental launch of SLV-3.

RS-D1 placed in orbit (May 31, 1981)
1981 APPLE, an experimental geo-stationary communication satellite
successfully launched (June 19, 1981).
Bhaskara-II launched (November 20, 1981).

INSAT-1A launched (April 10, 1982).

1982
Deactivated on September 6, 1982.

INSAT-1B, launched (August 30, 1983).

1983 Second developmental launch of SLV-3. RS-D2 placed in orbit (April 17,
1983).

1984 Indo-Soviet manned space mission (April 1984).

First developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-1 satellite on board

1987 (March 24, 1987).
Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

Launch of first operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1A

1988 (March 17, 1988).
Second developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-2 on board (July

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 13, 1988). Satellite could not be placed in orbit.
INSAT-1C launched (July 21, 1988). Abandoned in November 1989.

1990 INSAT-1D launched (June 12, 1990).

Second operational Remote Sensing satellite, IRS-1B, launched

1991
(August 29, 1991).

Third developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C on board (May 20,

1992). Satellite placed in orbit.
1992
INSAT-2A, the first satellite of the indigenously-built second-
generation INSAT series, launched (July 10, 1992).

INSAT-2B, the second satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (July 23,
1993).
1993 Developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-1E on board (September 20,
1993).
Satellite could not be placed in orbit.

Fourth developmental launch of ASLV with SROSS-C2 on board (May

4, 1994). Satellite placed in orbit.
1994
Second developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P2 on board (October
15, 1994). Satellite successfully placed in polar sunsynchronous orbit.

INSAT-2C, the third satellite in the INSAT-2 series, launched (December

7, 1995).
1995
Launch of third operational Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-1C
(December 28, 1995).

Third developmental launch of PSLV with IRS-P3 on board (March 21,

1996
1996). Satellite placed in polar sunsynchronous orbit.

First operational launch of PSLV with IRS-1D on board (September 29,

1997). Satellite placed in orbit.
(An in-orbit satellite, ARABSAT-1C, since renamed INSAT-2DT, was
1997
acquired in November 1997 to partly augment the INSAT system).
INSAT-2D, fourth satellite in the INSAT series, launched (June 4, 1997).
Becomes inoperable on October 4, 1997.

INSAT system capacity augmented with the readiness of INSAT-2DT

1998
acquired from ARABSAT (January 1998).

INSAT-2E, the last satellite in the multipurpose INSAT-2 series,

launched by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana, (April 3, 1999).
1999 Indian Remote Sensing Satellite, IRS-P4 (OCEANSAT), launched by
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C2) along with Korean KITSAT-3
and German DLR-TUBSAT from Sriharikota (May 26, 1999).

INSAT-3B, the first satellite in the third generation INSAT-3 series,

2000
launched by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana(March 22, 2000).

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 The first developmental launch of GSLV-D1 with GSAT-1 on board from
Sriharikota (April 18, 2001)
ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C3, successfully launched
2001
three satellites — Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) of ISRO, BIRD
of Germany and PROBA of Belgium – into their intended orbits
(October 22, 2001).

Successful launch of INSAT-3C by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana,

(January 24, 2002).
2002
ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C4, successfully launched
KALPANA-1 satellite from Sriharikota(September 12, 2002).

Successful launch of INSAT-3A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana,

(April 10, 2003).The Second developmental launch of GSLV-D2 with
GSAT-2 on board from Sriharikota (May 8, 2003).
2003 Successful launch of INSAT-3E by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana,
(September 28, 2003).
ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C5, successfully launched
RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-P6) satellite from Sriharikota(October 17, 2003).

The first operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F01) successfully launched

2004
EDUSAT from SDSC SHAR, Sriharikota (September 20, 2004)

ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C6, successfully launched

CARTOSAT-1 and HAMSAT satellites from Sriharikota(May 5, 2005).
2005
Successful launch of INSAT-4A by Ariane from Kourou French Guyana,
(December 22, 2005).

Second operational flight of GSLV (GSLV-F02) from SDSC SHAR with

2006 INSAT-4C on board. (July 10, 2006). Satellite could not be placed in
orbit.

ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C7 successfully launches

four satellites – India’s CARTOSAT-2 and Space Capsule Recovery
Experiment (SRE-1) and Indonesia’s LAPAN-TUBSAT and Argentina’s
PEHUENSAT-1 (January 10, 2007).

Successful recovery of SRE-1 after maneuvering it to reenter the

earth’s atmosphere and descend over the Bay of Bengal about 140 km
east of Sriharikota (January 22, 2007).
2007
Successful launch of INSAT-4B by Ariane-5 from Kourou French
Guyana, (March 12, 2007).

ISRO’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C8, successfully launched

Italian astronomical satellite, AGILE from Sriharikota (April 23, 2007).

Successful launch of GSLV (GSLV-F04) with INSAT-4CR on board from

SDSC SHAR (September 2, 2007).

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 PSLV-C10 successfully launches TECSAR satellite under a commercial
contract with Antrix Corporation (January 21, 2008).

PSLV-C9 successfully launches CARTOSAT-2A, IMS-1 and 8 foreign

2008
nano satellites from Sriharikota (April 28, 2008).

PSLV-C11 successfully launches CHANDRAYAAN-1 from Sriharikota

(October 22, 2008).

Space Technology: Satellites and Orbits

Space Technology
• Modern space research in India is most visibly traced to the 1920s, when the
scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a series of experiments leading to the
sounding of the ionosphere by application of ground-based radio methods in
Calcutta.
• Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to
scientific principles applicable in space sciences
• However, it was the period after 1945 that saw important developments being
made in coordinated space research in India.
• The space research activities were initiated in India during the early
1960’s, when applications using satellites were in experimental stages even in
the United States. With the live transmission of Tokyo Olympic Games across the
Pacific by the American Satellite ‘Syncom-3’ demonstrating the power of
communication satellites, Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the founding father of Indian
space programme, quickly recognized the benefits of space technologies
for India.
• As a first step, the Department of Atomic Energy formed the INCOSPAR
(Indian National Committee for Space Research) under the leadership of Dr.
Sarabhai and Dr. Ramanathan in 1962.
• With the visionary Dr Vikram Sarabhai at its helm, INCOSPAR set up the
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in Thiruvananthapuram
for upper atmospheric research.
• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was later formed on
August 15, 1969, superseded the erstwhile INCOSPAR. The prime objective of
ISRO is to develop space technology and its application to various national
needs. It is one of the six largest space agencies in the world.
• The Department of Space (DOS) and the Space Commission were set up in
1972 and ISRO was brought under DOS on June 1, 1972.

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 • Since inception, the Indian space programme has been orchestrated well and
had three distinct elements such as, satellites for communication and remote
sensing, the space transportation system and application programmes.
• Two major operational systems have been established – the Indian National
Satellite (INSAT) for telecommunication, television broadcasting, and
meteorological services, and the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) for
monitoring and management of natural resources and Disaster Management
Support.
• The Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE) was ISRO’s first
indigenous, experimental communication satellite. It was launched into GTO
(Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit) by the third development flight of ESA’a Ariane
vehicle from Kourou on June 19, 1981.

Satellites
An object orbiting around the sun, earth or any other colossal body is known as a
satellite. There are two major types of categorization when it comes down to
satellites, one is natural and the other is man-made. Satellites on the basis of its
applications and purpose can be divided into four types –

• Geostationary Satellites (Communication) – INSAT Series, GSAT series,

EDUSAT and HAMSAT
• Earth Observation Satellites– IRS series, CARTOSAT, RESOURCESAT,
OCEANSAT and RISAT and recently envisioned ASTROSAT (Astronomy
related)
• Navigation Satellites-GAGAN and IRNSS (now NAVIC)
• Space Missions- MOM, Gaganyaan and Chandrayaan-2
• Small Satellites– Jugnoo (Nanosatellite)

Astronomical Satellites
• These satellites are used for the observation of distant stars and other
objects in space. India’s ASTROSAT is an Astronomical satellite.
• Astronomical satellites are those which are used for the observation of distant
planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects. Astronomical performance from
the Earth’s surface is limited by Earth’s atmospheric conditions. It makes it, even
more, worse by the filtering and distortion of electromagnetic radiation. This
makes it desirable to place astronomical observation devices into space.
• But space-based astronomy is even more important for frequency ranges that are
outside the optic and radio window. For example, X-ray astronomy is nearly
impossible when done from the Earth, and has reached its current important
stand within astronomy only due to orbiting satellites with X-ray telescopes.
Infrared and ultraviolet are also greatly blocked.

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Image: globalsatshow.com

• The most famous astronomical satellite is the Hubble Telescope. Although

now reaching the end of its life it has enabled scientists to see many things that
would otherwise not have been possible. Nevertheless, it did suffer some major
design setbacks that were only discovered once it was in orbit.
• ASTROSAT observes the universe in the optical, ultraviolet, low, and high energy
X-ray regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, whereas most other scientific
satellites are capable of observing a narrow range of wavelength bands.
• The scientific objectives of ASTROSAT mission are:
• To understand high energy processes in binary star systems containing
neutron stars and black holes
• Estimate magnetic fields of neutron stars
• Study star birth regions and high energy processes in star systems lying
beyond our galaxy
• Detect new briefly bright X-ray sources in the sky
• Perform a limited deep field survey of the Universe in the Ultraviolet region

Communication Satellites

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 • These satellites possibly form the greatest number of satellites that are in orbit.
They are used for communicating over large distances. INSAT and GSAT of
India come under this.
• The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) systems which are placed in Geo-
stationary orbits are one of the largest domestic communication satellite systems
in the Asia-Pacific region. Established in 1983 with the commissioning of INSAT-
1B, it initiated a major revolution in India’s communications sector and sustained
the same later.
• The height of the satellite above the Earth enables the satellites to communicate
over vast distances and thereby overcoming the curvature of the Earth’s surface.
Even within the communications field, there are a number of sub-categories.

• Some satellites are used for point-to-point telecommunications links, others are
used for mobile communications, and there are those used for direct broadcast.
There are even some satellites used for mobile phone style communications.
• Even though these satellites did not take the market in the way that was originally
expected because terrestrial mobile phone networks spread faster than was
originally envisaged, some mobile phone satellite systems still exist.

GSAT-19
GSAT-19 satellite with a lift-off mass of 3136 kg, is the communication satellite of
India, configured around the ISRO’s standard I-3K bus.

• GSAT-19 carries Ka/Ku-band high throughput communication

transponders.
• Besides, it carries a Geostationary Radiation Spectrometer (GRASP) payload to
monitor and study the nature of charged particles and the influence of space
radiation on satellites and their electronic components.
• GSAT-19 also features certain advanced spacecraft technologies including
miniaturized heat pipe, fiber optic gyro, Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) accelerometer, Ku-band TTC transponder, as well an indigenous
Lithium-ion Battery.

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 • GSAT-19 satellite was launched by GSLV Mk III-D1 from the Second Launch Pad
(SLP) at Satish Dhawan Space Centre SHAR (SDSC SHAR), Sriharikota.

GSAT-6A
GSAT-6A, similar to GSAT-6 is a high power S-band communication
satellite configured around the I-2K bus.

• The mission life of the spacecraft planned is about 10 years.

• The satellite will also provide a platform for developing technologies such as the
demonstration of 6 m S-Band Unfurlable Antenna, handheld ground terminals,
and network management techniques that could be useful in satellite-based
mobile communication applications.
• GSAT-6A was launched by GSLV-F08, March 29, 2018.

GSAT-31
GSAT-31- India’s telecommunication satellite, GSAT-31 was successfully launched in
February 2019 from Kourou launch base, French Guiana by Ariane-5 VA-247.

This satellite will augment the Ku-band transponder capacity in Geostationary Orbit.

Satellite Launch Date Launch Vehicle Application

GSAT-31 Feb 06, 2019 Ariane-5 VA-247 Communication

GSAT-7A Dec 19, 2018 GSLV-F11 / GSAT-7A Mission Communication

GSAT-
Dec 05, 2018 Ariane-5 VA-246 Communication
11 Mission

GSLV Mk III-D2 / GSAT-29

GSAT-29 Nov 14, 2018 Communication
Mission

Mar 29,
GSAT-6A GSLV-F08/GSAT-6A Mission Communication
2018

GSAT-17 Jun 29, 2017 Ariane-5 VA-238 Communication

GSAT-19 Jun 05, 2017 GSLV Mk III-D1/GSAT-19 Mission Communication

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 May 05,
GSAT-9 GSLV-F09 / GSAT-9 Communication
2017

GSAT-12 Jul 15, 2011 PSLV-C17/GSAT-12 Communication

May 21, Communication,

GSAT-8 Ariane-5 VA-202
2011 Navigation

EDUSAT Sep 20, 2004 GSLV-F01 / EDUSAT(GSAT-3) Communication

Earth Observation Satellites

These satellites are used for observing the earth’s surface and as a result, they are often
termed geographical satellites. India’s IRS and RESOURCESAT are part of this.

• Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite system was commissioned with the
launch of IRS-1A, in 1988. With eleven satellites in operation, IRS is the largest
civilian remote sensing satellite constellation in the world providing imageries in a
variety of spatial resolutions, spectral bands, and swaths.
• The data is used for several applications covering agriculture, water resources,
urban development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, drought, and
flood forecasting, ocean resources, and disaster management.
• Using these satellites it is possible to see many features that are not obvious
from the earth’s surface, or even at the altitudes at which aircraft fly. Using these
earth observation satellites many geographical features have become obvious
and they have even been used in mineral search and exploitation.

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Cartosat-2 Series Satellite is the primary satellite carried by PSLV-C40.

• This remote sensing satellite is similar in configuration to earlier satellites in the

series and is intended to augment data services to the users.
• The imagery sent by satellite will be useful for cartographic applications, urban
and rural applications, coastal land use and regulation, utility management like
road network monitoring, water distribution, creation of land use maps, change
detection to bring out geographical and manmade features, and various other
Land Information System (LIS) as well as Geographical Information System (GIS)
applications.
RESOURCESAT-2A is a Remote Sensing satellite intended for resource monitoring.

• RESOURCESAT-2A is a follow-on mission to RESOURCESAT-1 and

RESOURCESAT-2, launched in 2003 and 2011 respectively.
• RESOURCESAT-2A is intended to continue the remote sensing data services to
global users provided by RESOURCESAT-1 and RESOURCESAT-2

Hyper Spectral Imaging Satellite (HysIS)

HysIS, the primary satellite of the PSLV-C43 mission, weighing about 380 kg, is
an earth observation satellite configured around ISRO’s Mini Satellite-2 (IMS-2) bus.

The primary goal of HysIS is to study the earth’s surface in the visible, near-
infrared, and shortwave infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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The co-passengers of HysIS include 1 micro and 29 nanosatellites from eight
different countries including one each from Australia, Canada, Columbia, Finland,
Malaysia, Netherlands, Spain, and 23 from the US.

RISAT-2B is a radar imaging earth observation satellite developed by ISRO.

Launch
Satellite Launch Vehicle Application
Date

Nov 29,
HysIS PSLV-C43 / HysIS Mission Earth Observation
2018

Jan 12, PSLV-C40/Cartosat-2 Series

Cartosat-2 Series Satellite Earth Observation
2018 Satellite Mission

Jun 23, PSLV-C38 / Cartosat-2 Series

Cartosat-2 Series Satellite Earth Observation
2017 Satellite

Feb 15, PSLV-C37 / Cartosat -2 Series

Cartosat-2 Series Satellite Earth Observation
2017 Satellite

Dec 07,
RESOURCESAT-2A PSLV-C36 / RESOURCESAT-2A Earth Observation
2016

Sep 26,
SCATSAT-1 PSLV-C35 / SCATSAT-1 Climate & Environment
2016

Sep 08, Climate & Environment, Disaster

INSAT-3DR GSLV-F05 / INSAT-3DR
2016 Management System

Jun 22, PSLV-C34 / CARTOSAT-2 Series

CARTOSAT-2 Series Satellite Earth Observation
2016 Satellite

Feb 25, Climate & Environment, Earth

SARAL PSLV-C20/SARAL
2013 Observation

Apr 26,
RISAT-1 PSLV-C19/RISAT-1 Earth Observation
2012

Oct 12, Climate & Environment, Earth

Megha-Tropiques PSLV-C18/Megha-Tropiques
2011 Observation

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 Apr 20,
RESOURCESAT-2 PSLV-C16/RESOURCESAT-2 Earth Observation
2011

Jul 12,
CARTOSAT-2B PSLV-C15/CARTOSAT-2B Earth Observation
2010

Sep 23, Climate & Environment, Earth

Oceansat-2 PSLV-C14 / OCEANSAT-2
2009 Observation

Apr 20,
RISAT-2 PSLV-C12 / RISAT-2 Earth Observation
2009

May 05,
CARTOSAT-1 PSLV-C6/CARTOSAT-1/HAMSAT Earth Observation
2005

The Technology Experiment Oct 22,

PSLV-C3 / TES Earth Observation
Satellite (TES) 2001

May 26,
Oceansat (IRS-P4) PSLV-C2/IRS-P4 Earth Observation
1999

May 31,
Rohini Satellite RS-D1 SLV-3D1 Earth Observation
1981

Jun 07,
Bhaskara-I C-1 Intercosmos Earth Observation, Experimental
1979

Navigation Satellites
• In recent years satellites have been used for accurate navigation. The first
system known as GPS (Global Positioning System) was set up by the
USA and was primarily intended for use as a highly accurate military system.
Since then it has been adopted by a huge number of commercial and private
users including India.
• India launched its own navigation satellite in the name of the IRNSS-Indian
Regional Navigation Satellite System.
• The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, in its thirty-fifth flight (PSLV-C33), launcheD
IRNSS- 1G, the seventh satellite of the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite
System (IRNSS) into a Sub-Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (Sub-GTO).

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 • In 2017 all rubidium atomic clocks onboard IRNSS-1A failed, rendering the
satellite redundant. ISRO’s attempt to replace it with IRNSS-1H was unsuccessful
when the PSLV-C39 mission failed to deploy the satellite on 31 August 2017.
• There are plans to expand Navic system by increasing constellation size from 7
to 11.

IRNSS-NAVIC
IRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by India.

• It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India as

well as the region extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary
service area.
• IRNSS will provide two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service
(SPS) which is provided to all the users, and Restricted Service (RS), which is an
encrypted service provided only to the authorized users.
• The IRNSS System is expected to provide a position accuracy of better than 20
m in the primary service area.
Components of IRNSS

• IRNSS comprises of a space segment and a ground segment.

• The IRNSS space segment consists of EIGHT satellites, with three satellites in
geostationary orbit and five satellites in inclined geosynchronous orbit.
• IRNSS ground segment is responsible for navigation parameter generation and
transmission, satellite control, ranging and integrity monitoring, and timekeeping.
Applications of IRNSS

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 • Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation
• Disaster Management
• Vehicle tracking and fleet management
• Integration with mobile phones
• Precise Timing
• Mapping and Geodetic data capture
• Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travelers
• Visual and voice navigation for drivers
International dimensions of Navigation System

• The significance of IRNSS cannot be underplayed. Navigation systems, once

used by the most powerful militaries around the world, are also being used by
civilians through their smartphones.
• In addition, many militaries are using them for a wide range of applications.
India’s ability to develop its own system without having to rely on any external
source will go a long way in securing itself.
• The US-managed GPS became available for large-scale use a decade ago or so,
although the importance of location precision technologies in the military arena
with an emphasis on accumulating hard power has prompted many countries,
particularly in Asia, to develop their own versions of GPS and other space-based
navigation systems.
• Some of the proven and more popular systems include the Chinese Beidou,
Russian Glonass, and Japanese Quazi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) that is
making slow progress.
• The best known and currently the most widely used navigation satellite system is
the U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS), which became operational two
decades ago.
• Russia too offers global coverage with its Global Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS). Europe is establishing its own global system, Galileo. Although the
full constellation will be ready only by 2019, it plans to begin some services with a
reduced number of satellites by the end of next year.
• China’s Beidou satellite navigation system, which launched its first navigation
satellite in 2000, plans to have full global coverage by 2020. China has already
launched 16 satellites and four experimental ones onto space as part of the
Beidou system.
• In spite of the sovereignty and territorial disputes, including recent flare-ups with
several Southeast Asian countries, China has been successful in selling its
system in many countries in the region.
• Among other countries, Thailand, Laos, and Brunei have already subscribed to
the Beidou navigation system. Pakistan and Sri Lanka in South Asia have also
opted for the Chinese navigation system.

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 • Russia’s GLONASS was a response to the US’ GPS, and the GLONASS is run
by Russia’s space forces. It has a 24 satellite-constellation, with 21 in operation
and 3 as back-ups. Placed at an altitude of 19,000 km, each of the satellites orbit
the earth in 11 hours and 15 minutes.
• The satellites are positioned in a manner to allow at least five satellites to be in
view at any given time. India entered into a pact with Russia on satellite
navigation collaboration way back in 2005 although it took them another six years
to sign an agreement for India to receive military signals from Russia.
• In fact, though there have been several agreements signed in this regard; the
Russian government has been unwilling to part with “precision codes” (which
provides data to navigate up to one meter).
• Given the growing importance of location data for a variety of purposes including
in the civilian, disaster management, and military domain, India cannot be lagging
behind.
• A decision by the ISRO to involve the Indian industry in developing
communication satellites and PSLVs will lighten the burden on the ISRO while
helping to refocus their attention on some big science projects and remote
sensing satellites. This move will also step up the process of establishing a
much-needed strategic industry around outer space.
• Security of the nation has become one of the inevitable concerns and
dependence on USGPS or Russia’s GLONASS can be a national threat.
Independency is a key to security and IRNSS will not only secure Indian Territory
but also boost confidence among Indian neighbors.

GAGAN

• The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-

Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as the Space-Based
Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite-Based Communications,
Navigation and Surveillance (CNS)/Air Traffic Management (ATM) plan for civil
aviation.
• The Indian SBAS system has been given the acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided
GEO Augmented Navigation.
• A national plan for satellite navigation including the implementation of the
Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over the Indian air space as a proof of
concept has been prepared jointly by the Airports Authority of India (AAI) and
ISRO.
• TDS was successfully completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference
Stations (INRESs) at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Center
(MCC) located near Bangalore.
• The next major milestone in GAGAN is the conduct of PSAT (Preliminary System
Acceptance Testing) which has been successfully completed in Dec 2010.
• The first GAGAN navigation payload is slated on GSAT-8 which was launched on
May 21, 2011. The second GAGAN payload was launched on GSAT-10 in the

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 first quarter of 2012. The third GAGAN payload is planned on another GEO
satellite.
• The Russian system is known as GLONASS and the European Union’s Galileo
and Chinese Beidou are among others.
Indian space agency ISRO will launch the GSAT-32 satellite to replace GSAT-
6A which stopped communicating a few days after its launch.

Reconnaissance Satellites
• A reconnaissance satellite or intelligence satellite (commonly, although
unofficially, referred to as a spy satellite) is an Earth observation satellite or
communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications.
• These satellites are able to see objects on the ground and are accordingly
used for military purposes. As such their performance and operation are kept
secret and not publicized. DRONES are part of the reconnaissance system.

Weather Satellites
• As the name implies these satellites are used to monitor the weather. They have
helped considerably in the forecasting of the weather and have helped provide a
much better understanding not only of the underlying phenomena but also in
enabling predictions to be made.
• India’s Kalpana-1 and INSAT-3A are part of this.

Experimental Satellites
ISRO has launched many small satellites mainly for experimental purposes. This
experiment includes Remote Sensing, Atmospheric Studies, Payload Development,
Orbit Controls, recovery technology, etc.

Launch
Satellite Launch Vehicle Application
Date

Jan 12, PSLV-C40/Cartosat-2 Series

INS-1C Experimental
2018 Satellite Mission

Apr 20,
YOUTHSAT PSLV-C16/RESOURCESAT-2 Student Satellite
2011

Jun 19, Communication,

APPLE Ariane-1(V-3)
1981 Experimental

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 Rohini Technology Aug 10,
SLV-3E1
Payload (RTP) 1979

Apr 19,
Aryabhata C-1 Intercosmos Experimental
1975

Microsat
• The term “microsatellite” or “microsat” is usually applied to the name of an
artificial satellite with a wet mass between 10 and 100 kg.
• However, this is not an official convention and sometimes those terms can refer
to satellites larger than that, or smaller.
• PSLV-C40 carries a Microsatellite (Microsat) built by ISRO as a co-passenger
payload. Microsat is a small satellite in the 100 kg class that derives its heritage
from the IMS-1 bus in the recent launch of the Cartosat-2 series.

Nanosatellites
• The term “nanosatellite” or “nanosat” is applied to an artificial satellite with a wet
mass between 1 and 11 kg.
• PSLV-C37 carried two ISRO Nano Satellites – INS-1A and INS-1B as co-
passenger satellites, which was launched on Feb 15, 2017. INS-1C was
launched by PSLV-C40 on Jan 12, 2018, as a co-passenger satellite.

Academic Institute Satellites

ISRO has influenced educational institutions by its activities like making satellites for
communication, remote sensing, and astronomy. The launch of Chandrayaan-1
increased the interest of universities and institutions towards making experimental
student satellites. Capable Universities and institutions can venture into space
technology on-orbit with guidance and support from ISRO byways of Development of
Payload and Design & Fabrication of Satellite.

S.no. Satellites Launch Date Launch Vehicle

1 Kalamsat-V2 Jan 24, 2019 PSLV-C44

4 PRATHAM Sep 26, 2016 PSLV-C35 / SCATSAT-1

5 SATHYABAMASAT Jun 22, 2016 PSLV-C34 / CARTOSAT-2 Series Satellite

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 6 SWAYAM Jun 22, 2016 PSLV-C34 / CARTOSAT-2 Series Satellite

7 Jugnu Oct 12, 2011 PSLV-C18/Megha-Tropiques

9 STUDSAT Jul 12, 2010 PSLV-C15/CARTOSAT-2B

10 ANUSAT Apr 20, 2009 PSLV-C12 / RISAT-2

Orbits
An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around another one.
An object in an orbit is called a satellite. A satellite can be natural, like Earth or the
moon. Many planets have moons that orbit them. A satellite can also be man-made, like
the International Space Station.

Planets, comets, asteroids and other objects in the solar system orbit the sun. Most of
the objects orbiting the sun move along or close to an imaginary flat surface. This
imaginary surface is called the ecliptic plane.

Orbits come in different shapes. All orbits are elliptical, which means they are an ellipse,
similar to an oval. For the planets, the orbits are almost circular. The orbits of comets
have a different shape. They are highly eccentric or “squashed.” They look more like thin
ellipses than circles.

Satellites that orbit Earth, including the moon, do not always stay the same distance
from Earth. Sometimes they are closer, and at other times they are farther away. The
closest point a satellite comes to Earth is called its perigee. The farthest point is the
apogee. For planets, the point in their orbit closest to the sun is perihelion. The farthest
point is called aphelion. Earth reaches its aphelion during summer in the Northern
Hemisphere. The time it takes a satellite to make one full orbit is called its period. For
example, Earth has an orbital period of one year. The inclination is the angle the orbital
plane makes when compared with Earth’s equator.

There are several types of orbits:

• Polar Orbit
• Sun Synchronous Orbit
• Geosynchronous Orbit
• Geostationary Orbit

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Polar Orbit
• The more correct term would be near-polar orbits. These orbits have an
inclination near 90 degrees.
• This allows the satellite to see virtually every part of the Earth as the Earth
rotates underneath it.
• A satellite in a polar orbit will pass over the equator at a different longitude on
each of its orbits
• It takes approximately 90 minutes for the satellite to complete one orbit.
• These satellites have many uses.
• As measuring ozone concentrations in the stratosphere or measuring
temperatures in the atmosphere.
• Earth Mapping and Observation
• Reconnaissance
• Weather satellites

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Sun Synchronous Orbit
• These orbits allow a satellite to pass over a section of the Earth at the same time
of day. Since there are 365 days in a year and 360 degrees in a circle, it means
that the satellite has to shift its orbit by approximately one degree per day.
• These satellites orbit at an altitude between 700 to 800 km. These satellites use
the fact since the Earth is not perfectly round (the Earth bulges in the center), the
bulge near the equator will cause additional gravitational forces to act on the
satellite. This causes the satellite’s orbit to either proceed or recede.
• These orbits are used for satellites that need a constant amount of sunlight.
Satellites that take pictures of the Earth would work best with bright sunlight,
while satellites that measure longwave radiation would work best in complete
darkness.
• These satellites are very important for military and remote sensing purposes.

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Geosynchronous Orbit
• A geosynchronous orbit is a geocentric orbit that has the same orbital period as
the sidereal rotation period of the Earth.
• Geosynchronous orbits allow the satellite to observe almost a full hemisphere of
the Earth. These satellites are used to study large-scale phenomena such as
hurricanes, or cyclones.
• Geosynchronous orbit is a repeating path in which the satellite is always in the
same area of the sky in respect to the rotating Earth.
• These orbits are also used for communication satellites. The disadvantage of this
type of orbit is that since these satellites are very far away, they have poor
resolution. The other disadvantage is that these satellites have trouble monitoring
activities near the poles.

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Geostationary Orbit
If we need a satellite for the purpose which needs this satellites to remain at a particular
distance from earth at all the time, then we need circular orbits so all the points on
circular orbit are at equal distance from earth’s surface. The circular equatorial
orbit is exactly in the plane of equator on the earth. If the satellite is moving in the
circular-equatorial orbit and its angular velocity is equal to earth’s angular velocity, the
satellite is said to be moving along with the earth. This satellite would appear stationary
from the earth and this orbit would be called Geostationary Orbit.

Features of geostationary satellite

• The orbit is circular

• The orbit is in an equatorial plane i.e. directly above the equator and thus
inclination is zero.
• The angular velocity of the satellite is equal to the angular velocity of the earth
• The period of revolution is equal to the period of rotation of the earth.
• Finish one revolution around the earth in exactly one day i.e. 23 hours, 56
minutes, and 4.1 seconds
• There is Only one geostationary orbit.

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Difference between Geostationary and Geosynchronous
Satellites

• In geostationary, the orbit is circular and in equatorial plane thus the inclination is
zero. So there is only one geostationary orbit. Also, the angular velocities of
these satellites are equal to angular velocity of the earth and hence these appear
to be stationary with respect to earth all the time.
• On the other hand, in geosynchronous satellites, the orbit is neither circular nor
equatorial and hence is inclined. It also has angular velocity equals to earths and
period of revolution equals to rotation of earth as geostationary satellites. But
there are many geosynchronous orbits unlike only one geostationary orbit.

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

With Low Earth Orbit extending from 200 km to 1200 km, it means that it is relatively low
in altitude, although well above anything that a conventional aircraft can reach. However,
LEO is still very close to the Earth, especially when compared to other forms of satellite
orbit including geostationary orbit.

LEO characteristics

• Orbit times are much less than for many other forms of orbit.
• Less energy is expended placing the satellites in LEO than higher orbits.
• The lower orbit means the satellite and user are closer together and therefore
path losses less than for other orbits such as GEO.
• LEO satellites have shorter life spans than others

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 • Some speed reduction may be experienced as a result of friction from the low,
but measurable levels of gasses, especially at lower altitudes.
• Radiation levels are lower than experienced at higher altitudes.
Applications for LEO satellites

• A variety of different types of satellites use the LEO orbit levels. These include
different types and applications including:
• Communications satellites – some communications satellites including the Iridium
phone system using LEO.
• Earth monitoring satellites use LEO as they are able to see the surface of the
Earth more clearly as they are not so far away. They are also able to traverse the
surface of the Earth.
• The International Space Station is in an LEO that varies between 320 km (199
miles) and 400 km (249 miles) above the Earth’s surface.
Space debris in LEO

• Apart from the general congestion experienced in Low Earth Orbit, the situation is
made much worse by the general level of space debris that exists.
• There is a real and growing risk of collision and major damage – any collisions
themselves are likely to create further space debris.

Medium Earth Orbits (MEO)

• They are in between LEO and GEO orbits. Operate about 8000-20000km above
the earth that is lower than GEO and higher than LEO.
• Basically used for communication satellites
• They are placed in an elliptical orbit.
• Examples include GPS and Global Communication and Orblink.
Two medium Earth orbits are notable: the semi-synchronous orbit and the Molniya orbit.

• Semi-synchronous orbit is a near-circular orbit (low eccentricity) 26,560

kilometers from the center of the Earth (about 20,200 kilometers above the
surface).
• A satellite at this height takes 12 hours to complete an orbit.
• In 24-hours, the satellite crosses over the same two spots on the equator
every day. This orbit is consistent and highly predictable.
• It is the orbit used by the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites.
• Molniya orbit is the second common medium Earth orbit.
• It was invented by the Russians, the Molniya orbit works well for observing
high latitudes.

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 • Molniya orbit offers a useful alternative to geostationary orbit, as satellites
in a geostationary orbit are parked over the equator, so they don’t work
well for far northern or southern locations, which are always on the edge
of view of geostationary satellites.
• The Molniya orbit combines high inclination (63.4°) with high eccentricity
(0.722) to maximize viewing time over high latitudes.
• Each orbit lasts 12 hours, so the slow, high-altitude portion of the orbit
repeats over the same location every day and night. Russian
communications satellites and the Sirius radio satellites currently use this
type of orbit.

Molniya Orbit

High Earth Orbit

• High Earth Orbit is when a satellite reaches exactly 42,164 kilometers from the
center of the Earth (about 36,000 kilometers from Earth’s surface).
• At this altitude, the satellite enters a sort of “sweet spot” in which its orbit matches
Earth’s rotation. This special, high Earth orbit is called geosynchronous.
• A satellite in a circular geosynchronous orbit directly over the equator
(eccentricity and inclination at zero) will have a geostationary orbit that
does not move at all relative to the ground.

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 • This is because the satellite orbits at the same speed that the Earth is
turning, it is always directly over the same place on the Earth’s surface.
• The use of a geostationary orbit is extremely valuable for weather
monitoring and communication (phones, television, radio) because
satellites in this orbit provide a constant view of the same surface.
• Finally, many high Earth-orbiting satellites monitor solar activity, track
magnetic and radiation levels in space around them.

List of Indian Satellites – (1975 – 2020)

India has been successfully launching satellites of various types since 1975. The Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO) is considered as the Sole Space agency of India
and was formed in 1969. The Headquarters of ISRO is in Bangalore.

The table below gives us a list of various satellites of India that were launched between
1975-2020:

Launch
Satellite Importance
year

First Indian Satellite. It gave valuable technological know-

1975 Aryabhata
how about satellites.

First experimental remote sensing satellite that carried TV

1979 Bhaskara-I
and microwave cameras.

Rohini Technology
1979 The first Indian launch vehicle.
Payload

1980 Rohini RS-1 India’s first indigenous satellite launch.

Launched by the first developmental launch of SLV-3 and

1981 Rohini RS-D1
carried a solid-state camera.

Ariane Passenger
1981 First experimental communication satellite.
Payload Experiment

1981 Bhaskara-II Second experimental remote sensing satellite.

First operational multipurpose communication and

1982 INSAT-1A
meteorology satellite.

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1983 Rohini RS-D2 Carried a smart sensor camera.

Very successful. Revolutionized TV, radio, and

1983 INSAT-1B
telecommunications.

1987 SROSS-1 Less Accomplishment.

1988 IRS-1A Earth observation satellite.

1988 SROSS-2 Less Accomplishment.

1988 INSAT-1C Less Accomplishment.

1990 INSAT-1D Still operational.

1991 IRS-1B Earth observation satellite.

1992 SROSS-C Carried gamma-ray astronomy and aeronomy payload.

1992 INSAT-2DT It was launched as Arabsat 1C.

First satellite in the second-generation Indian-built INSAT-2

1992 INSAT-2A
series.

1993 INSAT-2B Second satellite in INSAT 2 series.

1993 IRS-1E Earth observation satellite.

1994 SROSS-C2 Less Accomplishment.

Earth observation satellite. Launched by second

1994 IRS-P2
developmental flight of PSLV.

Still in operation. Has television outreach beyond Indian

1995 INSAT-2C
boundaries.

1995 IRS-1C Earth observation satellite.

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1994 IRS-P2 Earth observation satellite.

1996 IRS-P3 Earth observation satellite.

1997 INSAT-2D Inoperable since 1997-10-04 due to power bus anomaly.

1997 IRS-1D Earth observation satellite.

1999 INSAT-2E Multipurpose communication and meteorological satellite.

Earth observation satellite carrying a Multifrequency

1999 IRS-P4 OCEANSAT Scanning Microwave Radiometer (MSMR)and an Ocean
Colour Monitor (OCM).

2000 INSAT-3B Multipurpose communication satellite.

Experimental satellite for the first developmental flight of

2001 GSAT-1
GSLV-D1.

Technology Experimental satellite to test new reaction control system,

2001 Experiment Satellite high-torque reaction wheels, and attitude and orbit control
(TES) system.

Designed to provide continuity of the services of INSAT-2C

2001 INSAT-3C and augment the existing INSAT capacity for communication
and broadcasting.

First meteorological satellite built by Indian Space Research

2002 Kalpana-1 (METSAT)
Organisation.

Multipurpose satellite for communication, broadcasting, and

2003 INSAT-3A meteorological services along with and Kalpana-1 and INSAT-
2E.

Experimental satellite for the 2nd developmental test flight

2003 GSAT-2
of GSLV.

Communication satellite to augment the existing INSAT

2003 INSAT-3E
System

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 RESOURCESAT-1 (IRS-
2003 Most advanced Remote Sensing Satellite
P6)

2004 EDUSAT (GSAT-3) India’s first satellite exclusively for education

Microsatellite for radio services to national and international

2005 HAMSAT
community

2005 CARTOSAT-1 Earth observation satellite

2005 INSAT-4A Direct-to-home(DTH) TV broadcasting

2006 INSAT-4C Geosynchronous communications satellite

2007 CARTOSAT-2 Remote sensing satellite-carrying panchromatic camera

SRE-1 (Space Capsule Test satellites to show an orbiting platform for performing
2007
Recovery Experiment) tests in microgravity conditions

2007 INSAT-4B Similar to INSAT-4A

2007 INSAT-4CR Identical to INSAT-4C

2008 CARTOSAT-2A Similar to CARTOSAT-2

2008 IMS-1 Low-cost micro-satellite

2008 Chandrayaan-1 India’s first lunar probe

2009 RISAT-2 Radar imaging satellite

2009 ANUSAT Research Microsatellite developed by Anna University

2009 Oceansat-2 Collects oceanographic, coastal and atmospheric data

Communications satellite technology which failed during the

2010 GSAT-4
mission

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2010 CARTOSAT-2B Earth observation/remote sensing satellite.

2010 GSAT-5P /INSAT-4D Mission failed

2011 RESOURCESAT-2 Remote-sensing satellite

2011 INSAT-4G C-band communication satellite

2011 Youthsat Indo-Russian stellar and atmospheric satellite

2011 GSAT-12 communication satellite

Indo-French collaborative effort to research on water cycle

2011 Megha-Tropiques
in the atmosphere

2012 RISAT-1 First indigenous all-weather Radar Imaging Satellite

2012 GSAT-10 advanced communication satellite

2013 SARAL Mission for oceanographic studies

2013 IRNSS-1A Seven spacecraft constituting the IRNSS space segment

2013 INSAT-3 Meteorological Satellite

Advanced multi-band communication satellite dedicated for

2013 GSAT-7
military purpose

Mars Orbiter Mission

2013 India’s first Mars orbiter
(MOM)

2014 GSAT-14 Geostationary communication satellite

Second satellite in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite

2014 IRNSS-1B
System

Third satellite in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite

2014 IRNSS- 1C
System

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2014 GSAT-16 communication satellite

Fourth satellites in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite

2014 IRNSS-1D
System

2014 GSAT-6 Communication satellite

2015 Astrosat India’s first dedicated multi-wavelength space Observatory

Communications satellite, carries GPS Aided GEO

2015 GSAT-15
Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) payload

Fifth satellite in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite

2016 IRNSS-1E
System

Sixth satellite in the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite

2016 IRNSS-1F
System

Seventh and final satellite in the Indian Regional Navigation

2016 IRNSS-1G
Satellite System

2016 CARTOSAT-2C Earth observation remote sensing satellite

An advanced meteorological satellite of India configured

2016 INSAT-3DR
with an imaging System and an Atmospheric Sounder.

Miniature satellite to give climate anticipating, tornado

2016 SCATSAT-1
expectation, and tracking services to India.

The highest number of satellites (104 satellites) launched by

2017 CARTOSAT-2D
a single launch vehicle.

CartoSat-2F is the 6th satellite in the Cartosat series to be

2018 CARTOSAT- 2F
built by ISRO.

This satellite is a technology demonstrator and the

2018 MICROSAT- TD
forerunner of future satellites.

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 This is the third satellite in the Indian Nanosatellite series,
2018 INS -1C which carried a Miniature Multispectral Technology
Demonstration (MMX-TD) Payload.

This satellite is a high power S-band communication satellite

2018 GSAT- 6A
configured around I-2K bus.

This satellite is the 6th in the series and facilitates GPS

2018 IRNSS -1I
navigation.

2018 GSAT-29 This satellite facilitates high-throughput communication.

It facilitates Hyperspectral imaging services for agriculture,

2018 HySYS
forestry, and military applications.

2018 ExseedSat-1 1st privately funded satellite of India.

2018 GSAT-11 Heaviest spacecraft of India.

2018 GSAT-7A Facilitates services for Indian Army and Air Force.

2019 Microsat-R This satellite facilitates Earth imaging for defense purposes.

2019 KalamSAT-V2 It is the world’s lightest satellite.

2019 GSAT-31 This is a high-throughput Telecommunication Satellite.

This facilitates Electromagnetic intelligence to track any

2019 EMISAT
enemy radars for the IAF.

2019 Chandrayaan-2 India’s second lunar exploration mission.

Cartosat-3 is one of the optical satellites with the highest

2019 Cartosat-3
resolutions in the world.

GSAT-30 is the 41st communication satellite launched by

ISRO to replace INSAT-4A. It provides advanced
2020 GSAT-30
telecommunication services to the entire Indian
subcontinent.

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 It is an earth observation satellite and shall play a crucial
2020 EOS – 01 part in applications under agriculture, disaster management,
and forestry support.

Satellite Launch Vehicles and their Types

The primary instruments for space applications are satellites but they must be placed in
carefully determined orbits in order to be useful. A variety of rocket systems have been
developed for this purpose. Launch vehicles that send satellites and other spacecraft
into space must be far more powerful than other types of rockets because they carry
more cargo farther and faster than other rockets.

Indian Satellite Launch Vehicles

A launch vehicle is a rocket-powered vehicle used to transport a spacecraft beyond
Earth’s atmosphere, either into orbit around Earth or to some other destination in outer
space. The launch vehicles have been used to send crewed spacecraft, uncrewed
space probes, and satellites into space since the 1950s.

Launch Vehicles are used to transport and put satellites or spacecraft into space. In
India, the launch vehicles development program began in the early 1970s. The first
experimental Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3) was developed in 1980.
An Augmented version of this, ASLV, was launched successfully in 1992. India has
made tremendous strides in launch vehicle technology to achieve self-reliance in the
satellite launch vehicle program with the operationalization of Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).

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Rocket propellant is the reaction mass of a rocket.

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A propellant is a chemical mixture burned to produce thrust in rockets and consists of a
fuel and an oxidizer.

Fuel is a substance that burns when combined with oxygen-producing gas for
propulsion.

An oxidizer is an agent that releases oxygen for combination with a fuel. The ratio of
oxidizer to fuel is called the mixture ratio.

Propellants are classified according to their state – liquid, solid, or hybrid.

Liquid Propellants: In a liquid propellant rocket, the fuel and oxidizer are stored in
separate tanks and are fed through a system of pipes, valves, and turbopumps to a
combustion chamber where they are combined and burned to produce thrust.

• Advantages: Liquid propellant engines are more complex than their solid
propellant counterparts, however, they offer several advantages. By controlling
the flow of propellant to the combustion chamber, the engine can be throttled,
stopped, or restarted.
• Disadvantages: The main difficulties with liquid propellants are with oxidizers.
Storable oxidizers, such as nitric acid and nitrogen tetroxide are extremely toxic
and highly reactive, while cryogenic propellants being stored at low temperature
and can also have reactivity/toxicity issues.
Liquid propellants used in rocketry can be classified into three types: petroleum,
cryogens, and hypergolic.

• Petroleum fuels are those refined from crude oil and are a mixture of complex
hydrocarbons, i.e. organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen. The
petroleum used as rocket fuel is a type of highly refined kerosene.
• Cryogenic propellants are liquefied gases stored at very low temperatures,
most frequently liquid hydrogen (LH2) as the fuel and liquid oxygen (LO2 or LOX)
as the oxidizer. Hydrogen remains liquid at temperatures of -253 oC (-423 oF)
and oxygen remains in a liquid state at temperatures of -183 oC (-297 oF).
• Hypergolic propellants and oxidizers that ignite spontaneously on contact with
each other and require no ignition source. The easy start and restart capability of
hypergolic make them ideal for spacecraft manoeuvring systems.
• Since hypergolic remain liquid at normal temperatures, they do not pose
the storage problems like cryogenic propellants. Hypergolic are highly
toxic and must be handled with extreme care. Hypergolic fuels commonly
include hydrazine, monomethyl-hydrazine (MMH) and unsymmetrical
dimethyl-hydrazine (UDMH).
Solid propellant: These are the simplest of all rocket designs. They consist of a casing,
usually steel, filled with a mixture of solid compounds (fuel and oxidizer) that burn at a
rapid rate, expelling hot gases from a nozzle to produce thrust. When ignited, a solid
propellant burns from the center out towards the sides of the casing.

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 • There are two families of solids propellants: homogeneous and
composite. Both types are dense, stable at ordinary temperatures, and easily
storable.
• Composites are composed mostly of a mixture of granules of solid
oxidizers, such as ammonium nitrate, ammonium dinitramide,
ammonium perchlorate, or potassium nitrate in a polymer binding
agent.
• Single-, double-, or triple-bases (depending on the number of primary
ingredients) are homogeneous mixtures of one to three primary
ingredients.
• Advantages: Solid propellant rockets are much easier to store and handle than
liquid propellant rockets. High propellant density makes for compact size as well.
• Disadvantages: Unlike liquid-propellant engines, solid propellant motors cannot
be shut down. Once ignited, they will burn until all the propellant is exhausted.
Hybrid propellant: These engines represent an intermediate group between solid and
liquid propellant engines. One of the substances is solid, usually the fuel, while the
other, usually the oxidizer, is liquid. The liquid is injected into the solid, whose fuel
reservoir also serves as the combustion chamber.

• The main advantage of such engines is that they have high performance, similar
to that of solid propellants, but the combustion can be moderated, stopped, or
even restarted. It is difficult to make use of this concept for very large thrusts, and
thus, hybrid propellant engines are rarely built.

Sounding Rockets
Sounding rockets are usually one or two-stage solid propellant rockets. They are
primarily intended for probing the upper atmospheric regions using rocket-borne
instrumentation. They also serve as platforms for testing prototypes of new components
or subsystems intended for use in launch vehicles and satellites. The launch of the first
sounding rocket US-made ‘Nike Apache’ from Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala on November 21, 1963, marked the beginning of the Indian Space Programme.

In 1965, ISRO started launching a series of our own sounding rockets named
Rohini from TERLS. RH-75, with a diameter of 75mm was the first truly Indian sounding
rocket, which was followed by RH-100 and RH-125 rockets.

The sounding rocket program was indeed the bedrock on which the edifice of launch
vehicle technology was built. The experience gained was of immense value in the
mastering of solid propellant technology and allied systems of the launch
vehicles. Several scientific missions with national and international participation have
been conducted using the Rohini sounding rockets.

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Operational Sounding Rockets
Currently, operational sounding rockets include three versions namely RH-200, RH-300-
Mk-II, and RH-560-Mk-III. These cover a payload range of 8 to 100 kg and an apogee
range of 80 to 475 km. The details are given below.

Vehicle RH-200 RH-300-Mk-II RH-560-MK-III

Payload (in kg) 10.5 70 100

Altitude (in km) 75 120 550

Purpose Meterology Middle atmospheric studies Upper atmospheric studies

Launch Pad Thumba Thumba/SDSC-SHAR SDSC-SHAR

Operational sounding rockets are further divided in two groups:

1. Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)

2. Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)

Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)

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The Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV) project was born out of the need for achieving
indigenous satellite launch capability for communications, remote sensing and
meteorology.

The Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 (SLV-3) was India’s first experimental satellite launch
vehicle, which was an all solid, four-stage vehicle weighing 17 tonnes. It had a height
of 22m and it was capable of placing 40 kg class payloads in Low Earth Orbit
(LEO).

The first experimental flight of SLV3, in August 1979, was only partially successful. The
next launch on July 18, 1980, from Sriharikota Range (SHAR), successfully placed
Rohini satellite, RS-1, into orbit, thereby making India the sixth member of an exclusive
club of space-faring. Apart from the July 1980 launch, there were two more launches
held in May 1981 and April 1983, orbiting Rohini satellites carrying remote sensing
sensors.

The successful culmination of the SLV-3 project showed the way to advanced launch
vehicle projects such as the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), Polar
Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV).

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was developed to act as a low-cost
intermediate vehicle to demonstrate and validate critical technologies. With a lift-off
weight of 40 tonnes, the 23.8 m tall ASLV was configured as a five-stage, all-solid
propellant vehicle, with a mission of orbiting 150 kg class satellites into 400 km
circular orbits. The strap-on stage consisted of two identical 1m diameter solid
propellant motors, Under the ASLV program, four developmental flights were conducted.

• The first developmental flight took place on March 24, 1987,

• and the second on July 13, 1988.
• ASLV-D3 was successfully launched on May 20, 1992, when SROSS-C (106 kg)
was put into an orbit of 255 x 430 km.
• ASLV-D4 launched on May 4, 1994, orbited SROSS-C2 weighing 106 kg. It had
two payloads, Gamma Ray Burst (GRB) Experiment and Retarding Potential
Analyser (RPA), and functioned for seven years.
ASLV provided valuable inputs for further development.

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is the third generation launch vehicle of
India. It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages. PSLV
has four stages using solid and liquid propulsion systems alternately.

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After its first successful launch in October 1994, PSLV emerged as the reliable and
versatile workhorse launch vehicle of India with 39 consecutively successful missions
by June 2017.

During the 1994-2017 period, the vehicle has launched 48 Indian satellites and 209
satellites for customers from abroad. Besides, the vehicle successfully launched two
spacecraft – Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars Orbiter Spacecraft in 2013 – that later
traveled to Moon and Mars respectively.

PSLV earned its title “the workhorse of ISRO” through consistently delivering
various satellites to Low Earth Orbits, particularly the IRS series of satellites.

It can take up to 1,750 kg of payload to sun-synchronous polar orbits of 600 km

altitude. Due to its unmatched reliability, PSLV has also been used to launch various
satellites into Geosynchronous and Geostationary orbits, like satellites from the
IRNSS constellation. The PS4 is the uppermost stage of PSLV, comprising of two
Earth storable liquid engines.

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)

Indian National Satellite System (INSAT)
Geostationary Satellite (GSAT)
Launched Missions → Chandrayaan-1, Mars Orbiter Mission, Space Capsule
Recovery Experiment, IRNSS, Astrosat.

Vehicle Variants and Launch Capability

• PSLV-Generic
• PSLV-Core Alone
• PSLV XL
PSLV-Generic

• No. of Solid Strap-ons : Six (9T)

• Payload capability to SSPO (600 km) : 1550 kg
PSLV – Core Alone

• No. of Solid Strap-ons: NIL

• Payload capability to SSPO (600 km) : 1100 Kg
PSLV XL

• No. of Solid Strap-ons: Six (12T)

• Payload capability o SSPO (600 Km) : 1700 kg
• Payload capability o sub GTO (284 x 20650 km) 1425 Kg

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Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) is capable of placing 2 ton class of
satellites like the INSAT and GSAT series of communication satellites into
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO).

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-II (GSLV Mk II) is the largest launch
vehicle developed by India, which is currently in operation. This fourth-generation
launch vehicle GSLV Mk-II has the capability to launch satellites of lift-off mass of up
to 2,500 kg to the GTO and satellites of up to 5,000 kg lift-off mass to the LEO.

GSLV Mk-II is a 49 m tall, three stage vehicle with a lift-off mass of 416 ton.

• The first stage comprises of a S139 solid booster with four liquid strap-on
motors, each weighing 40 tons.
• The second stage (GS2) is a liquid engine carrying 37.5 tons of liquid propellant.
• The third stage is the indigenously built Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) which
uses typically 15 tons of cryogenic propellants (Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) as
fuel and Liquid Oxygen (LOX) as Oxidiser).

Vehicle Versions

• GSLV Mk-I : (Russian Cryogenic)

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 • GSLV Mk-II : (Indigenous Cryogenic)
• GSLV Mk-III : (Indigenous Cryogenic)
Cryogenic rocket engine – Fuel or oxidizer (or both) is gases liquefied and stored at
very low temperatures.

Cryogenic Rocket

• A cryogenic rocket engine is a rocket engine that uses a cryogenic fuel or

oxidizer, that is, its fuel or oxidizer (or both) are gases liquefied and stored at
very low temperature.
• A Cryogenic rocket stage is more efficient and provides more thrust for every
kilogram of propellant it burns compared to solid and earth-storable liquid
propellant rocket stages. Specific impulse achievable with cryogenic propellants
(liquid Hydrogen and liquid Oxygen) is much higher compared to earth storable
liquid and solid propellants, giving it a substantial payload advantage.
• Oxygen liquefies at -183 deg C and Hydrogen at -253 deg C also entails complex
ground support systems like propellant storage and filling systems, cryo engine
and stage test facilities, transportation and handling of cryo fluids, and related
safety aspects.

Difference Between PSLV & GSLV

PSLV (Polar satellite launch vehicle)

• First launch 1993

• Can carry up to 1425 kg satellite in GTO
• Can carry up to 1750 kg in LEO orbit
• For launching Indian remote sensing satellites (IRS)
• Used for Chandrayaan & Mars Mission
• four stages propellant using solid and liquid propulsion systems alternately
GSLV (Geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle)

• First launch 2001

• Can carry up to 2500 kg satellite in GTO orbit
• Can carry up to 5000 kg satellite in LEO orbit
• Developed mainly for launching Indian National satellites (INSAT)
• The next version is GSLV MK-3
• Three stages propellant using solid, liquid & cryogenic propulsion in order

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Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle MK3 (GSLV
Mk 3)
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV MkIII) also known as
LVM3, is the next generation launcher being developed by ISRO for achieving self-
reliance in the launch of 4 ton class of communication satellites to
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits (GTO).

GSLV Mk-III is a 43.43 m tall three stage vehicle with a lift-off mass of 640 tones.

The launcher is designed to be a versatile launcher to launch payloads to other orbits as

well and will have a payload capability in excess of 10 tons to Low Earth Orbits (LEO).
Once GSLV-MkIII becomes operational, India would be able to dispense the procured
launches for 4-ton class communication satellites.

The powerful cryogenic stage of GSLV Mk III enables it to place heavy payloads into
Low Earth Orbits of 600 km altitude. The Cryogenic Upper Stage (C25) is powered by
CE-20, India’s largest cryogenic engine, designed and developed by the Liquid
Propulsion Systems Centre. GSLV Mk III uses two S200 solid rocket boosters to provide
the huge amount of thrust required for lift off. The S200 was developed at Vikram
Sarabhai Space Centre.

It will allow India to achieve complete self-reliance in launching satellites as –

• It will be capable of placing 4-tonne class Geosynchronous satellites into GTO

• It will be capable of placing 8-tonne class satellites into LEO

Significance of GSLV MK3

• GSLV will cost just one-third of the money spent on foreign agencies, which will
reduce satellite launch cost as well as will save Forex
• It will enhance India’s capability to be a competitive player in the multimillion-
dollar commercial launch market. It will help in earning foreign exchange.
• The GSLV will help ISRO put heavier communication satellites of GSAT class
into orbit.
• Reduction of dependence on foreign agencies gives a strategic boost in this high
tech sector

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Small Satellite Launch Vehicle
• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has developed the much
awaited Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).
• Till now the small satellites were being launched along with the bigger ones
through PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) which was adding an
unprecedented amount of waiting time for the small satellite developers.
• The SSLV seeks to serve the rapidly growing market for the launch of small
satellites into the LEO (Earth’s low orbits) which has emerged in recent times to
serve the requirements of the developing nations, universities/institutions for
small satellites, and private firms.
• SSLV is a three-stage vehicle and has a capability to launch up to 500 kg
satellite mass into 500 km Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and 300 kg to Sun
Synchronous Orbit (SSO).
• The launch vehicle uses solid fuel in all its stages of flight.
• It is perfectly suited for launching multiple microsatellites at a time and
supports multiple orbital drop-offs.
• Manufacturing of SSLV is the responsibility of the commercial arm of ISRO i.e.
NSIL (New Space India Limited).
• SSLV is ISRO’s lightest launch vehicle, weighing around 110 tons.
• Contrary to PSLV’s 70 days time to get integrated, the SSLV takes only 72 hours.

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• SSLV needs only 6 people to integrate it.
• The vehicle also features both vented and closed interstage.
• The key features of SSLV are low cost, with low turn-around time, flexibility
in accommodating multiple satellites, launch on demand feasibility, minimal
launch infrastructure requirements, etc.

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Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology
Demonstrator (RLV-TD)
Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) is one of the most
technologically challenging endeavours of ISRO towards developing essential
technologies for a fully reusable launch vehicle to enable low-cost access to
space. The configuration of RLV-TD is similar to that of an aircraft and combines the
complexity of both launch vehicles and aircraft.

The winged RLV-TD has been configured to act as a flying testbed to evaluate various
technologies, namely, hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, and powered cruise flight.
In the future, this vehicle will be scaled up to become the first stage of India’s reusable
two-stage orbital launch vehicle.

RLV-TD consists of a fuselage (body), a nose cap, double delta wings, and twin vertical
tails. It also features symmetrically placed active control surfaces called Elevons and
Rudder. This technology demonstrator was boosted to Mach no: 5 by a conventional
solid booster (HS9) designed for low burn rate. The selection of materials like special
alloys, composites, and insulation materials for developing an RLV-TD and the crafting
of its parts is very complex and demands highly skilled manpower. Much high
technology machinery and test equipment were utilized for building this vehicle.

Objectives of RLV-TD:

• Hypersonic aero thermodynamic characterisation of wing body;

• Evaluation of autonomous Navigation, Guidance and Control (NGC) schemes;
• Integrated flight management;
• Thermal Protection System Evaluation;

Achievements:
RLV-TD was successfully flight tested on May 23, 2016, from SDSC SHAR Sriharikota
validating the critical technologies such as autonomous navigation, guidance & control,
reusable thermal protection system, and re-entry mission management.

Scramjet Engine
The satellites are launched into orbit by multi-staged satellite launch vehicles that can be
used only once i.e. they are expendable. These launch vehicles carry oxidiser along with
the fuel for combustion to produce thrust. Launch vehicles designed for one time use are

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expensive and their efficiency is low because they can carry only 2-4% of their lift-off
mass to orbit. Thus, there is a worldwide effort to reduce the launch cost.

Nearly 70% of the propellant (fuel-oxidiser combination) carried by today’s launch

vehicles consists of oxidiser. Therefore, the next generation launch vehicles must use a
propulsion system which can utilise the atmospheric oxygen during their flight through
the atmosphere which will considerably reduce the total propellant required to place a
satellite in orbit.

Also, if those vehicles are made re-usable, the cost of launching satellites will further
come down significantly. Thus, the future re-usable launch vehicle concept along with
air-breathing propulsion is an exciting candidate offering routine access to space at far
lower cost.

Considering the strategic nature of air-breathing technology which has the potential to
bring a significant shift in the launch vehicle design, worldwide efforts are on to develop
the technology for air breathing engines. Ramjet, Scramjet and Dual Mode Ramjet
(DMRJ) are the three concepts of air-breathing engines which are being developed by
various space agencies.

A ramjet is a form of air-breathing jet engine that uses the vehicle’s forward motion to
compress incoming air for combustion without a rotating compressor. Fuel is injected in
the combustion chamber where it mixes with the hot compressed air and ignites. A
ramjet-powered vehicle requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it
to a speed where it begins to produce thrust.

Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (three times the
speed of sound) and can operate up to speeds of Mach 6. However, the ramjet
efficiency starts to drop when the vehicle reaches hypersonic speeds.

A scramjet engine is an improvement over the ramjet engine as it efficiently operates at

hypersonic speeds and allows supersonic combustion. Thus it is known as Supersonic
Combustion Ramjet or Scramjet.

A dual-mode ramjet (DMRJ) is a type of jet engine where a ramjet transforms into a
scramjet over Mach 4-8 range, which means it can efficiently operate both in subsonic
and supersonic combustor modes. An important development in ISRO’s Air Breathing
Propulsion Project (ABPP) occurred on August 28, 2016, which was the successful flight
testing of its Scramjet.

The first experimental mission of ISRO’s Scramjet Engine towards the realisation of an
Air Breathing Propulsion System was successfully conducted from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre SHAR, Sriharikota on August 28, 2016. With this flight, critical
technologies such as ignition of air breathing engines at supersonic speed, holding the
flame at supersonic speed, air intake mechanism and fuel injection systems have been
successfully demonstrated. The Scramjet engine designed by ISRO uses Hydrogen as
fuel and the Oxygen from the atmospheric air as the oxidiser. The August 28 test was
the maiden short duration experimental test of ISRO’s Scramjet engine with a
hypersonic flight at Mach 6.

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ISRO’s Advanced Technology Vehicle (ATV), which is an advanced sounding rocket,
was the solid rocket booster used for this test of Scramjet engines at supersonic
conditions. Some of the technological challenges handled by ISRO during the
development of Scramjet engine include the design and development of Hypersonic
engine air intake, the supersonic combustor, development of materials withstanding very
high temperatures, computational tools to simulate hypersonic flow, ensuring
performance and operability of the engine across a wide range of flight speeds, proper
thermal management and ground testing of the engines. India is the fourth country to
demonstrate the flight testing of a Scramjet Engine.

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 Satellite Frequency Bands: L, S, C, X, Ku, Ka-band

Satellite technology is developing fast, and the applications for satellite technology are
increasing all the time. Not only can satellites be used for radio communications, but
they are also used for astronomy, weather forecasting, broadcasting, mapping, and
many more applications.

With the variety of satellite frequency bands that can be used, designations have been
developed so that they can be referred to easily.

The higher frequency bands typically give access to wider bandwidths but are also more
susceptible to signal degradation due to ‘rain fade’ (the absorption of radio signals by
atmospheric rain, snow, or ice).

Because of satellite’s increased use, number and size, congestion has become a
serious issue in the lower frequency bands. New technologies are being investigated so
that higher bands can be used.

Satellite Frequency Bands

• L-band (1–2 GHz)
• S-band (2–4 GHz)
• C-band (4–8 GHz)
• X-band (8–12 GHz)

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 • Ku-band (12–18 GHz)
• Ka-band (26–40 GHz)

L-band (1–2 GHz)

Global Positioning System (GPS) carriers and also satellite mobile phones, such
as Iridium; Inmarsat providing communications at sea, land, and air; WorldSpace
satellite radio.

S-band (2–4 GHz)

Weather radar, surface ship radar, and some communications satellites,
especially those of NASA for communication with ISS and Space Shuttle. In May
2009, Inmarsat and Solaris mobile (a joint venture between Eutelsat and Astra) was
awarded each a 2×15 MHz portion of the S-band by the European Commission.

C-band (4–8 GHz)

Primarily used for satellite communications, for full-time satellite TV networks or raw
satellite feeds. Commonly used in areas that are subject to tropical rainfall, since it
is less susceptible to rain fade than Ku band (the original Telstar satellite had a
transponder operating in this band, used to relay the first live transatlantic TV signal in
1962).

X-band (8–12 GHz)

Primarily used by the military. Used in radar applications including continuous-wave,
pulsed, single-polarisation, dual- polarisation, synthetic aperture radar, and phased
arrays. X-band radar frequency sub-bands are used in civil, military and government

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institutions for weather monitoring, air traffic control, maritime vessel traffic control,
defense tracking, and vehicle speed detection for law enforcement.

Ku-band (12–18 GHz)

Used for satellite communications. In Europe, the Ku-band downlink is used from
10.7 GHz to 12.75 GHz for direct broadcast satellite services, such as Astra.

Ka-band (26–40 GHz)

Communications satellites for close up high resolutions applications, uplink in either
the 27.5 GHz and 31 GHz bands, close-range targeting radars on military aircraft.

India has recently launched its GSAT-6 from Sriharikota in S-Band to enable multimedia
applications for solely strategic military purposes and societal uses in case of
emergencies.

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Www.iasbio.com | Www.exammap.com | WhatsApp for Free NOTES +918987187161
 Important Missions of ISRO

ISRO – Indian Space Research Organisation

• ISRO is the space agency under the Department of Space of Government of
India, headquartered in the city of Bengaluru, Karnataka.
• Its vision is to harness space technology for national development while pursuing
space science research and planetary exploration.
• Antrix Corporation Limited (ACL) is a Marketing arm of ISRO for the promotion
and commercial exploitation of space products, technical consultancy services,
and transfer of technologies developed by ISRO.

Genesis

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 • The space research activities were initiated in India under Dr. Vikram Sarabhai,
the founding father of the Indian space program, during the 1960s.
• Since its inception, the Indian space program had three distinct elements such as
satellites for communication and remote sensing, the space transportation
system, and application programs.
• The INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee for Space Research) was initiated
under the leadership of Dr. Sarabhai and Dr. Ramanathan.
• During 1975-76, Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was
conducted. It was hailed as ‘the largest sociological experiment in the world’. It
was followed by the ‘Kheda Communications Project (KCP)’, which worked as a
field laboratory for need-based and locale-specific program transmission in the
state of Gujarat State.
• During this period, the first Indian spacecraft ‘Aryabhata’ was developed and was
launched using a Soviet Launcher. Another major landmark was the development
of the first launch vehicle SLV-3 with a capability to place 40 kg in Low Earth
Orbit (LEO), which had its first successful flight in 1980.
• In the experimental phase during 80’s, Bhaskara-I & II missions were pioneering
steps in the remote sensing area whereas ‘Ariane Passenger Payload
Experiment (APPLE)’ became the forerunner for the future communication
satellite system.
• During the operational phase in 90’s, major space infrastructure was created
under two broad classes: one for communication, broadcasting, and meteorology
through a multi-purpose Indian National Satellite System (INSAT), and the other
for Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) system. The development and
operationalization of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and the
development of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) were
significant achievements during this phase.

ISRO Milestones
• The first Indian-made sounding rocket was the RH-75 (Rohini-75). It was
launched from TERLS in 1967. It weighed just 32 kg. Series of Rohini Sounding
Rockets were developed by ISRO for atmospheric and meteorological studies.
• The first Indian satellite, Aryabhata, was built by the ISRO and launched with
the help of the Soviet Union on 19 th April 1975.
• The year 1980 marked the launch of Rohini, which was the first satellite to be
successfully placed in orbit by SLV-3, an Indian made launch vehicle.
• Subsequently with more efforts, two other rockets were developed by ISRO: the
PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) for placing satellites into polar orbits and
the GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) for placing satellites
into geostationary orbits.
• Both the rockets have successfully launched several earth observation
and communication satellites for India as well as other countries.

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 • ISRO launched its first INSAT satellite in 1982. It was a communication
satellite. It was named INSAT-1A, which failed in orbit. The next communication
satellite INSAT-1B was launched in 1983.
• ISRO also launched the first IRS (remote-sensing satellite) in 1988.
• ISRO launched its first lunar mission Chandrayaan I in 2008.
• In January 2014, ISRO used an indigenously built cryogenic engine for a
GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14 satellite making it one of the only six countries
in the world to develop a cryogenic technology.
• It also launched the Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or the Mangalyaan in 2014.
With this, India became the first country to achieve success in putting a satellite
in Mars orbit in its maiden attempt and the fourth space agency and the first
space Asian agency to do so.
• In 2017, ISRO created another world record by launching 104 satellites in a
single rocket. It launched its heaviest rocket yet, the Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle-Mark III, and placed the GSAT 19 in orbit.
• India launched Chandrayaan-2, its second lunar exploration mission after
Chandrayaan-1 on 22nd July 2019.
• There are future plans for human spaceflight (Gaganyaan), interplanetary probes,
and a solar mission as well.

Achievements and Important Missions of ISRO

GSAT-11

• India’s next-generation high throughput communication satellite, GSAT-11 was

successfully launched in 2018 from Kourou launch base, French Guiana by
Ariane-5 VA-246.
• GSAT-11 is an advanced communication satellite.
• GSAT-11 is part of ISRO’s new family of high-throughput communication satellite
(HTS) fleet that will drive the country’s Internet broadband from space to
untouched areas.
• According to ISRO, GSAT-11’s multiple spot beam coverage — 32 in Ku band
and eight in Ka bands — will deliver an improved service of 16 gbps over the
Indian region and nearby islands.
• Applications
• Faster Internet Connectivity: GSAT will play a vital role in providing
broadband services across the country. It will enable greater capacity and
high data rates over region due to use of the spot beam technology.
• The broadband domain in India is through the underground fiber
and covers partial and convenient locations. GSAT will drive the
country’s Internet broadband from space to untouched areas.

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 • Bharat Net Connectivity: It will provide substantial bandwidth coverage
to gram panchayats for supporting e-governance and other platforms.
• VSAT Terminals: Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) support high data
rate applications for enterprise network and consumer broadband
applications.

GSLV MK III-D1/GSAT-19 MISSION

• GSLV Mk III-D1 launched GSAT-19 from the Second Launch Pad (SLP) at Satish
Dhawan Space Centre SHAR (SDSC SHAR), Sriharikota.
• GSAT-19 satellite with a lift-off mass of 3136 kg, is the communication
satellite of India, configured around the ISRO’s standard I-3K bus.
• GSAT-19 carries Ka/Ku-band high throughput communication
transponders.

GSLV MKIII-M1/CHANDRAYAAN-2 MISSION

Chandrayaan-2, India’s second mission to the Moon is a totally indigenous mission
comprising of an Orbiter, Lander (Vikram), and Rover (Pragya) to explore the
unexplored South Pole of the Moon.

• Chandrayaan-2 is ISRO’s first attempt to land on any extraterrestrial surface.

• Core Objective: To map the location and abundance of lunar water.

Background

• The project began in 2007 with an agreement between India’s space agency
ISRO and Russia’s ROSCOSMOS for mutual cooperation.
• However, the mission was postponed in January 2013 and rescheduled to
2016 as Russia was unable to develop the lander on time.
• Later, after Russia’s withdrawal, India decided to develop the lunar mission
independently. Finally, on 22 July 2019, GSLV MK III M1 on its first operational
flight successfully launched Chandrayaan-2.
• Once successful, India will become the fourth country to soft-land a
spacecraft on the Moon after the USSR, the USA, and China. Chandrayaan-2
will make a landing at a site where no earlier mission has gone, near the south
pole of the Moon.
• Chandrayaan-2 is a natural sequel to Chandrayaan-1, an Orbiter mission
launched in October 2008.
• Chandrayaan-1, ISRO’s first exploratory mission to the moon, was
designed to just orbit the Moon and make observations with instruments
onboard.

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 • Chandrayaan-1 operated for 312 days as opposed to the intended two
years but the mission achieved 95% of its planned objectives.

Key Findings of Chandrayaan-1

• Confirmed presence of lunar water

• Evidence of lunar caves formed by an ancient lunar lava flow
• The past tectonic activity was found on the lunar surface.
• The faults and fractures discovered could be features of past interior
tectonic activity coupled with meteorite impacts.

Chandrayaan-2: Design and Mission Profile

Components of Chandrayaan – 2: Launch Vehicle

• S200 solid rocket booster

• L110 liquid state
• C25 Upper stage
The Chandrayaan-2 mission consisted of three main modules:

1. lunar orbiter
2. Vikram lander (named after Vikram Sarabhai, the late father of India’s space
program)
3. lunar rover named Pragyan
All of the above parts were developed in India.

Mission Objectives

• Try and build on the evidence of water molecules shown by Chandrayaan-I and
study the extent and distribution of water on the Moon
• Study topography, seismography, the composition of the lunar surface and the
lunar atmosphere
• The study of ancient rocks and craters can offer indications of the origin
and evolution of the Moon.
• The South Pole region of the Moon also contains clues to the fossil
records of the early solar system. Thus, it will improve our understanding
of the early solar system as well.
• Map the lunar surface and prepare 3D maps of it.

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Significance of Chandrayaan 2
In all the space missions, no country has ever attempted to land a spacecraft in the polar
regions of the moon. This gave India a lead in space exploration on an international
level.

1. Due to the moon’s axis, few regions on the South Pole always remains dark
especially the craters and have higher chances of containing water.
2. The craters might have never received sunlight because it at very low angles in
the Polar Regions and thus, increasing the chances of presence of ice on such
surfaces.
3. The lunar surface area at the south pole of the Moon that remains in shadow is
much larger than the North Pole thus making moon’s South Pole interesting. This
also increases the probability of the existence of water in permanently shadowed
areas around it.
4. The second de-orbiting manoeuvre for Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft was performed
successfully today on September 04, 2019, beginning at 0342 hrs IST as
planned, using the onboard propulsion system. The duration of the manoeuvre
was 9 seconds.
5. On October 14, 2019, Chandrayaan-2 detected the presence of Argon-40 in the
lunar exosphere.
6. On July 30th, 2020 Chandrayaan-2 imaged the Sarabhai Crater located on the
north-east quadrant of the moon

Chandrayaan-2 Mission: Updates

1. The orbital insertion was achieved on 20th August 2019. The Orbiter has a life
duration of 7 years and will continue its mission.
2. Vikram Lander had a mission life of 14 days. The landing on the moon’s surface
was planned on 7th September 2019. However, the landing failed at the final
stages. Vikram lander crash-landed on the moon’s surface as the velocity was
higher than the desired velocity (2 m/s) and the Failure Analysis Committee of
ISRO concluded that a software glitch was the cause of the failure.
3. Pragyan Rover was planned for a duration of around 14 days. As the landing
failed, the rover could not be deployed on the moon’s surface.

Geotail
Chandrayaan-2 named CLASS (Chandrayaan-2 Large Area Soft X-ray
Spectrometer) has detected charged particles present on the moon soil during the
orbiter’s passage through the “Geotail”.

• The Sun emits the solar wind, which is a continuous stream of charged
particles (like electrons, protons, alpha particles, etc). These particles are present
in the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the Corona.

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 • Since the Earth has a magnetic field, it obstructs this solar wind plasma.
• This interaction results in the formation of a magnetic envelope around
Earth called the magnetosphere.
• On the Earth side facing the Sun, this magnetosphere is compressed into a
region that is approximately three to four times the Earth radius.
• On the opposite side, the envelope is stretched into a long tail, which
extends beyond the orbit of the Moon. It is this that is called the Geotail.
• Once every 29 days, the Moon traverses the Geotail for about six days.
• The Geotail region allows the best scientific observations.

PSLV-C45 EMISAT MISSION

• EMISAT is an advanced electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite jointly

developed by ISRO-DRDO. It is meant for electromagnetic spectrum
measurements.
• It is modeled after a famous Israeli spy satellite called SARAL (Satellite with
ARgos and ALtika).

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• EMISAT also has a special altimeter (a radar altitude measuring device) called
‘AltiKa’ that works in the Ka-band microwave region of the spectrum.
• The electronic surveillance payload of EMISAT was developed under a
DRDO’s project called KAUTILYA.
• The main capability of EMISAT is in signal intelligence — intercepting signals
broadcasted by communication systems, radars, and other electronic systems.
The Ka-band frequency that EMISAT is sensitive to allows the 436-kg
• EMISAT is an all weather and all terrain condition satellite, which will allow it
to work through clouds, rain, forest and coastal areas.
• EMISAT is an ELINT (Electronic Intelligence) satellite, which means it will
have a radar to measure the electromagnetic spectrum – so as to intercept and
analyze radar signals, find their location, identify the hostile radars based
on their radio frequency (RF) signature.
• This will be a vital tool for India when EMISAT along with the Airborne Warning
and Control System (AWACS) can effectively locate, tackle and silence enemy
radars, and secure Indian airspace.
• This flight marked the first mission of PSLV-QL, a new variant of PSLV with four
strap-on motors. Injected India’s EMISAT into a 748 km sun-synchronous
polar orbit
• The satellite is intended for electromagnetic spectrum measurement.

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Www.iasbio.com | Www.exammap.com | WhatsApp for Free NOTES +918987187161
PSLV-C44
India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C44) successfully injected Microsat-R
and Kalamsat-V2 satellites into their designated orbits.

This flight marked the first mission of PSLV-DL, a new variant of PSLV with two strap-on
motors. PSLV-C44 mission was unique as it was for the first time ISRO used the last
stage of the rocket as a platform to perform experiments in space.

Significance of the Mission

• Microsat-R
• Microsat-R is a military imaging satellite, weighing 130 kilograms, was
made by Defence Research and Development Organization(DRDO).
• This was launched in low orbit. It is the first time an Indian satellite was
being placed by ISRO in a low orbit at an altitude of 274 km.
• Kalamsat
• ISRO also launched a student satellite, Kalamsat, made by Space Kidz
India, weighing just 1.26kg.
• Kalamsat is the world’s smallest and lightest communication satellite.
• Space Kidz India is an organization dedicated to designing innovative
concepts for students in the field of education.
• Fourth Stage (PS4) Usability
• ISRO also used this launch as an opportunity to demonstrate the usability
of the fourth stage of the rocket after the satellites are ejected into
orbit.
• The fourth and final stage of the rocket normally turns into debris after
ejecting a satellite.
• Now any agency that wants to conduct experiments in space can use the
fourth stage until it disintegrates naturally. The fourth stage of the rocket
will be orbiting in space for six months to a year. ISRO is aiming to use
this time-frame to enable agencies to run short time experiments.
• Kalamsat will be the first to use the fourth stage as an orbital
platform.
• The experiment with Kalamsat will start about 1.5 hours from take-off and
will last for about 14 hours. Later duration of experiments with PS4 will be
improved gradually.

RISAT-2B (Radar Imaging Satellite 2B)

India’s PSLV-C46 successfully launched the RISAT-2B satellite from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota.

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RISAT-2B with a lift-off mass of 615 kg, is a radar imaging earth observation
satellite. The satellite is intended to provide services to Agriculture, Forestry, and
Disaster Management domains.

Significance

• Regular remote-sensing or optical imaging satellites work like a light-

dependent camera that cannot perceive hidden or surreptitious objects in
cloudy or dark conditions.
• Satellites that are equipped with an active sensor, the synthetic aperture
radar (SAR), can sense or ‘observe’ Earth in a special way from space
day and night, rain or cloud.
• A radar imaging satellite is complex to assemble. Interpreting its images is
equally complex.
• It will mark the resumption of a vital ring of Indian all-seeing radar imaging
satellites after seven years.
• It will add to the reconnaissance capability from about 500 km in space. A
constellation of such space-based radars means a comprehensive vigil over the
country.
Applications

• In India, radar imaging are used for crop estimation because our main crop
growing season of Kharif is in May-September when it rains and gets
cloudy.
• We have used this data extensively for forestry, soil, land use, geology, and
during floods and cyclone.
• Due to an all-weather seeing feature, the satellite becomes special for
security forces and disaster relief agencies.

GAGANYAAN MISSION
Gaganyaan is a mission by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to
send a three-member crew to space for a period of five to seven days by 2022.

• The space mission was first announced by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2018
in his independence day address to the nation.
• Ahead of the manned mission, ISRO plans to send two unmanned missions to
space as part of the Gaganyaan mission. The first unmanned mission was
scheduled to be sent in December 2020 and the second mission was scheduled
for June 2021.
• However, the first unmanned mission has been delayed because of the disruption
in ISRO’s work and operations on account of the coronavirus pandemic.
• The Gaganyaan spacecraft will be placed in a low earth orbit (LEO) of 300-
400 kilometres.

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 • The total programme cost is expected to be under Rs.10000 crore.
• Gaganyaan is significant because it is the first indigenous mission that will send
Indian astronauts to space. If it succeeds, India will be the fourth country to
have sent a human to space, the other three being the US, Russia, and
China.
• ISRO is developing the spacecraft and Russia is helping in the training of
the astronauts.
• The spacecraft consists of a service module and a crew module, collectively
known as the Orbital Module. The launch vehicle used for this mission will be
the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle GSLV Mk III.

Gaganyaan Human Space Flight

Human spaceflight is expected to take about 16 minutes to reach the intended low earth
orbit.

• The three astronauts will leave for space in the crew module, which would have a
3.7 m diameter and a height of 7 m.
• The astronauts’ orange space suits were created by the Vikram Sarabhai Space
Centre, Thiruvananthapuram.
• The suit can hold one oxygen cylinder which will permit the astronauts to
breathe in space for an hour.
• The manned mission will rotate around the earth every 90 minutes.
• The astronauts will be able to see sunrise and sunset, see India from space
every 24 hours, and will also perform experiments on microgravity.
• The spacecraft will take about 36 hours for the return journey and will land in the
Arabian Sea off the Gujarat coast.
• In order to take this mission to fruition, ISRO has worked on crucial technologies
such as crew escape system, re-entry mission capability, thermal protection
system, crew module configuration, deceleration and flotation system, and
subsystems of life support systems.
Training for the astronauts

• ISRO has signed a contract with a subsidiary of ROSCOSMOS (the Russian

space agency), called Gavkosmos for preparing the Indian astronauts selected
for the mission.
• The four selected astronauts are undergoing medical and physical training, apart
from learning the Russian language, which is considered one of the important
languages of space communication.
• The astronaut candidates will also be trained in simulations in a centrifuge and in
a hyperbaric chamber (pressurized room) to prepare them for conditions like G-
force, hypoxia, and pressure drops during spaceflight.

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 • The training would be tough since they have to get acclimatized to gravitational
changes that will cause physiological changes.
• Changing gravity can cause fluctuations in the blood pressure, particularly during
re-entry to earth or landing, and can even cause unconsciousness sometimes.
Astronauts may also face motion sickness while experiencing weightlessness in
space.
• The training in Russia will be for a year after which the astronauts will receive
module-specific training in India.
• All the candidate astronauts are pilots from the Indian Air Force. They were
shortlisted by about 25 pilots by the Air Force.

VyomMitra: Lady Robot for Gaganyaan

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) unveiled its first ‘woman’
astronaut, named Vyom Mitra who will ride to space in the first test flight of
the human space mission, Gaganyaan.

• She is half-humanoid and her body stops at the torso and has no legs. She is
capable of switching panel operations, performing Environment Control and
Life Support Systems (ECLSS) functions, conversations with the astronauts,
recognizing them, and solving their queries.
• The humanoid can detect and give out warnings if the environment
changes within the cabin.
• She will simulate the human functions required for space before real
astronauts take off before August 2022. She will be sent in a space capsule
around the end of 2020 or early 2021 to study how astronauts respond to
living outside earth in controlled zero-gravity conditions.
• The humanoid has been developed by the ISRO Inertial Systems Unit,
Thiruvananthapuram.

ASIAN TROPOPAUSE AEROSOL LAYER (ATAL)

ISRO-NASA efforts towards resolving the issue of Asian Tropopause Aerosol
Layer (ATAL).

• Atmospheric aerosol and clouds play important role in weather and climate.
• A recent discovery of high altitude (~ 16km) Aerosol layer occurring during
monsoon in the south Asian region using CALIPSO (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and
Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation) has started puzzling the atmospheric
scientists.
• Very little is known about the composition and the formation mechanisms of this
intense aerosol layer. This layer is of concern since it could play an important role
in the climate and weather.

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 • To understand this enigmatic layer, balloon-borne experiments along with
ground-based observations are being conducted under an ISRO-NASA
collaborative program – “Balloon Borne measurement campaigns of Asian
Tropopause Aerosol Layer (BATAL).

ASTROSAT

• It is the first dedicated Indian astronomy mission aimed at studying celestial

sources in X-ray, optical, and UV spectral bands simultaneously.
• The payloads cover the energy bands of Ultraviolet (Near and Far), limited
optical and X-ray regime (0.3 keV to 100keV).
• One of the unique features of the AstroSat mission is that it enables the
simultaneous multiwavelength observations of various astronomical objects
with a single satellite.
• AstroSat with a lift-off mass of 1515 kg was launched on September 28, 2015,
into a 650 km orbit inclined at an angle of 6 deg to the equator by PSLV-
C30 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
• The minimum useful life of the AstroSat mission is expected to be 5 years.
• It is seen as a smaller version of NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope.
• It has 5 payloads which include:
• Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UVIT)
• Large Area X-ray Proportional Counter (LAXPC)
• Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT)
• Cadmium Zinc Telluride Imager (CZTI)
• Scanning Sky Monitor (SSM)

SOLAR MISSION- ADITYA

ADITYA-1 is the first solar mission intended to study Sun’s Corona,
Chromosphere, and Photosphere. In addition, it will study the particle flux
emanating from the Sun, and the variation of magnetic field strength.

It would be placed into a point in space known as the L1 Lagrange point.

• Aditya L1 will be ISRO’s 2nd space-based astronomy mission after

AstroSat, which was launched in 2015.
• Aditya 1 was renamed as Aditya-L1. The Aditya 1 was meant to observe only
the solar corona.
Launch Vehicle: Aditya L1 will be launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
(PSLV) XL with 7 payloads (instruments) on board.

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Objective: Aditya L1 will study the Sun’s corona (Visible and Near-infrared rays),
Sun’s photosphere (soft and hard X-ray), chromosphere (Ultra Violet ), solar
emissions, solar winds and flares, and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), and will carry
out round-the-clock imaging of the Sun.

Challenges: The distance of the Sun from Earth ( approximately 15 crore km on

average, compared to the only 3.84 lakh km to the Moon). This huge distance poses a
scientific challenge.

• Due to the risks involved, payloads in earlier ISRO missions have largely
remained stationary in space; however, Aditya L1 will have some moving
components which increases the risks of collision.
• Other issues are the super-hot temperatures and radiation in the solar
atmosphere. However, Aditya L1 will stay much farther away, and the heat is
not expected to be a major concern for the instruments onboard.

Importance

• The evolution of every planet, including Earth and the exoplanets beyond the
Solar System, is governed by its parent star i.e the Sun in our case. Solar
weather and the environment affect the weather of the entire system. Therefore,
it is important to study the Sun.
• Effects of Variation in Solar Weather System: Variations in this weather
can change the orbits of satellites or shorten their lives, interfere with or
damage onboard electronics, and cause power blackouts and other
disturbances on Earth.
• Knowledge of solar events is key to understanding space weather.
• To learn about and track Earth-directed storms, and to predict their impact,
continuous solar observations are needed.
• Many of the instruments and their components for this mission are
being manufactured for the first time in the country.
A Lagrangian point is a position or location in space where the combined gravitational
forces of two large bodies are equal to the centrifugal force that is felt by a third body
which is relatively smaller.

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Lagrange Point 1

• Lagrange Points, named after Italian-French mathematician Josephy-Louis

Lagrange, are positioned in space where the gravitational forces of a two-
body system (like the Sun and the Earth) produce enhanced regions of
attraction and repulsion.
• The L1 point is about 1.5 million km from Earth or about 1/100th of the way to the
Sun.
• L1 refers to Lagrangian/Lagrange Point 1, one of 5 points in the orbital plane of
the Earth-Sun system.
• These can be used by spacecraft to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain
in position.
• A Satellite placed in the halo orbit around the Lagrangian point 1 (L1) has
the major advantage of continuously viewing the Sun without any
occultation/ eclipses.
• The L1 point is home to the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Satellite
(SOHO), an international collaboration project of the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA).

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Other Missions to the Sun

• NASA’s Parker Solar Probe’s aim is to trace how energy and heat move through
the Sun’s corona and to study the source of the solar wind’s acceleration.
• It is part of NASA’s ‘Living With a Star program that explores different
aspects of the Sun-Earth system.
• The earlier Helios 2 solar probe, a joint venture between NASA and the space
agency of erstwhile West Germany, went within 43 million km of the Sun’s
surface in 1976.

NISAR Mission
The NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint Earth-observing
mission by NASA and ISRO. The mission aims at co-developing a dual-frequency
synthetic aperture radar on an Earth observation satellite.

The NASA-ISRO SAR mission will observe Earth and measure its changing
ecosystem and masses globally. It is the world’s most expensive imaging-satellite and
the two space agencies intend to launch the satellite by 2022.

The key factors and characteristics of the mission are given below:

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 • It is a dual-frequency Radar imaging satellite and is using both L-Brand and S-
Brand Radar frequencies that will map Earth every 12 days from two
directions. The S-Brand Radar is being built by ISRO and the L-Brand Radar is
being built by NASA
• The satellite is likely to be launched from Indian soil. The launch site is Satish
Dhawan Space Center or Sriharikota Range, Andhra Pradesh
• The main objective of this research is to make global measurements of the
causes and consequences of land surface changes. This includes:
• Imbalance in the Ecosystem
• Natural Hazards including earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, and
landslides.
• Ice Sheet Collapse
• Agricultural and Forest Biomass
• Soil Moisture Estimation
• The mission is also expected to open up paths for the future joint mission
between the two Space Agencies.

Shukrayaan-1
Shukrayaan-1 is a proposed mission of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).

It is a mission to study Venus for more than four years.

Scientific objectives: Investigation of the surface processes and shallow subsurface

stratigraphy; and solar wind interaction with Venusian Ionosphere, and studying the
structure, composition, and dynamics of the atmosphere.

The satellite is planned to be launched onboard GSLV Mk II rocket.

The proposed orbit is expected to be around 500 x 60,000 km around Venus. This orbit
is likely to be reduced gradually, over several months to a lower apoapsis (farthest
point).

Venus

• Venus is often described as the “twin sister” of the Earth because of the
similarities in size, mass, density, bulk composition, and gravity.
• It is believed that both planets share a common origin, forming at the same time
out of a condensing nebulosity around 4.5 billion years ago.
• Venus is around 30 percent closer to the Sun as compared to Earth resulting
in much higher solar flux.

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XPoSat
The X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a planned space observatory to study
the polarization of cosmic X-rays. It is planned to be launched in 2021 and
to provide a service time of at least five years.

The telescope is being developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation

(ISRO) and the Raman Research Institute. POLIX will study the degree and angle of
polarisation of bright X-ray sources in the energy range of 5-30 keV.

The spacecraft will be placed in a circular 500-700km orbit.

It will study neutron stars, supernova remnants, pulsars and regions around black
holes.

Cartosat-3
ISRO has launched Cartosat-3 and 13 commercial nanosatellites into Sun
Synchronous orbit from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota.

• Cartosat-3 is an earth-observation remote sensing satellite that will replace

the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) series. So far, ISRO has orbited 8 Cartosats
since 2005.
• Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about objects or
areas from a distance, typically from aircraft or satellites.
• The 13 commercial nanosatellites are from the USA, which is the
first commercial order for New Space India Limited, the commercial arm of
ISRO which was formed in March 2019.
Cartosat-3 is a third-generation advanced earth observation satellite carried by
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, PSLV-C47.

It has the ‘sharpest eye’ of civil remote sensing satellites in the world.

• One of Cartosat-3’s cameras offers a ground resolution of 25 cm – it can pick

up an object of a minimum of 25 cm size from a height of around 500 km.
• Currently, a satellite owned by US private company- WorldView-3, has the best
ground resolution of 31 cm.
Inclination: It has been placed at 97.5 degrees to the equator of the earth.

It has many new technologies such as a highly agile or flexible camera; high-speed data
transmission, advanced computer system, etc.

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Applications

• Data from most of the Cartosat satellites are exclusively used by the armed
forces.
• However, an existing policy allows only government and government
authorized agencies to access ISRO’s high-resolution imageries below a
resolution of 1 meter.
• Cartosat-3’s optical imaging will also help to detect precise cartographic or
mapping activities.
• The imageries are also used for urban and rural infrastructure planning, coastal
land use and regulation, utility management such as monitoring road networks,
water grids or distribution, creation of land use maps, disaster management, etc.
Cartosat Satellites

• The Cartosat satellites are earth observation satellites, used mainly for large-
scale mapping of the Earth through high-resolution cameras.
• It also helps to detect changes in natural geographical or man-made features. As
their cameras can `look back and forth’ in an angle to generate continuous spot
images.
• The Earth-observation satellites also include the Resourcesat and RISAT series,
the Oceansat series.
• The Resourcesat and RISAT series of satellites, for example, provide
images and data that are needed for land and water resources
applications.
• The Oceansat series and the SARAL satellite, meanwhile, produce data
on the oceans.
• The satellites like INSAT 3D, INSAT-VRR, or Megha Tropiques study the
atmosphere.

NAVIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation)

Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) is an independent regional navigation
satellite system designed to provide position information in the Indian region and 1500
km around the Indian mainland.

It was developed in India by Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and its
commercial wing ANTRIX.

IRNSS would provide two types of services, namely Standard Positioning Services
available to all users and Restricted Services provided to authorised users.

It consists of 8 satellites located at a distance of approximately 36,000 Km. Currently,

7 satellites are active.

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 • 3 satellites are in Geostationary Orbit (GEO)
• 5 satellites are in inclined Geosynchronous Orbit (GSO)
The objective of the NavIC is to provide navigation, timing, and reliable positioning
services in and around India.

Working of the NavIC is very similar to the Global Positioning System(GPS)

implemented by the United States.

The NavIC is certified by 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) which is

responsible for coordinating mobile telephony standards globally.

Its applications include:

• Terrestrial, Aerial, and Marine Navigation.

• Disaster Management.
• Vehicle tracking and fleet management.
• Integration with mobile phones.
• Precise Timing.
• Mapping and Geodetic data capture.
• Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travelers.
• Visual and voice navigation for drivers.
Read Here in detailed – Navigation Satellite System

GSAT-30
ISRO has launched telecommunication satellite GSAT-30 into a Geosynchronous
Transfer Orbit (GTO) from Kourou launch base, French Guiana by European Ariane-
5 VA-251.

• GSAT-30 satellite will replace INSAT-4A which was launched in 2005.

• A European communication satellite named EUTELSAT KONNECT was also
launched with GSAT-30.
Weight: GSAT-30 weighs 3,357-kg and will be gradually adjusted into a orbit 36,000
km from the earth.

It was launched from the foreign launcher because it is much heavier than the lifting
capacity of its geostationary launch vehicle GSLV-MkII (It has the capacity to lift
2500kg).

• The GSLV-MkIII can lift up to 4,000 kg, but ISRO plans to use the upcoming
MkIIIs mainly for its first human space flight Gaganyaan of 2022.
Use:

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 • It will provide DTH (direct to home) television services, connectivity to VSATs
(that support working of banks’) ATMs, stock exchange, television uplinking and
teleport services, digital satellite news gathering and e-governance applications.
• The satellite will also be used for bulk data transfer for a host of emerging
telecommunication applications.
Coverage :

• The satellite provides Indian mainland and island coverage in Ku-band and
extended coverage in C-band covering Gulf countries, a large number of
Asian countries, and Australia.
• The Ku and C bands are part of a spectrum of frequencies, ranging from 1 to 40
gigahertz, that are used in satellite communications.
What is Arianespace?

It is the world’s first commercial launch service provider and since the launch of
India’s APPLE experimental satellite on Ariane Flight L03 in 1981, Arianespace has
orbited 24 satellites, including Gsat-30, for the Indian space agency.

GEMINI
The Union Minister of Earth Sciences has recently launched the Gagan Enabled
Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation and Information (GEMINI) device.

The device is developed for effective dissemination of emergency information and

communication on Ocean States Forecast and mapping of Potential Fishing
Zones (PFZ) to fishermen.

• Ocean States Forecast provides an accurate state of the ocean that includes
the forecasts related to winds, waves, ocean currents, water temperature, etc.
• PFZ provide information about the probable locations of fish aggregation in the
seas to the fishermen.
The device will help to provide information related to disaster warnings when fishermen
move away from the coast beyond 10 to 12 kilometres.

The GEMINI device receives and transfers the data received from GAGAN satellite/s to
a mobile through Bluetooth communication. A mobile application developed by INCOIS
decodes and displays the information in nine regional languages.

It has been developed by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information
Services (INCOIS), and the Airports Authority of India (AAI).

It is electronically designed and manufactured by a private industry M/S Acord,

Bangalore under the Make in India Program.

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Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) in collaboration with
the Airports Authority of India (AAI) utilized the GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo
Augmented Navigation) satellite while developing the GEMINI device.

• GAGAN was developed by the Indian Space Research Organization

(ISRO) and the Airports Authority of India. It is India’s first satellite-based
global positioning system that relies on ISRO’s GSAT satellites.
The drawback of this device is that it only allows one-way communication, i.e, it can’t
be used by fishermen to make calls.

• Also, it is relatively expensive for the average fisherman (priced at ₹9,000 per
device). Attempts are being made to subsidize it by as much as 90%.

UNISPACE Nanosatellite Assembly &Training (UNNATI)

program

• ISRO launched a capacity building program on Nanosatellite development

named UNNATI.
• It is an initiative to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the first United Nations
conference on the exploration and peaceful uses of outer
space (UNISPACE+50).
• It would provide opportunities to the participating developing countries to
strengthen in assembling, integrating, and testing of Nanosatellite.

Space Technology Cells (STCs)

• ISRO has set up 5 Space Technology Cells (STCs) at Indian Institute of

Technologies (IITs) – Bombay, Kanpur, Kharagpur & Madras; Indian Institute of
Science (IISc), Bengaluru and Joint Research Programme with Savitribai Phule
Pune University (SPPU, Pune) to carry out research activities in the areas of
space technology and applications.
• IIT Delhi is also going to set up an STC in collaboration with ISRO.
• ISRO desires the development of high-end technology in collaboration with
IITs in the areas of Space Science, Space Technology, and Space
Applications. ISRO would fund the identified projects.

Indian Neutrino project

• The India-based Neutrino Observatory (INO) Project is a multi-institutional

effort aimed at building a world-class underground laboratory with a rock cover
of approx.1200 m for non-accelerator based high energy and nuclear
physics research in India. The initial goal of INO is to study neutrinos.

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 • It is a mega-science project jointly funded by the Department of Atomic
Energy (DAE) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
The project includes:

1. Construction of an underground laboratory and associated surface facilities

at Pottipuram in Bodi West hills of Theni District of Tamil Nadu.
2. Construction of an Iron Calorimeter (ICAL) detector for studying neutrinos.
3. Setting up of National Centre for High Energy Physics at Madurai, for the
operation and maintenance of the underground laboratory, human resource
development, and detector R&D along with its applications.
What are neutrinos?

Neutrinos, first proposed by Swiss scientist Wolfgang Pauli in 1930, are the second
most widely occurring particle in the universe, only second to photons, the
particle which makes up light. In fact, neutrinos are so abundant among us that
every second, there are more than 100 trillion of them passing right through each
of us — we never even notice them.

Why detect them?

Neutrinos hold the key to several important and fundamental questions on the
origin of the Universe and the energy production in stars. Another important
possible application of neutrinos is in the area of neutrino tomography of the earth,
that is the detailed investigation of the structure of the Earth from core onwards. This is
possible with neutrinos since they are the only particles that can probe the deep interiors
of the Earth.

Why should the laboratory be situated underground?

Neutrinos are notoriously difficult to detect in a laboratory because of their

extremely weak interaction with matter. The background from cosmic rays (which
interact much more readily than neutrinos) and natural radioactivity will make it almost
impossible to detect them on the surface of the Earth. This is the reason most neutrino
observatories are located deep inside the Earth’s surface. The overburden
provided by the Earth matter is transparent to neutrinos whereas most
background from cosmic rays is substantially reduced depending on the depth at
which the detector is located.

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 Important Missions of NASA

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA)
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency
of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the
civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.

• Established under the National Aeronautics and Space Act 1958

• Headquarters: Washington, DC, USA

History – NASA
Following World War II, the United States was in direct competition with the
erstwhile Soviet Union (the superpower that was disbanded into several sovereign
nations including the Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, etc. in 1991). That
period was called the “Cold War”.

It was the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik on October 4, 1957, that first put an
object into orbit around Earth.

It was followed in November by the even larger Sputnik II, which carried the dog Laika.

Only in late January 1958, the United States could launch Explorer 1, hoisted aloft by
the Army’s rocket team, using rocket technology developed from World War II.

• Though a small spacecraft weighing only 30 pounds, it discovered what is now

known as the Van Allen radiation belts, named for the University of Iowa
scientist Dr. James Van Allen, launching the new discipline of space science.
• Explorer 1 was followed in March 1958 by the Navy’s Vanguard 1, 6 inches in
diameter and weighing only 3 pounds.
NASA’s birth was directly related to the launch of the Sputniks and the ensuing
race to demonstrate technological superiority in space.

Driven by the competition of the Cold War, on July 29, 1958, President Dwight D.
Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, providing for research
into the problems of flight within Earth’s atmosphere and in space.

After a protracted debate over military versus civilian control of space, the act
inaugurated a new civilian agency designated the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA).

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Objectives of NASA

• To expand human knowledge of space

• To lead the world in space-related technological innovation
• To develop vehicles that can carry both equipment and living organisms into
space
• To coordinate with international space agencies to achieve the greatest possible
scientific advancements.

Important Missions of NASA

JUNO MISSION

• Determine how much water is in Jupiter’s atmosphere, which helps

determine which planet formation theory is correct (or if new theories are needed)
• Look deep into Jupiter’s atmosphere to measure composition, temperature,
cloud motions, and other properties
• Map Jupiter’s magnetic and gravity fields, revealing the planet’s deep
structure
• Explore and study Jupiter’s magnetosphere near the planet’s poles,
especially the auroras – Jupiter’s northern and southern lights – providing
new insights into how the planet’s enormous magnetic force field affects its
atmosphere

NEW HORIZON

• The First Mission to the Pluto System and the Kuiper Belt
• The New Horizons mission is helping us understand worlds at the edge of our
solar system by making the first reconnaissance of the dwarf planet Pluto and
by venturing deeper into the distant, mysterious Kuiper Belt – a relic of solar
system formation.
• The Kuiper Belt is a region of space. The known icy worlds and comets in both
regions are much smaller than Earth’s Moon.
• The Kuiper Belt is a doughnut-shaped ring of icy objects around the Sun,
extending just beyond the orbit of Neptune from about 30 to 55 AU.

CASSINI MISSION
The Cassini–Huygens mission, commonly called Cassini, was a collaboration
between NASA, the European Space Agency, and the Italian Space Agency to send

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a probe to study the planet Saturn and its system, including its rings and natural
satellites.

INSIGHT

• InSight (Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat

Transport) is a NASA Discovery Program mission that will place a single
geophysical lander on Mars to study its deep interior.
• But InSight is more than a Mars mission – it is a terrestrial planet explorer that
will address one of the most fundamental issues of planetary and solar system
science – understanding the processes that shaped the rocky planets of the inner
solar system (including Earth) more than four billion years ago.

PUNCH & TRACERS MISSION

NASA has selected two new missions to advance our understanding of the Sun
and its dynamic effects on space. One of the selected missions will study how the
Sun drives particles and energy into the solar system and a second will study
Earth’s response.

• The Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere, or PUNCH, the

mission will focus directly on the Sun’s outer atmosphere, the corona, and
how it generates the solar wind. Composed of four suitcase-sized satellites,
PUNCH will image and track the solar wind as it leaves the Sun.
• The spacecraft also will track coronal mass ejections – large eruptions of solar
material that can drive large space weather events near Earth – to better
understand their evolution and develop new techniques for predicting such
eruptions.
• The second mission is Tandem Reconnection and Cusp Electrodynamics
Reconnaissance Satellites, or TRACERS.
• The TRACERS investigation was partially selected as a NASA-launched
rideshare mission, meaning it will be launched as a secondary payload with
PUNCH.
• TRACERS will observe particles and fields at the Earth’s northern magnetic cusp
region – the region encircling Earth’s pole, where our planet’s magnetic field lines
curve down toward Earth.
• Here, the field lines guide particles from the boundary between Earth’s magnetic
field and interplanetary space down into the atmosphere.

MESSENGER
Understanding Mercury, the smallest, densest, and least-explored of the terrestrial
planets

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The spacecraft was launched aboard a Delta II rocket in August 2004 to study Mercury’s
chemical composition, geology, and magnetic field.

New observations by the MESSENGER spacecraft provide compelling support for the
long-held hypothesis that Mercury harbors abundant water ice and other frozen
volatile materials in its permanently shadowed polar craters.

The instruments carried by MESSENGER were used on a complex series of flybys – the
spacecraft flew by Earth once, Venus twice, and Mercury itself three times, allowing it to
decelerate relative to Mercury using minimal fuel. During its first flyby of Mercury in
January 2008, MESSENGER became the second mission after Mariner 10’s 1975 flyby
to reach Mercury.

The MESSENGER mission was designed to study the characteristics and environment
of Mercury from orbit. Specifically, the scientific objectives of the mission were:

• To characterize the chemical composition of Mercury’s surface.

• To study the planet’s geologic history.
• To elucidate the nature of the global magnetic field (magnetosphere).
• To determine the size and state of the core.
• To determine the volatile inventory at the poles.
• To study the nature of Mercury’s exosphere.

KESSLER SYNDROME

• The Kessler Syndrome is a theory proposed by NASA scientist Donald J.

Kessler in 1978, used to describe a self-sustaining cascading collision of
space debris in LEO. It’s the idea that two colliding objects in space
generate more debris that then collides with other objects, creating even
more shrapnel and litter until the entirety of LEO is an impassable array of
super-swift stuff. At that point, any entering satellite would face unprecedented
risks of headfirst bombardment
• Matter in orbit travels at ridiculously high speeds, say 22,000km/h, just as an
example. If this matter were to travel in the same plane and direction indefinitely,
it would be impossible for any matter to collide, like cars going straight on a
highway at the same speed, never endeavoring to switch lanes or get off on an
exit.
• But in space, uncontrolled objects do not follow a straight
path. Instead, each piece of debris is subject to drift and
decay. The variation in Earth’s gravitation field causes drift or the gradual
movement of an object to a different orbital plane. The friction of an object
with Earth’s atmosphere causes decay or the slow decrease in an object’s
altitude.
• Live satellites can be repositioned using onboard thrusters to counteract natural
drift and keep to their intended orbits, but dead ones. Those just keep on floating,

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 unrestrained, drifting and decaying and, at any moment, knocking into other
drifters.

ORBITAL DECAY

• In orbital mechanics, decay is a process that leads to the gradual decrease of

the distance between two orbiting bodies at their closest approach over
many orbital periods.
• These orbiting bodies can be a planet and its satellite, a star and any object
orbiting it, or components of any binary system. The orbital decay can be caused
by a multitude of mechanical, gravitational, and electromagnetic effects. For
bodies in a low Earth orbit, the most significant effect is the atmospheric drag.
• If left unchecked, the decay eventually results in termination of the orbit where
the smaller object strikes the surface of the primary; or for objects where the
primary has an atmosphere, it burns, explodes, or otherwise breaks up in its
atmosphere; or for objects where the primary is a star, ends with incineration by
the star’s radiation (such as for comets), and so on.
• Causes of Orbital Decay include Atmospheric drag, Tidal effects, Mass
concentration, light, and thermal radiation, and gravitational radiation.

OSIRIS-REX
OSIRIS-Rex stands for Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification,
Security-Regolith Explorer.

It is a NASA asteroid study and sample-return mission.

OSIRIS-REx is the third mission in NASA’s New Frontiers Program, which previously
sent the New Horizons spacecraft zooming by Pluto and the Juno spacecraft into orbit
around Jupiter.

Why was Bennu chosen?

Bennu was selected for a the OSIRIS-REx mission from over 500,000 known asteroids,
due to it fitting a number of key criteria. These include:

Proximity to Earth: In order for OSIRIS-REx to reach its destination in a reasonable

timeframe, NASA needed to find an asteroid which had a similar orbit to Earth.

Size: Small asteroids, those less than 200m in diameter, typically spin much faster than
larger asteroids, meaning the regolith material can be ejected into space. Bennu is
around 500m in diameter, so rotates slowly enough to ensure that the regolith stays on
its surface.

Composition: Bennu is a primitive asteroid, meaning it hasn’t significantly changed

since the beginning of the Solar System (over 4 billion years ago). It is also very carbon-
rich, meaning it may contain organic molecules, which could have been precursors to life
on Earth.

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Additionally, Bennu is of interest as it is a Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA).
Every 6 years, Bennu’s orbit brings it within 200,000 miles of the Earth, which means it
has a high probability of impacting Earth in the late 22nd Century.

VOYAGER 1
It is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5, 1977. Part of the Voyager
program to study the outer Solar System. It is in interstellar space.

INTERSTELLAR SPACE

• In astronomy, the interstellar medium (ISM) is the matter and radiation that exists
in the space between the star systems in a galaxy. This matter includes gas in
ionic, atomic, and molecular form, as well as dust and cosmic rays. It fills
interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding intergalactic space.
• Once you arrive in interstellar space, there would be an increase of “cold”
particles around you. There would also be a magnetic field that does not originate
from our sun.

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Voyager-2

• Like Voyager 1, Voyager 2 was designed to find and study the edge of our
solar system.
• It is the only spacecraft to study all four of the solar system’s giant planets-
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune at close range.
• Voyager 2 is 11.5 billion miles from the Earth and, at that distance, light takes 17
hours to reach it or for messages from it to reach mission control on Earth.
• Voyager gets its power from a radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which turns heat from the decay of radioactive material into electricity.
• It officially entered ‘interstellar space’ in November 2018. It joined its twin—
Voyager 1—as the only human-made object to enter the space between the
stars.
• This space between the stars is dominated by the plasma that was
ejected by the death of nearby giant stars millions of years ago.
• The sun sends out a constant flow of charged particles called the solar
wind, which ultimately travels past all the planets to some three times the
distance to Pluto before being impeded by the interstellar medium.
• This forms a giant bubble around the sun and its planets, known as
the heliosphere.

PARKER SOLAR

• Parker Solar is NASA’s robotic spacecraft to probe the outer corona of the
Sun. It is part of NASA’s Living with a Star Program
• NASA renamed the spacecraft from the Solar Probe Plus to the Parker Solar
Probe in honor of astrophysicist Eugene Parker. This was the first time NASA
named a spacecraft for a living individual.
• NASA’s Parker Solar Probe lifted off on 12th August 2018 from a pad here
at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, its powerful United Launch Alliance Delta
IV Heavy rocket carving an arc of orange flame into the predawn sky.
• The Parker Solar Probe carries a lineup of instruments to study the Sun both
remotely and in situ, or directly. Together, the data from these instruments should
help scientists answer three foundational questions about our star.
• Parker Solar Probe will explore the corona, a region of the Sun only seen
from Earth when the Moon blocks out the Sun’s bright face during total
solar eclipses. The corona holds the answers to many of scientists’ outstanding
questions about the Sun’s activity and processes.
• Parker Solar Probe is World’s first mission to touch the Sun.

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JAMES WEBB TELESCOPE

• Webb is an international collaboration between NASA, the European Space

Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
• The James Webb Space Telescope (sometimes called JWST or Webb) will be a
large infrared telescope with a 6.5-meter primary mirror. The telescope will be
launched on an Ariane 5 rocket from French Guiana in Spring 2019.
• The James Webb Space Telescope will not be in orbit around the Earth, like
the Hubble Space Telescope is – it will actually orbit the Sun, 1.5 million
kilometers (1 million miles) away from the Earth at what is called the
second Lagrange point or L2.
• Webb will be the premier observatory of the next decade, serving thousands of
astronomers worldwide. It will study every phase in the history of our
Universe, ranging from the first luminous glows after the Big Bang, to the
formation of solar systems capable of supporting life on planets like Earth,
to the evolution of our own Solar System.

KEPLER SPACE TELESCOPE

• NASA’s Kepler Space Telescope was an observatory in space dedicated to

finding planets outside our solar system with a particular focus on finding
planets that might resemble Earth.
• During its over nine year’s life, Kepler had observed 530,506 stars and detected
2,662 planets.
• It used the transit photometry detection method for searching for an exoplanet,
which looked for periodic, repetitive dips in visible light of stars caused by planets
passing or transiting in front of its host star.
• Recently NASA retired its Kepler space telescope as it ran out of fuel.

HUBBLE TELESCOPE

• It was built by the United States space agency NASA, with contributions from
the European Space Agency.
• NASA named the world’s first space-based optical telescope after American
astronomer Edwin P. Hubble (1889 — 1953).
• Dr. Hubble confirmed an “expanding” universe, which provided the foundation for
the big-bang theory.
• It is a large space telescope and was launched in 1990 and is still operational. It
is expected to decay by 2030-2040
• Hubble features a 2.4-meter mirror, and its four main instruments include
ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

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 • It is the only telescope that has been designed in a manner that it can be
serviced by astronauts in space. Till date 5 Space Shuttle missions have been
conducted to repair and upgrade the parts of the telescope

LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave

Observatory)

• It is the world’s largest gravitational wave observatory and wonder of

precision engineering.
• It comprises of two enormous laser interferometers located thousands of
kilometers apart, each having two arms which are 4 km long.
• It exploits the physical properties of light and of space itself to detect and
understand the origins of Gravitational Waves (GW).
• Gravitational waves are created when two black holes orbit each
other and merge.
• the first gravitational wave was actually detected by LIGO only in 2015.
LIGO detectors

• Two LIGO detectors work as one unit to ensure a remarkable precision,

which is needed to detect a signal as weak as a gravitational wave.
• Its detector components are completely isolated and sheltered from the
outside world.
• Unlike optical or radio telescopes, it does not see electromagnetic
radiation (e.g., visible light, radio waves, and microwaves) because
gravitational waves are not part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• It doesn’t need to collect light from stars; it doesn’t need to be round or dish-
shaped like optical telescope mirrors or radio telescope dishes, both of which
focus EM radiation to produce images.
LIGO Project at a global level

• Two LIGO detectors are already operational in the U.S., at Livingston and
Hanford.
• The Japanese detector, KAGRA, or Kamioka Gravitational-wave Detector, is
expected to join the international network soon.
LIGO India

• LIGO India will come up in Maharashtra, which will also have two arms of 4
km in length.
• The project aims to move one Advanced LIGO detector from Hanford to India.
• This project is a collaboration between the LIGO Laboratory and three lead
institutions in the IndIGO consortium: Institute of Plasma Research (IPR)

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 Gandhinagar, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA),
Pune and Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology (RRCAT), Indore.
• It is an ultra-high precision large-scale apparatus, which is expected to show
a unique “temperament” determined by the local site characteristics.

EVENT HORIZON TELESCOPE

The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) is a large telescope array consisting of a global
network of radio telescopes (used to detect radio waves from space).

Event horizon telescope consists of eight radio observatories around the world,
including telescopes in Spain, the US and Antarctica.

• The EHT project combines data from several very-long-baseline interferometry

(VLBI) stations around Earth with angular resolution sufficient to observe objects
the size of a supermassive black hole’s event horizon.
• The project’s observational targets include the two black holes with the largest
angular diameter as observed from Earth: the black hole at the center of the
supergiant elliptical galaxy Messier 87 (M87), and Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*) at the
center of the Milky Way.
The first image of a black hole, at the center of galaxy Messier 87, was published by the
EHT Collaboration on April 10, 2019, in a series of six scientific publications.

• The EHT is composed of many radio observatories or radio telescope facilities

around the world, working together to produce a high-sensitivity, high-angular-
resolution telescope.
• Through the technique of very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI), many
independent radio antennas separated by hundreds or thousands of kilometers
can act as a phased array, a virtual telescope that can be pointed electronically,
with an effective aperture which is the diameter of the entire planet.
The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration announced its first results in six
simultaneous press conferences worldwide on April 10, 2019. The announcement
featured the first direct image of a black hole, which showed the supermassive black
hole at the center of Messier 87, designated M87*

General Theory of Relativity (Einstein) predicts that photons emitted by the gas falling
into a black hole should travel along curved trajectories, forming a ring of light around a
“shadow” corresponding to the location of the black hole. While we often use the term
“shadow,” it isn’t technically correct.

• What we are hoping to observe with the EHT is rather a “silhouette” of a black
hole: its dark shape on a bright background of light coming from the surrounding
matter, deformed by strong spacetime curvature.

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OUTER SPACE TREATY

• The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the
Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the
Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a treaty that forms the basis of international
space law.
• The Treaty was opened for signature by the three depository Governments (the
Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America) in
January 1967, and it entered into force in October 1967.
The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework on international space law,
including the following principles:

• The exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in
the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind.
• Outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States;
• outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by
means of use or occupation, or by any other means;
• States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in
orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner.

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 • The Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful
purposes;
• Astronauts shall be regarded as the envoys of mankind;
• States shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by
governmental or non-governmental entities;
• States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and
• States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies.

SPACE TOURISM

• Space tourism is space travel for recreational, leisure, or business purposes. A

number of startup companies have sprung up in recent years, such as Virgin
Galactic and XCOR Aerospace, hoping to create a sub-orbital space tourism
industry.
• Recently a winged spaceship designed to take tourists on excursions beyond
Earth’s atmosphere exploded during a test flight over the Mojave Desert, killing a
pilot in the second fiery setback for commercial space travel.
• It raises serious questions about the viability of such programs.

SPACE ELEVATOR

• A space elevator is a proposed type of space transportation system. It is a highly

ambitious program inspired by sci-fi stories.
• Its main component will be a ribbon-like cable anchored to the surface and
extending into space. It is designed to permit vehicle transport along the cable
from a planetary surface, such as the Earth’s, directly into space or orbit, without
the use of large rockets.
• An Earth-based space elevator would consist of a cable with one end attached to
the surface near the equator and the other end in space beyond geostationary
orbit.
• It will carry humans and other objects to space without rockets.

SOFIA-STRATOSPHERIC OBSERVATORY FOR INFRARED

ASTRONOMY

• The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) is a joint project

of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) to construct and maintain an
airborne observatory.
• NASA awarded the contract for the development of the aircraft, operation of the
observatory, and management of the American part of the project to the
Universities Space Research Association (USRA) in 1996.

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 • SOFIA is the largest airborne observatory in the world, capable of making
observations that are impossible for even the largest and highest ground-based
telescopes. During its planned 20-year lifetime, SOFIA also will inspire the
development of new scientific instrumentation and foster the education of young
scientists and engineers.

ORBITING CARBON OBSERVATORY

• The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) is a NASA satellite mission

intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric
carbon dioxide (CO2).
• The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on February 24, 2009, when
the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate
during ascent.
• The added mass of the failing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit. It
subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near
Antarctica. The replacement satellite, Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2, was
launched on July 2, 2014.
• OCO will fly in a near-polar orbit which enables the instrument to observe most of
Earth’s surface at least once every sixteen days.
• It is intended to fly in loose formation with a series of other Earth-orbiting
satellites known as the Earth Observing System Afternoon Constellation, or the
A-train.
• This coordinated flight formation was intended to enable researchers to correlate
OCO data with data acquired by other instruments on other spacecraft.

SOLAR DYNAMIC OBSERVATORY (SDO)

• SDO is NASA’s project initiated in 2010 to observe the influence of the Sun on
the Sun-Earth System.
• This project is part of the Living with a Star (LWS) program of NASA
• SDO’s goal is to understand the solar variations that influence life and society on
Earth.

SPHEREx
NASA will launch a new space telescope mission Spectro-Photometer for the History
of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer (SPHEREx) in 2023.

• The launch could help astronomers understand how the Universe evolved in
the first place and how common the ingredients for life are within it.
Missions’ Objective

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 • SPHEREx will survey the sky in optical as well as near-infrared light.
• Astronomers will use the mission to gather data on more than 300 million
galaxies, as well as more than 100 million stars in Milky Way.
• The mission will create a map of the entire sky in 96 different colour bands.
Significance

• SPHEREx’s main goal is to search for the fundamentals of life — water and
organic matter within the Milky Way.
• Beyond Milky Way, it will also be looking at the wider regions of the universe,
where stars are born.
• This will give scientists targets for more detailed study in future missions,
like NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope and Wide-Field Infrared Survey
Telescope.
• It will deliver an unprecedented galactic map containing ‘fingerprints’ from
the first moments in the universe’s history.
• It will provide new clues to one of the greatest mysteries in science that what
made the universe expand so quickly less than a nanosecond after the Big
Bang.

ICON AND GOLD

• By NASA- The Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk, or GOLD and the
Ionospheric Connection Explorer, or ICON- Study of the ionosphere
• GOLD in Geostationary orbit over Western Hemisphere
• ICON- Low-Earth Orbit
• The ionosphere is located between 60 and 400 km above the mesopause.
• It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as
the ionosphere. Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the
earth by this layer and is used for radio propagation to distant places on the
Earth. In this layer, the temperature starts increasing with height.

NASA – Crewed programs

First
Start End
Program crewed Notes
date date
flight

Mercury program 1958 1961 1963 First U.S. crewed program

Gemini program 1961 1965 1966 The program used to practice space rendezvous and EVAs

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 Apollo program 1960 1968 1972 Landed first humans on the Moon

Skylab 1964 1973 1974 First American space station

Apollo–Soyuz Test
1971 1975 1975 Joint with the Soviet Union
Project

Space Shuttle 1972 1981 2011 First missions in which a spacecraft was reused

Shuttle-Mir
1993 1995 1998 Russian partnership
Program

International Joint with Roscosmos, CSA, ESA, and JAXA; Americans flew
1993 1998 Ongoing
Space Station on Russian Soyuz after 2011 retirement of Space Shuttle

Commercial Crew
2011 2020 Ongoing Current program to shuttle Americans to the ISS
Program

Artemis program 2017 Ongoing Ongoing Current program to bring humans to the Moon again

Artemis Mission
NASA wants to send the first woman and the next man to the Moon by the year
2024, which it plans on doing through the Artemis lunar exploration program.

ARTEMIS stands for Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence, and Electrodynamics

of Moon’s Interaction with the Sun.

The mission was named Artemis after the Greek mythological goddess of the Moon
and twin sister to Apollo, the namesake of the program that sent 12 American
astronauts to the Moon between 1969 and 1972.

Objective: The main objective is to measure what happens when the Sun’s radiation
hits our rocky moon, where there is no magnetic field to protect it.

The mission:

For the Artemis program, NASA’s new rocket called the Space Launch System
(SLS) will send astronauts aboard the Orion spacecraft a quarter of a million miles away
from Earth to the lunar orbit.

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Once astronauts dock Orion at the Gateway — which is a small spaceship in orbit
around the moon — the astronauts will be able to live and work around the Moon, and
from the spaceship, astronauts will take expeditions to the surface of the Moon.

Lunar missions- key facts:

• Before the US sent the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon, it sent three classes of
robotic missions between 1961 and 1968.
• On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first human to step on the
Moon as part of the Apollo 11 mission.
• After July 1969, 12 American astronauts walked on the surface of the Moon
until 1972.
• In 1959, the Soviet Union’s uncrewed Luna 1 and 2 became the first rover to
visit the Moon. Since then, seven nations have followed suit.
• In the 1990s, the US resumed lunar exploration with robotic missions
Clementine and Lunar Prospector.
• In 2009, it began a new series of robotic lunar missions with the launch of the
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and the Lunar Crater Observation and
Sensing Satellite (LCROSS).
• In 2011, NASA began the ARTEMIS (Acceleration, Reconnection,
Turbulence, and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun)
mission using a pair of repurposed spacecraft and in 2012 the Gravity
Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) spacecraft studied the Moon’s
gravity.
• Apart from the US, the European Space Agency, Japan, China, and India have
sent missions to explore the Moon.
• China landed two rovers on the surface, which includes the first-ever landing
on the Moon’s far side in 2019.
• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) recently announced India’s
third lunar mission Chandrayaan-3, which will comprise a lander and a rover.

NASA’s Gateway Lunar Orbit outpost

The Gateway is a small spaceship that will orbit the Moon, meant for astronaut
missions to the Moon and later, for expeditions to Mars.

It will act as a temporary office and living quarters for astronauts distanced at about
250,000 miles from Earth. The spaceship will have living quarters, laboratories for
science and research, and docking ports for visiting spacecraft.

Once docked to the Gateway, astronauts will be able to stay there for three months at a
time, conduct science experiments and take trips to the surface of the Moon.

Compared to the ISS, the Gateway is much smaller. It is a critical component of

NASA’s Artemis programme.

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Features of the Gateway

• One of the most unique features of the Gateway is that it can be moved to other
orbits around the Moon to conduct more research.
• The Gateway will act as an airport, where spacecraft bound for the lunar surface
of Mars can refuel or replace parts and resupply things like food and oxygen,
allowing astronauts to take multiple trips to the Lunar surface and exploration of
new locations across the Moon.
How is it different from ISS?

• Astronauts will use the Gateway at least once per year and not stay around the
year as they do on the International Space Station (ISS).
• Compared to the ISS, the Gateway is much smaller (the size of a studio
apartment), while the ISS is about the size of a six-bedroom house.

Dawn Mission

• Dawn mission was launched by NASAdeploying spacecraft to study the asteroid

Vesta and dwarf planet Ceres.
• It is the only mission ever to orbit two extraterrestrial targets and will characterize
the early solar system and the processes that dominated its formation.
• Vesta and Ceres are celestial bodies believed to have accreted early in the
history of the solar system.
• Dawn orbited giant asteroid Vesta for 14 months from 2011 to 2012, then
continued on to Ceres, where it has been in orbit since March 2015.
• The spacecraft is likely to run out of a key fuel known as hydrazine which keeps it
oriented and in communication with Earth.

Ceres and Vesta

• Ceres is the earliest known and smallest of the dwarf planet.

• It is also the largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
• Thus Ceres is both a dwarf planet and an asteroid.
• Vesta is the second most massive body in the asteroid belt, surpassed only by
Ceres.

DART (Double Asteroid Redirection Test)

The DART is a planetary defense-driven test of technologies for preventing an impact
of Earth by a hazardous asteroid.

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DART would be NASA’s first mission to demonstrate what’s known as the kinetic
impactor technique – striking the asteroid to shift its orbit – to defend against a
potential future asteroid impact.

Heliophysics Missions

• NASA has approved two heliophysics missions to explore the Sun and the
system that drives space weather near Earth.
• Understanding the physics that drive the solar wind and solar explosions could
help in predicting these events.
• Together, NASA’s contribution to the following will help in understanding the Sun
and Earth as an interconnected system,
1. Extreme Ultraviolet High-Throughput Spectroscopic Telescope
Epsilon Mission (EUVST) and
2. Electrojet Zeeman Imaging Explorer (EZIE)
• Funding comes from the Heliophysics Explorers Program, managed by the
Explorers Program Office at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.
EUVST

• The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) leads the EUVST Epsilon
Mission (Solar-C EUVST Mission), along with other partners.
• Targeted for launch in 2026, EUVST is a solar telescope.
• It will study how the solar atmosphere releases solar wind and drives eruptions of
solar material.
• These phenomena propagate out from the Sun and influence the space radiation
environment throughout the solar system.
• EUVST will take comprehensive UV spectroscopy measurements of the solar
atmosphere at the highest level of detail to date.
• This will allow scientists to tease out how different magnetic and plasma
processes drive coronal heating and energy release.
EZIE

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 • To be launched in 2024, EZIE will study electric currents in Earth’s atmosphere
linking aurora to Earth’s magnetosphere that responds to solar activity and other
factors.
• EZIE is an investigation comprising a trio of CubeSats that will study the source
of and changes in the auroral electrojet (AE).
• [AE is an electric current circling through Earth’s atmosphere around 60-90 miles
above the surface and extending into the magnetosphere.
• They are generated by changes in the structure of the magnetotail.]
• The interaction of the magnetosphere and the solar wind compresses the Sun-
facing side of the magnetosphere.
• This drags out the night-time side of the magnetosphere into what is called a
magnetotail.
• The same space weather phenomena that power the aurora can cause
interference with radio and communication signals and utility grids on Earth’s
surface, and damage to spacecraft in orbit.

Planetary Missions
Asteroids

• Asteroid Redirect Initiative

• Dawn
• Osiris-REX
Comets

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 • Deep Impact
• EPOXI
• Rosetta
• Stardust-NExT
Jupiter

• Europa Mission
• Galileo
• Hubble
• Juno
• Pioneer
• Voyager
Mars

• Hubble
• InSight
• Mars Exploration Rover
• Mars Global Surveyor
• Mars Odyssey
• Mars Pathfinder
• Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
• Mars Science Laboratory, Curiosity
• MAVEN
• Phoenix
• Viking
Mercury

• MESSENGER
Moon

• Apollo
• Clementine
• GRAIL
• LADEE
• LCROSS

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 • LRO (Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter)
• Mini-RF
• Moon Mineralogy Mapper
• Ranger
• Surveyor
Neptune

• Hubble
• Voyager
Pluto

• Hubble
• New Horizons
Saturn

• Cassini
• Hubble
• Pioneer
• Voyage
Uranus

• Hubble
• Voyager
Venus

• Magellan
• Pioneer

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 Star Formation (Life Cycle of a Star)

Star Formation in Galaxies

• Stars are born within the clouds of dust and gas scattered throughout most galaxies.
• Turbulence deep within these clouds gives rise to knots with sufficient mass that the gas and
dust can begin to collapse under its own gravitational attraction.
• As the cloud collapses, the material at the center begins to heat up. Known as a protostar, it
is this hot core that one day becomes a star.
• Not all of this material ends up as part of a star — the remaining dust can become
planets, asteroids, or comets or may remain as dust.

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 • Stars are fueled by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen to form helium deep in their interiors.
The outflow of energy from the central regions of the star provides the pressure necessary
to keep the star from collapsing under its own weight, and the energy by which it shines.

The above illustration shows the six steps of star formation for Sun-like stars.

• The process starts on (A), where gas and dust in the space between stars (also called
the InterStellar medium, ISM) collapse into a dense ball of gas called a prestellar core
(B) that eventually will become the sun.
• During the collapse, a disk (C) forms around the core, while two jets are emitted at the
poles.
• At some point, the star stops growing, but gas still falls onto the disk (D). After a few million
years this process also halts. The star is now born (E), while the planets are being formed
from the left-over material, which will eventually become a solar system (F).
• A solar system typically lives 10 billion years after the formation process.

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Nebula

• A nebula is a cloud of gas (mostly hydrogen and helium) and dust in space.
• Nebulae are the birthplaces of stars.

Protostar

• A Protostar looks like a star, but its core is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion to take
place (nuclear fusion: the fusion of 2 hydrogen atoms into a helium atom with the
liberation of a huge amount of energy. Nuclear fusion occurs only when the initial
temperatures are very high – a few million degree Celsius. That is why it is hard to achieve
and control).
• The luminosity comes exclusively from the heating of the Protostar as it contracts (because
of gravity).
• Protostars are usually surrounded by dust, which blocks the light that they emit, so they
are difficult to observe in the visible spectrum.

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T Tauri star

• A very young, lightweight star, less than 10 million years old, that it still undergoing
gravitational contraction; it represents an intermediate stage between a Protostar and a
low-mass main sequence star like the Sun.

Main sequence stars

• Main sequence stars are stars that are fusing hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in their
cores.
• Most of the stars in the universe — about 90 per cent of them — are main sequence stars.
• The sun is a main sequence star.
• Towards the end of its life, a star like the Sun swells up into a red giant, before losing its
outer layers as a planetary nebula and finally shrinking to become a white dwarf.

Red dwarf

• The faintest (less than 1/1000th the brightness of the Sun) main sequence stars are called
the red dwarfs.
• Because of their low luminosity, they are not visible to the naked eye.
• They are quite small compared to the sun and have a surface temperature of about 4000 C.
• According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky
Way.
• Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun, is a red dwarf.

Red giant

• Red giants have diameters between 10 and 100 times that of the Sun.

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 • They are very bright, although their surface temperature is lower than that of the Sun.
• A red giant is formed during the later stages of evolution as it runs out of hydrogen fuel at its
center.
• It still fuses hydrogen into helium in a shell surrounding a hot, dense degenerate helium
core.
• As the layer surrounding the core contains a bigger volume the fusion of hydrogen to
helium around the core releases far more energy and pushes much harder against gravity
and expands the volume of the star.
• Red giants are hot enough to turn the helium at their core into heavy elements like carbon.
• But most stars are not massive enough to create the pressures and heat necessary to burn
heavy elements, so fusion and heat production stops.

Degenerate matter

• Fusion in a star’s core produces heat and outward pressure, but this pressure is kept in
balance by the inward push of gravity generated by a star’s mass (gravity is a product of
mass).
• When the hydrogen used as fuel vanishes, and fusion slows, gravity causes the star to
collapse in on itself. This creates a degenerate star.
• Great densities (degenerate star) are only possible when electrons are displaced from their
regular shells and pushed closer to the nucleus, allowing atoms to take up less space. The
matter in this state is called ‘degenerate matter’.

Red Supergiant

• As the red giant star condenses, it heats up even further, burning the last of its hydrogen
and causing the star’s outer layers to expand outward.
• At this stage, the star becomes a large red giant. A very large red giant is often called Red
Supergiant.

Planetary Nebula

• Planetary nebula is an outer layer of gas and dust (no planets involved!) that are lost when
the star changes from a red giant to a white dwarf.
• At the end of its lifetime, the sun will swell up into a red giant, expanding out beyond the
orbit of Venus. As it burns through its fuel, it will eventually collapse under the influence of
gravity.
• The outer layers will be ejected in a shell of gas that will last a few tens of thousands of years
before spreading into the vastness of space.

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White dwarf

• A white dwarf is very small, hot star, the last stage in the life cycle of a star like the Sun.
• White dwarfs are the remains of normal stars, whose nuclear energy supplies have been
used up.
• White dwarf consists of degenerate matter with a very high density due to gravitational
effects, i.e. one spoonful has a mass of several tonnes.

Nova

• Novae occur on the surface of a white dwarf in a binary system.

• If the two stars of the system are sufficiently near to one another, material (hydrogen) can
be pulled from the companion star’s surface onto the white dwarf.
• When enough material builds up on the surface of the white dwarf, it triggers a nuclear
fusion on a white dwarf which causes a sudden brightening of the star.

Supernova

• A supernova is the explosive death of a star and often results in the star obtaining the
brightness of 100 million suns for a short time.
• The extremely luminous burst of radiation expels much or all of a star’s material at a great
velocity, driving a shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium.
• These shock waves trigger condensation is a nebula paving the way for the birth of a new
star ― if a star has to be born, a star has to die!
• A great proportion of primary cosmic rays comes from supernovae.
Supernovae can be triggered in one of two ways:

Type I supernova or Type Ia supernova (read as one-a)

• Occurs when there is a sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion on the surface of a degenerate
white dwarf in a binary system.

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 • A degenerate white dwarf may accumulate sufficient material from a companion star to
raise its core temperature, ignite carbon fusion, and trigger runaway nuclear
fusion, completely disrupting the star.

The difference between Nova and Type I supernova

Nova Type I supernova

In a nova, the system can shine up to a million times A supernova is a violent stellar explosion that can shine
brighter than normal. as brightly as an entire galaxy of billions of normal stars.

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As long as it continues to take gas from its companion If enough gas piles up on the surface of the white dwarf
star, the white dwarf can produce nova outbursts at a runaway thermonuclear explosion blasts the star to
regular intervals. bits.

Type II supernova

• Type II supernova is a supernova that occurs by the gravitational collapse of the core of
a massive star (mostly made of iron). E.g. Supernova of a red supergiant.

Importance of supernova: Creating and dispersing new elements

• When a star’s core runs out of hydrogen, the star begins to die out. The dying star expands
into a red giant, and this now begins to manufacture carbon by fusing helium atoms.
• More massive stars begin a further series of nuclear burning. The elements formed in these
stages range from oxygen through to iron.
• During a supernova, the star releases very large amounts of energy as well as neutrons,
which allows elements heavier than iron, such as uranium and gold, to be produced.
• In the supernova explosion, all of these elements are expelled out into space, and new stars
are born out of this matter (recycling of matter in the universe!).

Black dwarf

• The last stage of stellar evolution is a black dwarf.

• A black dwarf is a white dwarf that has sufficiently cooled that it no longer emits significant
heat or light.
• Because the time required for a white dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer
than the current age of the universe (13.8 billion years), no black dwarfs are expected to
exist in the universe yet.

Brown Dwarfs

• Brown dwarfs are objects which are too large to be called planets and too small to be stars.
• Brown dwarfs are thought to form in the same way that stars do – from a collapsing cloud of
gas and dust.
• However, as the cloud collapses, the core is not dense enough to trigger nuclear fusion.

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Neutron stars

• These stars are composed mainly of neutrons and are produced after a supernova, forcing
the protons and electrons to combine to produce a neutron star.
• Neutron stars are very dense. (mass of three times the Sun can be fit in a sphere of just
20km in diameter).
• If its mass is any greater, its gravity will be so strong that it will shrink further to become
a black hole.

Black holes

• Black holes are believed to form from massive stars at the end of their lifetimes.
• The gravitational pull in a black hole is so great that nothing can escape from it, not even
light.
• The density of matter in a black hole cannot be measured (infinite!).
• Black holes distort the space around them and can suck neighbouring matter into them
including stars.
• Gravitational lensing: Light around a massive object, such as a black hole, is bent, causing it
to act as a lens for the things that lie behind it.

Galaxy

• Galaxy is a system of millions or billions of stars, together with gas and dust, held together
by gravitational attraction. They are the major building blocks of the universe.

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 • The smallest galaxies contain about 100,000 stars, while the largest contains up to 3000
billion stars.

From the billions of galaxies, two basic types have been identified:

• Regular galaxies, and

• Irregular galaxies.

Regular Galaxies

Spiral Galaxies Elliptical Galaxies

The Milky Way is an example of disc-shaped spiral galaxy which has a greater
concentration of stars near its centre.They consist of populations of old stars in Star distribution is nonuniform.
the centre, and the youngest stars located in the arms.

Most of their member stars

Spiral galaxies are well supplied with the interstellar gas in which new bright,
are very old and no new star
young stars form.
formation in them.

The brightest galaxies in the

Smaller and less bright
universe are elliptical.

Irregular Galaxies

• The irregular galaxies comprise about one-tenth of all galaxies.

• The stars of the irregular galaxies are generally very old.

Our Galaxy (the Milky Way)

• The Milky Way is the galaxy that hosts our solar system. It is shaped like a flat disc with a
central bulge.
• Its diameter is between 1,50,000 and 2,00,000 light-years.

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 • In the nucleus, the thickness reaches 10,000 light-years, whereas in the disc it is 500-2,000
light-years thick.
• It is estimated to contain 100-400 billion stars.
• The inner stars travel faster than those further out.
• The Solar System is located in the Orion Arm, 26,000 light-years from the center (about
one-third from the center) of the Milky Way galaxy.
• The Sun completes one lap of the galaxy in about every 220 million years.
• The solar system revolves around the Milky Way with a speed of 285 km per second.
• The Andromeda Galaxy is the closest galaxy (spiral) to us – being 2 million light-years away.
Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES) is an autonomous
institute of the Department of Science & Technology (DST).

ARIES telescope

• ARIES telescope is a joint collaboration between Indian, Russian, and Belgian scientists.
• The telescope is located at Devasthal, Nainital at a height of 2,500 meters
• The high-end technology incorporated in the telescope enables it to be operated with the
help of remote control from anywhere in the world
• The telescope will be used in the study and exploration of planets, stars, magnetic field, and
astronomical debris
• The scientists will also help in the research of the structures of stars and magnetic field
structures of stars.

Dark Energy and Dark Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and takes space. But apart from the ‘normal’ matter,
there are different other forms of hypothesized matter. A few examples include Dark
Matter, Anti Matter, and Negative Matter.

You by now know that matter and energy are interconvertible; so there is Dark
Energy, Anti Energy, and Negative Energy too.

Dark Energy and Dark Matter

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The term ‘dark’ is used to denote the unknown.

• Dark energy is an unknown form of energy that is hypothesized to permeate

(spread throughout) all of space, tending to accelerate the expansion of the
universe.
• Dark matter works like an attractive force — a kind of cosmic cement that
holds our universe together. This is because dark matter does interact with
gravity, but it doesn’t reflect, absorb or emit light.

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 • Meanwhile, dark energy is a repulsive force — a sort of anti-gravity —
that drives the universe’s ever–accelerating expansion.
• Dark energy is the far more dominant force of the two, accounting for
roughly 68 percent of the universe’s total mass and energy.
• Dark matter makes up 27 percent.
• And the rest – a measly 5 percent is all the regular matter we see and interact
with every day.
• The velocity of rotation for spiral galaxies depends on the amount of mass
contained in them, But the outer arms of the Milky Way are rotating much too fast
to be consistent with the amount of matter that we know exists in them.
• Such fast rotation is possible only when there is more mass, and that extra mass
is believed to come from dark matter.
• Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter. The majority of dark matter is
thought to be composed of some as-yet-undiscovered subatomic particles.
• The name dark matter refers to the fact that it does not appear to interact with
observable electromagnetic radiation, such as light.
• It is thus invisible (or ‘dark’) to the entire electromagnetic spectrum, making
it extremely difficult to detect.
• Dark matter interacts with the rest of the universe only through its gravity (that’s
how we know it exists).
• The material is considered to be a ‘matter’ since it has gravitational
attraction and it is ‘dark’ because it does not seem to interact with light (or
any part of the electromagnetic spectrum).

Are Black Holes Dark Matter?

Black holes could be considered as a dark matter for the reasons mentioned below:

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 1. Almost collision-less.
2. They are stable (if sufficiently massive)
3. They have non-relativistic velocities.
4. They formed very early in the history of the universe.
In March 2016, 3 groups of researchers proposed that Black Holes had a primordial
origin. Results from 2 groups are consistent with the scenario that almost all dark matter
is made of primordial black holes. 3rd group concluded that black holes contributed to
only less than 1% of total dark matter.

Anti-Matter and Anti Energy

• ‘Anti’ means the opposite. So anti-matter has some properties opposite
with respect to the usual matter.
• For example, the electron has as its antiparticle the antielectron. The
electron and the antielectron have exactly the same masses, but they
have exactly opposite electrical charges.
• It is hypothesized that every elementary particle in the Universe has a partner
particle, known as an ‘antiparticle’.
• The particle and its antiparticle share many similar characteristics, but many
other properties are the exact opposite.
• The electron, for example, has as its antiparticle the antielectron. They both have
the same masses, but they have exactly opposite electrical charges.
• Most of the human understanding of anti-matter comes from high-energy
accelerator experiments.
• When a matter particle meets its antimatter particle, they destroy each other
completely (i.e. annihilation), releasing the energy equivalent of their rest
masses (following Einstein’s E = mc2).
• For instance, when an electron meets an antielectron, the two annihilate and
produce a burst of light which produces a corresponding energy level equivalent
to the masses of the two particles.

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Negative Matter and Negative Energy
• Negative matter is a hypothetical type of matter which if it exists will
have negative mass and negative energy.
• It will in essence have a negative gravitational charge and repel normal
matter. Yet it will interact just like any other matter in every other way.
• Hope you remember that matter and anti-matter will attract each other resulting in
annihilation. But matter and the negative matter will repel each other under
gravity.

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Neutrinos
• Proton, neutron, and electron are tiny particles that make up atoms.
The neutrino is also a tiny elementary particle, but it is not part of the atom.
• A neutrino is a subatomic particle that is very similar to an electron but has no
electrical charge and a very small mass, which might even be zero.
• There are actually three kinds of neutrinos: the electron neutrino, the
muon neutrino, and the tau neutrino.
• Neutrinos are one of the most abundant particles in the universe. Because
they have very little interaction with matter, however, they are incredibly difficult
to detect.
• It interacts very weakly with other matter particles. So weakly that every
second trillion of neutrinos fall on us and pass through our bodies unnoticed.
• Neutrinos come from the sun (solar neutrinos) and other stars, cosmic
rays that come from beyond the solar system, and from the Big Bang from which
our Universe originated. They can also be produced in the lab.
• The INO(India-based Neutrino Observatory) will study atmospheric
neutrinos only. Solar neutrinos have much lower energy than the detector can
detect.

Future Applications of Neutrino Science

Basic sciences research is needed to understand the properties of particles before they
can be applied. 100 years ago, when the electron was discovered, it had no foreseeable
uses. Today, a world without electronics cannot be imagined.

• Properties of the sun: The visible light is emitted from the surface of the sun
and neutrinos, which travel close to the speed of light, are produced in the core of
the sun. Studying these neutrinos can help us understand what goes on in the
interior of the sun.
• Constituents of the Universe: Light coming from distant stars can be studied by
astronomers, for example, to detect new planets. Likewise, if the properties of
neutrinos are understood better, they can be used in astronomy to discover what
the universe is made up of.

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 • Probing early Universe: Neutrinos interact very little with the matter around
them, so they travel long distances uninterrupted. The extragalactic (originating
outside the Milky Way galaxy) neutrinos we observe may be coming from the
distant past. These undamaged messengers can give us a clue about the origin
of the universe and the early stages of the infant universe, soon after the Big
Bang.
• Medical Imaging: Apart from direct future uses of neutrinos, there are
technological applications of the detectors that will be used to study them. For
instance, X-ray machines, MRI scans, etc., all came out of research into particle
detectors. Hence the INO detectors may have applications in medical imaging.

Wormhole
• A wormhole is a speculative structure linking disparate points in spacetime,
and is based on a special solution of the Einstein field equations. A wormhole
can be visualized as a tunnel with two ends at separate points in
spacetime (i.e., different locations, different points in time, or both).
• Wormholes are consistent with the general theory of relativity, but whether
wormholes actually exist remains to be seen.
• Wormholes were first theorized in 1916.
• Just like black holes were predicted by Einstein’s theory of gravity long before
they were experimentally observed, the existence of wormholes, too, has
been predicted. Ludwig Flamm, in 1916, first discovered that they could
exist.
• He described a “white hole,” a theoretical time reversal of a black hole.
• In 1935, Einstein and physicist Nathan Rosen used the theory of general
relativity to elaborate on the idea, proposing the existence of “bridges”
through space-time.
• These bridges connect two different points in space-time, theoretically
creating a shortcut that could reduce travel time and distance.
• The shortcuts came to be called Einstein-Rosen bridges, or wormholes.
• However, the presence of wormholes has not yet been established through
observation or inference by astronomers.

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 Nanotechnology

• Nanotechnology or nanotech in short is the technology that involves the

manipulation of matter on atomic, molecular, and supramolecular
scales, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. One nanometer (nm) is one-
billionth or (10-9) of a meter.
• It is the manipulation and use of materials and devices so tiny that nothing can
be built any smaller.
• It involves a multidisciplinary approach involving fields such as applied physics,
materials science, chemistry, biology, surface science, robotics,
engineering, electrical engineering and biomedical engineering.
• Areas of physics such as nanoelectronics, nanomechanics, nanophotonics,
and nanoionics have evolved during the last few decades to provide a basic
scientific foundation of nanotechnology.
• Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology:
• In the “bottom-up” approach, materials and devices are built from
molecular components that assemble themselves chemically by principles
of molecular recognition.
• In the “top-down” approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger
entities without atomic-level control.

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 • The impetus for nanotechnology comes from a renewed interest in colloidal
science, coupled with a new generation of analytical tools such as the atomic
force microscope (AFM), and the scanning tunneling microscope (STM).

Generations
of Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology Origins
• The concept behind this principle originated in a talk entitled, “There’s Plenty of
Room at the Bottom” by physicist Richard Feynman in 1959. The term
nanotechnology was actually coined by Professor Norio Taniguchi. In 1981,
the scanning tunneling microscope was invented which made it possible to
“see” individual atoms. This and the invention of the atomic force
microscope (AFM) made it possible for nanotechnology to become reality.
Nanotechnology has come a long way since then and now affects many
industries. It is an interdisciplinary field converging many streams of engineering
and science.
• Note: Size distribution, specific surface feature, and quantum size effects are the
principal factors that cause the properties of nanomaterials to differ significantly
from other materials.
• The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study
materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale
dimensions.
• Interface and colloid science have given rise to many materials that may
be useful in nanotechnologies, such as carbon nanotubes and other
fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and nanorods.

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 • Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and
nanoelectronics.
• Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications
such as Nanomedicine.
• Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar
cells that combat the cost of traditional silicon solar cells.
• Development of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles
to be used in the next generation of products, such as display technology,
lighting, solar cells, and biological imaging.
• The recent application of nanomaterials includes a range
of biomedical applications, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, and
biosensors.

Applications of Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is a new and emerging field that has an impact on almost all sectors of
the economy. The research on nanotechnology has spread across many fields like
health, food, computing, textile, energy, transport, space, agriculture, etc.

Health sector:

• The application of nanotechnology in the health sector is wide-ranging.

• Nanomaterials can be used inside and outside the body.

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• Thus, the integration of nanomaterials with biology has led to the development
of diagnostic devices, analytical tools, drug delivery vehicles, and physical
therapy applications.
• This technology has led to the possibility of delivering drugs to precise cells,
ensuring greater efficiency and lesser side effects.
• Nanomaterials have also given the scope for repairing damaged tissues since the
cells can be artificially produced using this technology.
• This technology has currently become an important diagnostic tool since it can
sense and label specific molecules, structures, or microorganisms.
• Below are some examples of recent advances in this area:
• Cancer detection and treatment: Gold nanoparticles as probes for the
detection of targeted sequences of nucleic acids, and they are also being
clinically investigated as potential treatments for cancer and other
diseases.
• Drug Delivery: Nanotechnology researchers are working on a number of
different therapeutics where a nanoparticle can encapsulate or otherwise
help to deliver medication directly to cancer cells and minimize the risk
of damage to healthy tissue. This has the potential to change the way
doctors treat cancer and dramatically reduce the toxic effects of
chemotherapy.
• Imaging and diagnostic tools: Tools enabled by nanotechnology are
paving the way for earlier diagnosis, more individualized treatment
options, and better therapeutic success rates.
• Diagnosis and treatment: Nanotechnology is being studied for both the
diagnosis and treatment of atherosclerosis, or the buildup of plaque in
arteries. In one technique, researchers created a nanoparticle that mimics
the body’s “good” cholesterol, known as HDL (high-density lipoprotein),
which helps to shrink plaque.
• Genetics: The design and engineering of advanced solid-state nanopore
materials could allow for the development of novel gene sequencing
technologies that enable single-molecule detection at low cost and high
speed with minimal sample preparation and instrumentation.
• Regenerative medicine: Research in the use of nanotechnology for
regenerative medicine spans several application areas, including bone
and neural tissue engineering. Novel materials can be engineered to
mimic the crystal mineral structure of human bone or used as a restorative
resin for dental applications. Researchers are looking for ways to grow
complex tissues with the goal of one-day growing human organs for
transplant. Researchers are also studying ways to use graphene
nanoribbons to help repair spinal cord injuries; preliminary research
shows that neurons grow well on the conductive graphene surface.
• Vaccine development: Nanomedicine researchers are looking at ways
that nanotechnology can improve vaccines, including vaccine delivery
without the use of needles. Researchers also are working to create a

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 universal vaccine scaffold for the annual flu vaccine that would cover more
strains and require fewer resources to develop each year.
• Smart pills: The term ‘smart pills’ refers to nano-level electronic devices
that are shaped and designed like pharmaceutical pills but perform more
advanced functions such as sensing, imaging, and drug delivery.
Nanotechnology has previously helped in developing various kinds of
smart pills, such as the PillCam, a capsule with a miniature video camera,
and dose-tracking pills.
• Nanobots: Nanobots are micro-scale robots, which essentially serve as
miniature surgeons. They can be inserted into the body to repair and
replace intracellular structures. They can also replicate themselves to
correct a deficiency in genetics or even eradicate diseases by replacing
DNA molecules. This property is still under development.
• Nanofibres: Nanofibers are being used in wound dressings and surgical
textiles, as well as in implants, tissue engineering, and artificial organ
components. Scientists are working on developing ‘smart bandages’,
which when left on the site, will absorb itself into the tissue once the
wound heals. Embedded nanofibres in these smart bandages can contain
clotting agents, antibiotics, and even sensors to detect signs of infection.
• COVID–19: For image-based and clinical diagnostic of COVID-19,
nanomaterials are emerging as promising substrates because of their
unique optical, electronic, magnetic, and mechanical properties.
Nanomaterials that have been proposed for viral detection include metal,
silica, and polymeric nanoparticles, quantum dots, and carbon nanotubes.
Food Industry:

• Nanotechnology provides the potential for safe and better quality food and
improved texture and taste of the food.
• A contamination sensor, using a flash of light can reveal the presence of E-coli.
• Antimicrobial packaging made out of cinnamon or oregano oil or nanoparticles of
zinc, calcium, etc., can kill bacteria.
• The nano-enhanced barrier can keep oxygen-sensitive food fresh.
• Nano-encapsulating can improve the solubility of vitamins, antioxidants, healthy
omega, etc.
• Nano-fibres made of lobster shells or organic corn can allow for antimicrobial
packaging while being biodegradable.
• Nanobarcodes are used to tag individual products and trace outbreaks.
Electronic components:

• Computers are already working on a nanoscale.

• Nanotechnology has greatly improved the capacity of electronic components by:
• Reducing the size of the integrated circuits’ transistors

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 • Improving the display screens of the electronic devices
• Reducing power consumption, weight, and thickness of the electronic devices.
Energy-efficient:

• This technology can improve the efficiency of the existing solar panels. It can also
make the manufacturing process of solar panels cheaper and efficient.
• It can improve the efficiency of fuel production and consumption of petroleum
materials.
• It is already being made use of in many batteries that are less-flammable,
efficient, quicker-charging and are lightweight and higher power density.
• Broadly, it has the potential to improve the existing technologies to be more
efficient with less consumption of energy.
Textile industry:

• Nanotechnology has already made revolutionary changes in the textile industry

and is estimated to make a market impact worth hundreds of billions of dollars.
• Nanoscience has now produced stain and wrinkle resistant cloths and may
further improve upon the existing innovations.
Environment:

• The nanotechnology has numerous eco-friendly applications.

• It has the potential to address the current problem of pollution.
• It can provide for affordable, clean drinking water through swift detection of
impurities and purification of water.
• The nanotechnology can be used to remove industrial water pollutants in the
groundwater through chemical reactions at a cheaper rate than the current
methods that need pumping of the groundwater for treatment.
• Nanotechnology sensors and solutions also have the potential to detect, identify,
filter and neutralise harmful chemical or biological agents in the air and soil.
Transport:

• Nanotechnology contributes to manufacturing lighter, smarter, efficient and

greener automobiles, aircraft and ships.
• It also allows various means to improve transportation infrastructures like
providing resilience and longevity of the highway and other infrastructure
components.
• The nanoscale sensors and devices can also provide for cheap and effective
structural monitoring of the condition and performance of the bridges, rails,
tunnels, etc. They can also enhance transportation infrastructure that makes the
drivers avoid collisions and congestions, maintain lane position, etc.
Space:

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 • Materials made of carbon nanotubes can reduce the weight of the spaceships
while retaining or increasing the structural strength.
• They can also be used to make cables that are needed for the space elevator.
Space elevators can significantly reduce the cost of sending materials to the
orbit.
• The nanosensors can be used to monitor the chemicals in the spacecraft to look
into the performance of the life support system.
Agriculture:

• The nanocapsule can enable effective penetration of herbicides, chemical

fertilizers, and genes into the targeted part of the plant. This ensures a slow and
constant release of the necessary substance to the plants with minimised
environmental pollution.
• The nanosensors and delivery systems can allow for precision farming through
the efficient use of natural resources like water, nutrients, chemicals etc.
• The nanosensors can also detect the plant viruses and soil nutrient levels.
• Nano-barcodes and nano-processing could also be used to monitor the quality of
agriculture produce.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM)

• Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a

very-high-resolution type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with
demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than
1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit.
• The information is gathered by “feeling” or “touching” the surface with a
mechanical probe. Piezoelectric elements that facilitate tiny but accurate and
precise movements on (electronic) command enable precise scanning.

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 • The AFM has three major abilities: force measurement, imaging, and
manipulation.
• In force measurement, AFMs can be used to measure the forces
between the probe and the sample as a function of their mutual
separation. This can be applied to perform force spectroscopy, to measure
the mechanical properties of the sample, such as the sample’s Young’s
modulus, a measure of stiffness.
• For imaging, the reaction of the probe to the forces that the sample
imposes on it can be used to form an image of the three-dimensional
shape (topography) of a sample surface at a high resolution. This is
achieved by raster scanning the position of the sample with respect to the
tip and recording the height of the probe that corresponds to a constant
probe-sample interaction (see section topographic imaging in AFM for
more details). The surface topography is commonly displayed as a
pseudocolor plot.
• In manipulation, the forces between tip and sample can also be used to
change the properties of the sample in a controlled way. Examples of this
include atomic manipulation, scanning probe lithography, and local
stimulation of cells.

Tissue Nano-transfection

• Tissue nanotransfection (TNT) is an electroporation-based technique

capable of gene and drug cargo delivery or transfection at the nanoscale.
Furthermore, TNT is a scaffold-less tissue engineering (TE) technique that
can be considered cell-only or tissue inducing depending on cellular or
tissue level applications. The transfection method makes use of
nanochannels to deliver cargo to tissues topically.
• The new technique, called tissue nano-transfection, is based on a tiny device
that sits on the surface of the skin of a living body.
• An intense, focused electric field is then applied across the device,
allowing it to deliver genes to the skin cells beneath it – turning them into
different types of cells.
• It offers an exciting development when it comes to repairing damaged
tissue, offering the possibility of turning a patient’s own tissue into a
“bioreactor” to produce cells to either repair nearby tissues, or for use
at another site.
• It avoids an intermediary step where cells are turned into what are known
as pluripotent stem cells, instead of turning skin cells directly into
functional cells of different types. It is a single-step process in the body.
• The new approach does not rely on applying an electric field across a
large area of the cell, or the use of viruses to deliver the genes.

Top-down and Bottom-up methods

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 • Top-down and bottom-up methods are two types of approaches used in
nanofabrication.
• The bottom-up approach is more advantageous than the top-down
approach because the former has a better chance of producing nanostructures
with fewer defects, more homogenous chemical composition, and better short-
and long-range ordering.
• A bottom-up synthesis method implies that the nanostructures are
synthesized onto the substrate by stacking atoms onto each other, which
gives rise to crystal planes, crystal planes further stack onto each other, resulting
in the synthesis of the nanostructures. A bottom-up approach can thus be viewed
as a synthesis approach where the building blocks are added onto the substrate
to form the nanostructures.
• A top-down synthesis method implies that the nanostructures are
synthesized by etching out crystals planes (removing crystal planes) which
are already present on the substrate. A top-down approach can thus be
viewed as an approach where the building blocks are removed from the substrate
to form the nanostructure.
• Molecular self-assembly is the process by which molecules adopt a
defined arrangement without guidance or management from an outside
source. There are two types of self-assembly. These are intramolecular
self-assembly and intermolecular self-assembly.
• Molecular Beam Epitaxy is an evaporation process performed in an
ultra-high vacuum for the deposition of compounds of extreme regularity of
layer thickness and composition from well-controlled deposition rates.
• The agglomeration of metallic nanoparticles can be performed using the
well-known inert gas condensation process.

Dip Pen Nanolithography (DPN)

• Dip pen nanolithography (DPN) is a scanning probe lithography technique
where an atomic force microscope (AFM) tip is used to create patterns
directly on a range of substances with a variety of inks. A common example
of this technique is exemplified by the use of alkane thiolates to imprint onto a
gold surface.
• This technique allows surface patterning on scales of under
100 nanometers. DPN is the nanotechnology analog of the dip pen (also called
the quill pen), where the tip of an atomic force microscope cantilever acts as
a “pen,” which is coated with a chemical compound or mixture acting as an “ink,”
and put in contact with a substrate, the “paper.”
• DPN enables direct deposition of nanoscale materials onto a substrate in a
flexible manner. Recent advances have demonstrated massively parallel
patterning using two-dimensional arrays of 55,000 tips.

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 • Applications of this technology currently range through chemistry, materials
science, and the life sciences, and include such work as ultra high density
biological nanoarrays, and additive photomask repair.

Nano Composite
• Nanocomposite is a multiphase solid material where one of the phases has
one, two or three dimensions of less than 100 nanometers or structures
having nano-scale repeat distances between the different phases that make
up the material.
• The idea behind Nanocomposite is to use building blocks with dimensions in
the nanometre range to design and create new materials with unprecedented
flexibility and improvement in their physical properties.
• In the broadest sense, this definition can include porous media, colloids, gels,
and copolymers, but is more usually taken to mean the solid combination of a
bulk matrix and nano-dimensional phase(s) differing in properties due to
dissimilarities in structure and chemistry. The mechanical, electrical, thermal,
optical, electrochemical, catalytic properties of the nanocomposite will differ
markedly from that of the component materials.
• Nanocomposites are found in nature, for example in the structure of the
abalone shell and bone.
• The use of nanoparticle-rich materials long predates the understanding of the
physical and chemical nature of these materials.
• In mechanical terms, nanocomposites differ from conventional composite
materials due to the exceptionally high surface to volume ratio of the reinforcing
phase and/or its exceptionally high aspect ratio. The reinforcing material can be
made up of particles (e.g. minerals), sheets (e.g. exfoliated clay stacks), or fibers
(e.g. carbon nanotubes or electrospun fibers). The area of the interface between
the matrix and reinforcement phase(s) is typically an order of magnitude greater
than for conventional composite materials. The matrix material properties are
significantly affected in the vicinity of the reinforcement.
• This large amount of reinforcement surface area means that a relatively small
amount of nanoscale reinforcement can have an observable effect on the
macro scale properties of the composite. For example, adding carbon
nanotubes improves the electrical and thermal conductivity.

Nano-Robots (Nanobots)
• Nanorobotics describes the technology of producing machines or robots at
the nanoscale.
• ‘Nanobot’ is an informal term to refer to engineered nano machines.
• Nanobots are robots that carry out a very specific function and are ~50–100 nm
wide.

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 • They can be used very effectively for drug delivery.
• Normally, drugs work through the entire body before they reach the
disease-affected area.
• Using nanotechnology, the drug can be targeted to a precise
location which would make the drug much more effective and reduce
the chances of possible side effects.

Quantum Dots (QDs)

• Quantum dots (QDs) are man-made nanoscale crystals that that can
transport electrons.
• Quantum dots are semiconductor particles a few nanometres in size, having
optical and electronic properties that differ from larger particles due to
quantum mechanics.
• When UV light hits these semiconducting nanoparticles, they can emit light of
various colors.
• These artificial semiconductor nanoparticles that have found applications in
composites, solar cells and fluorescent biological labels.

Nanosensors
• Nanosensors are nanoscale devices that measure physical quantities and
convert these to signals that can be detected and analyzed.
• Nanosensors are chemical or mechanical sensors that can be used to detect
the presence of chemical species and nanoparticles, or monitor physical
parameters such as temperature, on the nanoscale
• There are several ways proposed today to make nanosensors; these include top-
down lithography, bottom-up assembly, and molecular self-assembly.
• Some of the uses of nanosensors are:–
• in medical diagnostics and understanding neurophysiology;
• in pollution monitoring to detect various chemicals;–
• to monitor temperature, humidity, displacement, etc.;–
• to monitor plant signaling and metabolism to understand plant biology.

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Ecophagy (Grey Goo)
• Ecophagy is a term coined by Robert Freitas that means the literal
consumption of an ecosystem.
• Freitas used the term to describe a scenario involving molecular
nanotechnology gone awry. In this situation (called the grey goo
scenario) out-of-control self-replicating nanorobots consume entire
ecosystems, resulting in global ecophagy.
• However, the word “ecophagy” is now applied more generally in reference to any
event–nuclear war, the spread of monoculture, massive species extinctions–that
might fundamentally alter the planet.
• The original idea assumed machines were designed to have this capability, while
popularizations have assumed that machines might somehow gain this capability
by accident.
• Self-replicating machines of the macroscopic variety were originally described by
mathematician John von Neumann, and are sometimes referred to as von
Neumann machines or clanking replicators.

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Graphene
• Graphene has been touted in the global electronics industry as a “miracle
material” given its strength, electrical conductivity, and elasticity, and has been
seen as an alternative to lithium-ion batteries since its discovery in 2004.
• It is a form of carbon that can be used to develop smaller, slimmer batteries but
with higher capacity.
• Graphene is an allotrope (form) of carbon consisting of a single layer of carbon
atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice.
• It is nearly transparent.
• It is the basic structural element of many other allotropes of carbon, such
as graphite, charcoal, carbon nanotubes, and fullerenes.
• Its thin composition and high conductivity means it is used in applications
ranging from miniaturized electronics to biomedical devices.
• These properties also enable thinner wire connections; providing extensive
benefits for computers, solar panels, batteries, sensors, and other devices.
• The one-atom-thick sheets of carbon conduct electrons better than silicon
and have been made into fast, low-power transistors. Researchers have
measured the intrinsic strength of graphene, and they’ve confirmed it to be
the strongest material ever tested.
• Applications:
• Graphene is widely used in making solar cells, light-emitting diodes, touch
panels, and smart windows. Graphene supercapacitors serve as energy

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 storage devices with a capacity for faster charging and a longer life span
than traditional electrolytic batteries.
• Other potential applications of graphene include water filtration and
purification, renewable energy, sensors, personalized healthcare, and
medicine, to name a few.

Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are an allotrope (Not isotope) of carbon.

• They take the form of cylindrical carbon molecules and have novel properties that
make them potentially useful in a wide variety of applications in
nanotechnology, electronics, optics, and other fields of materials science.
• They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties and are
efficient conductors of heat.
• Inorganic nanotubes have also been synthesized.
• Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family, which also
includes buckyballs.
• Whereas buckyballs are spherical in shape, a nanotube is cylindrical, with
at least one end typically capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball
structure.
• Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the
order of a few nanometers (approximately 50,000 times smaller than the width
of a human hair), while they can be up to several millimeters in length.

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 • There are two main types of nanotubes: single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs)
and multiwalled nanotubes (MWNTs).

Fullerenes
Buckminsterfullerene C60, also known as the buckyball, is a representative member of
the carbon structures known as fullerenes. Members of the fullerene family are a
major subject of research falling under the nanotechnology umbrella.

Fullerenes are also called Buckyballs due to their shape.

• Buckyballs may be used to trap free radicals generated during an allergic

reaction and block the inflammation that results from an allergic reaction.
• The antioxidant properties of buckyballs may be able to fight the deterioration of
motor function due to multiple sclerosis.
• Combining buckyballs, nanotubes, and polymers to produce inexpensive solar
cells that can be formed by simply painting a surface.
• Buckyballs may be used to store hydrogen, possibly as a fuel tank for fuel cell-
powered cars.
• Buckyballs may be able to reduce the growth of bacteria in pipes and
membranes in water systems.
• Researchers are attempting to modify buckyballs to fit the section of the HIV
molecule that binds to proteins, possibly inhibiting the spread of the virus.
• Making bulletproof vests with inorganic (tungsten disulfide) buckyballs.

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Www.iasbio.com | Www.exammap.com | WhatsApp for Free NOTES +918987187161
 Awareness in the Fields of Robotics

• Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction,
operation, structural depositions, manufacture, and application of robots.
• A “robot” is any automatically operated machine that replaces human effort
though it may or may not resemble a human being in appearance or
perform a function in a human-like manner.
• A device can only be called a “robot” if it contains a movable mechanism,
influenced by sensing, planning, actuation, and control components.
• In practical terms, “robot” usually refers to a machine that can be
electronically programmed to carry out a variety of physical tasks or
actions.
• The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but
the latter is usually referred to as bots.
• The objective of the robotics field is to create intelligent machines that can assist
humans in a variety of ways.
What is “Bot” then?

• An Internet bot (or web robot or bot) is a software application that runs
automated tasks over the Internet. Typically, bots perform tasks that are both
simple and structurally repetitive, at a much higher rate than would be possible
for a human alone.
• On the Internet, the most ubiquitous bots are the programs, also called spiders
or crawlers, that access Web sites and gather their content for search engine
indexes.
• A chatterbot is a program that can simulate talk with a human being.
• A shopbot is a program that shops around the Web on your behalf and locates
the best price for a product you’re looking for.
• A knowbot is a program that automatically searches Internet sites and gathers
information from them according to user-specified criteria.

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History and Etymology of Robotics
• The word ‘Robotics’ was first used by Isaac Asimov in 1941. Robotics is based
on the word Robot coined by Josef Coper.
• The word robot comes from the Czech word “robota” which means forced labour
or work. The word Robotics was first used by Isaac Asimov in his science fiction
story “Liar” published in 1941. He introduced his concept of the three laws of
robotics. The three laws of robotics are:
• First Law: A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction,
allow a human being to come to harm.
• Second Law: A robot must obey the orders given by human beings
except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
• Third Law: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.
• In 1956, the first commercial robot was created by the Unimation company. The
first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate was invented for
performing repetitive tasks. Between 1967 to 1972, the development of the first
full scale humanoid intelligent robot took place. In 1974, the world’s first
microcomputer-controlled electric industrial robot, IRB6 came into existence.
• Today commercial and industrial robots are widely used for performing jobs more
accurately, cheaply and reliably than humans. Robots are employed in jobs that
are too dangerous, dirty or dull for humans. Robots are now widely used in
manufacturing, assembly, packaging, mining, space exploration, surgery,
laboratory research, mass production of consumer and industrial goods etc.

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Attributes of robotic technology
• It is a specialized machine tool with flexibility that distinguishes them from fixed-
purpose automation.
• Robot technology is basically a mechanical arm that is bolted to the Floor, a
machine, the ceiling, or, in some cases the wall Fitted with its mechanical hand,
and taught to do Repetitive tasks in a controlled, ordered environment.
• It has the ability to move mechanical arms to perform work.
• Robots interface with their work environment once a Mechanical hand has been
attached to the robot’s tool mounting Plate.

Basic Components of Robots

The structure of a robot is usually mostly mechanical and is called a kinematic chain (it’s
functionally similar to the skeleton of the human body).

The following are the basic components of Robots:

Controller:

• The controller is the “brain” of the industrial robotic arm and allows the parts of
the robot to operate together. It works as a computer and allows the robot to also
be connected to other systems.
• The robotic arm controller runs a set of instructions written in code called a
program.
Actuators:

• Actuators are like the “muscles” of a robot, the parts which convert stored energy
into movement. By far the most popular actuators are electric motors that spin a
wheel or gear, and linear actuators that control industrial robots in factories.
• But there are some recent advances in alternative types of actuators, powered by
electricity, chemicals, or compressed air.
Sensors:

• Sensors are what allow a robot to gather information about its environment. This
information can be used to guide the robot’s behaviour. Some sensors are
relatively familiar pieces of equipment.
• Cameras allow a robot to construct a visual representation of its environment.
This allows the robot to judge attributes of the environment that can only be
determined by vision, such as shape and color, as well as aid in determining
other important qualities, such as the size and distance of objects.
• Microphones allow robots to detect sounds. Some robots come equipped with
thermometers and barometers to sense temperature and pressure.

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 • Other types of sensors are more complex and give a robot more interesting
capabilities. Robots equipped with Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) sensors
use lasers to construct three-dimensional maps of their surroundings as they
navigate through the world.
Manipulator and End Effector:

• Robots need to manipulate objects; pick up, modify, destroy, or otherwise have
an effect. Thus the “hands” of a robot are often referred to as end effectors
(device at the end of a robotic arm), while the “arm” is referred to as a
manipulator.
• End-Effectors are the tools at the end of robotic arms that directly interact with
objects in the world. The effectors are the parts of the robot that actually do the
work.
Robot end effector:

• Industrial robot arms can vary in size and shape. The industrial robot arm is the
part that positions the end effector. With the robot arm, the shoulder, elbow, and
wrist move and twist to position the end effector in the exact right spot. Each of
these joints gives the robot another degree of freedom. A simple robot with three
degrees of freedom can move in three ways: up & down, left & right, and
forward & backwards.
• Most robot arms have replaceable effectors, each allowing them to perform some
small range of tasks. Some have a fixed manipulator which cannot be replaced.

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Types of robots
1. Industrial Robots
2. Mobile robots
3. Rolling robots
4. Walking robots
5. Stationary Robots
6. Autonomous Robots
7. Remote-control Robots
Industrial Robots:

• It is defined as an automatically controlled reprogrammable multipurpose

manipulator designed to move in three or more axis, which may be either fixed in
place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.
• They don’t get tired and they don’t make errors associated with fatigue and so
are ideally well suited to perform repetitive tasks.
• Some robots are programmed to faithfully carry out specific actions over and over
again (repetitive actions) without variation and with a high degree of accuracy.
• Other robots are much more flexible as to the orientation of the object on which
they are operating or even the task that has to be performed on the object itself,
which the robot may even need to identify.
• A collaborative robot or cobot is a robot that can safely and effectively interact
with human workers while performing simple industrial tasks.
Mobile Robots:

• Mobile robots have the capability to move around in their environment and are
not fixed to one physical location. Mobile robots can be “autonomous” (AMR –
autonomous mobile robot) which means they are capable of navigating an
uncontrolled environment without the need for physical or electro-mechanical
guidance devices.
• Alternatively, mobile robots can rely on guidance devices that allow them to travel
a pre-defined navigation route in relatively controlled space (AGV – autonomous
guided vehicle). By contrast, industrial robots are usually more-or-less stationary.
Humanoid robot:

• A humanoid robot is a robot with its body shape built to resemble that of the
human body. A humanoid design might be for functional purposes, such as
interacting with human tools and environments, for experimental purposes or for
other purposes.
• In general, humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs,
though some forms of humanoid robots may model only part of the body, for

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 example, from the waist up. Some humanoid robots may also have heads
designed to replicate human facial features such as eyes and mouths.
• Researchers need to understand the human body structure and behaviour
(biomechanics) to build and study humanoid robots. On the other side, the
attempt to the simulation of the human body leads to a better understanding of it.
• Besides the research, humanoid robots are being developed to perform human
tasks like personal assistance, where they should be able to assist the sick and
elderly, and dirty or dangerous jobs.
• Regular jobs like being a receptionist or a worker of an automotive manufacturing
line are also suitable for humanoids.
• In essence, since they can use tools and operate equipment and vehicles
designed for the human form, humanoids could theoretically perform any task a
human being can, so long as they have the proper software. However, the
complexity of doing so is deceptively great.
• Humanoid robots, especially with artificial intelligence algorithms, could be useful
for future dangerous and/or distant space exploration missions.
• Some Examples of Humanoid Robots:
• ASIMO (Honda’s humanoid robot)
• Acyut humanoid robot (BITS Pilani)
Military robots:

• Military robots are autonomous robots or remote-controlled devices designed for

military applications.It can be UAVs, Drones, mobile robots or even humanoid
soldiers. Robotics are the future of warfare.
• Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) plan to create super-
intelligent robots to fight alongside human troops. Defense Research and
Development Organization (DRDO) announced its intention to develop robotic
soldiers for military applications.
Indian Military Robots

• Daksh is a battery-operated remote-controlled robot on wheels and its primary

role is to recover bombs. Developed by Defence Research and Development
Organisation, it is fully automated. It has a shotgun, which can break open locked
doors, and it can scan cars for explosives.
• Nishant is an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) developed by India’s ADE
(Aeronautical Development Establishment), a branch of DRDO for the Indian
Armed Forces. The Nishant UAV is primarily tasked with intelligence gathering
over enemy territory and also for reconnaissance, training, surveillance, target
designation, artillery fire correction, damage assessment. It is for the Indian
Army. Nishant is launched using a catapult and lands using a parachute.
• Panchi is UAV Nishant’s new version with wheels. It can take off and land from
air-strips like a regular aircraft. It can do all functions of Nishant while staying in
the air for a longer period because Panchi’s weight is lighter than Nishant. Panchi

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 has a smaller cross-section, low chances of radar detection, compared to
Nishant.
• Rustom is an unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) being developed by
Defence Research and Development Organisation for the three services, Indian
Army, Indian Navy and the Indian Air Force of the Indian Armed Forces.
• AURA is an autonomous unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV), being developed
by the Defence Research and Development Organisation for the Indian Air Force
and Indian Navy. The UCAV will be capable of releasing missiles, bombs and
precision-guided munitions.
• Lakshya is an Indian remotely piloted high-speed target drone system developed
by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) of DRDO. It is used to
perform discreet aerial reconnaissance of battlefield and target acquisition. It is
used by the Indian Army, Indian Air Force and Indian Navy.
• Netra is an Indian, lightweight, autonomous UAV for surveillance and
reconnaissance operations. It has been jointly developed by the Defence
Research and Development Organisation’s Research and Development
Establishment (R&DE), and IdeaForge, a Mumbai-based private firm. Present
users are CRPF and BSF.
• Pawan is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) developed by India’s ADE
(Aeronautical Development Establishment), a branch of DRDO for the Indian
Armed Forces.
Nanorobotics (Nanobots):

• Nanorobotics is the emerging technology field creating machines or robots whose

components are at or close to the scale of a nanometre (10−9 meters).
Nanomachines are largely in the research and development phase, but some
primitive Nanobots.
• Researchers also hope to be able to create entire robots as small as viruses or
bacteria, which could perform tasks on a tiny scale. Possible applications include
micro surgery (on the level of individual cells), utility fog ( a hypothetical collection
of tiny robots that can replicate a physical structure), manufacturing, weaponry
and cleaning.
Bionics and Biomimetics Robots:

• Biomimetics or biomimicry is the imitation of the models, systems, and elements

of nature for the purpose of solving complex human problems. Biomimicry seeks
solutions to human challenges by emulating nature’s time-tested patterns and
strategies.
• Bionics is the science of constructing artificial systems that have some of the
characteristics of living systems. Bionics is distinct from bioengineering, which is
the use of living things to perform certain industrial tasks
• These are used to apply the way animals move to the design of robots.
BionicKangaroo was based on the movements and physiology of kangaroos.

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 • BionicKangaroo: Applying methods from bionics, and biomimetics, Festo’s
researchers and engineers studied the way kangaroos move, and applied that to
the design of a robot that moves in a similar way. The robot actually saves
energy from each jump and applies it to its next jump, much as a real kangaroo
does.
Tele-robots:

• They are semi-autonomous robots controlled from a distance, chiefly using a

Wireless network. It is a combination of two major subfields, teleoperation and
telepresence. Teleoperation indicates the operation of a machine at a distance.
Telepresence refers to a set of technologies that allow a person to feel as if they
were present, to give the appearance of being present.

Applications of Robots
• Automobile:
• Industrial Robots due to their speed accuracy, reliability & endurance are
readily used in the manufacturing of cars. Tasks such as welding, spray
painting welding, material handling & assembling can be performed better
by an industrial robot than a human.
• Electronics:
• Pick & place robots are used in the mass production of the printed circuits
boards (PCB’s). They help in removing tiny electronics components from
strips & trays & place them onto PCB’s with great accuracy.
• Such robots can place several components per second far outperforming
a human in terms of speed, accuracy & reliability.
• Packaging Industry:
• Extensively used for palletizing & packaging of manufactured goods. For
e.g.- taking drink cartoons from the end of the conveyer belt & placing
them rapidly into boxes.
• Means of Transport:
• Mobile Robots acts as automated guided vehicles with scanning lasers
that are used to transport goods around large facilities such as
warehouses, container ports or hospitals.
• Military Application:
• Tele robots like unmanned aerial networks can be used to perform
dangerous tasks in faraway or inaccessible places. These can be
controlled from anywhere in the world allowing an army to search
terrain & even fire or targets without endangering those using it. It helps
the military to defuse roadside bombs or improvised explosive devices.
• Health & Medicine:

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 • A doctor through Remote surgery or telesurgery can perform surgery on a
patient even though they are not physically present in the same location.
• Minimal invasive surgery avoids open invasive surgery in favour of closed
or local surgery with less trauma.
• Major advantages of robotic surgery include:
• Less Blood loss
• Smaller incision
• Less pain
• Hospitalization time is reduced.
• Reduces the incidence of post-surgical complications.
• Rapid recovery.
• Japan example:
• FRIEND is a semi-autonomous robot designed to support disabled
and elderly people in their daily life activities.
• Environment:
• Nanorobots can be used to clear oil spills & disassembled pollutants
especially non-biodegradable ones reducing their polluting impact.
• Robots can be used in nuclear plants for handling & disposal of nuclear
waste materials which saves the occupational workers in the nuclear
plants from potential exposure to hazardous radiation.
• Societal & Domestic Function:
• Humanoid Robots can perform tasks like personal assistance where they
will be able to assist sick & elderly people.
• Certain domestic robots can also free us from dirty & dull tasks by taking
up simple unwanted jobs at home like vacuum cleaning & lawn mowing.
• Space Exploration:
• Almost every unmanned space probe ever launched was a robot.
• Autonomous Robots are used in space exploration as they can perform
the desired tasks in an unstructured environment without continuous
human guidance.
• Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) an unmanned spacecraft can act as
Lander that makes contact with an extraterrestrial body & operates from a
stationary position or as a robot that can move over terrain area it is
landed.
• Robotics spacecraft can act as a space probe operating in the vaccum of
space withstanding exposure to radiation extremes of temperature.
• Disaster Management:

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 • Several snake robots have been successfully developed. Mimicking the
way real snakes move, these robots can navigate very confined spaces,
meaning they may one day be used to search for people trapped in
collapsed buildings. The Japanese ACM-R5 snake robot can even
navigate both on land and in water.
• Mining:
• Mining robots are designed to solve a number of problems currently facing
the mining industry, including skills shortages, improving productivity from
declining ore grades, and achieving environmental targets.
• Due to the hazardous nature of mining, in particular underground mining,
the prevalence of autonomous, semi-autonomous, and teleoperated
robots has greatly increased in recent times.
• Other uses:
• Underwater Sea Exploration
• Research work

Roboethics and Machine Ethics

• Roboethics is concerned with the behaviour of humans, how humans design,

construct, use and treat robots and other artificially intelligent beings, whereas
machine ethics is concerned with the behaviour of robots themselves, whether or
not they are considered artificial moral agents.
• As robots have become more advanced and sophisticated, experts and
academics have increasingly explored the questions of what ethics might govern
robot’s behaviour, and whether robots might be able to claim any kind of social,
cultural, ethical or legal rights.

Robotics would Render Humans Jobless?

Today with a broader range of robotics technologies at or near commercialization—
including stationary robots, nonhumanoid land robots and fully automated aerial drones,
in addition to machine learning algorithms and artificial intelligence—are attracting
significant business interest in adoption.

• Likely to render humans jobless:

• There is fear of massive job loss and millions unemployed as AI and
robots are implemented on a global scale keeping in mind productivity and
labour laws. Augmentation of existing jobs through technology may free
up workers from the majority of data processing and information search
tasks. Their adoption is likely to make many of today’s jobs redundant,
eliminating routine and intermediary tasks.
• The study of 46 countries and 800 occupations by the McKinsey Global
Institute found that up to one-fifth of the global workforce will be affected.

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 Up to 800 million global workers will lose their jobs by 2030 and be
replaced by robotic automation.
• Concerns with respect to India:
• Creating jobs is important for socio-economic reasons in India.
• The government’s strategy to address the jobs issue has been to absorb a
large labour force by promoting the manufacturing sector.
• However, with increasing automation and concerns of companies shifting
their manufacturing base (as economic consideration of cheap labour is
done away), the government’s strategy is at stake.
• No, they won’t:
• Like previous industrial revolutions (IR), IR 4.0 driven by AI and robotics,
may take up few but is likely to create new jobs.
• New technologies will give rise to new job roles, occupations and
industries, with wholly new types of jobs emerging to perform new work
tasks related to new technologies.
• A large workforce will be supported in high-value tasks such as reasoning
and decision-making. There will be a greater need for a workforce with
tech-based skill sets.
As technological breakthroughs rapidly shift the frontier between the work tasks
performed by humans and those performed by machines and algorithms, global labour
markets are likely to undergo major transformations. These transformations, if managed
wisely, could lead to a new age of good work, good jobs and improved quality of life for
all, but if managed poorly, pose the risk of widening skills gaps, greater inequality and
broader polarization.

Thus it is important for the government to address the impact of new technologies on
labour markets through

Upgraded education policies aimed at rapidly raising education and skills levels of
individuals of all ages, particularly with regard to both STEM (science, technology,
engineering and mathematics) and non-cognitive soft skills, enabling people to leverage
their uniquely human capabilities.

Relevant intervention points include school curricula, teacher training and a reinvention
of vocational training for the age of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, broadening its
appeal beyond traditional low and medium-skilled occupations.

India’s Progress in Robotics

• India is emerging as a hub for Industrial Robots & many Americans, Korean &
even Japanese are using them.

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 • In the last few years, robotics activities in India have moved well beyond the
traditional areas of industrial applications, atomic energy, etc. and entered newer
domains of education, rehabilitation, entertainment, and even into our homes.
• Indian robotics researchers have similarly grown from a handful to over a
hundred engaged in research labs, education, industry, atomic energy, etc.
• Timeline vision of robotics in India (Report of National Institute of Science
and Technology Policy (NISTEP), 2030):
• By 2013-2014 – Agricultural robots
• By 2013 – 2017 – Robots that care for Elderly
• By 2013-2020 – Nano Robots
• By 2015 – To have one-third of its fighting capacity provided by Robots
• By 2017 – Medical Robots performing low invasive surgery
• By 2017-2019 – Household Robots
• By 2035 – To have first completely autonomous Robot soldiers on the
battlefield

Robotics in India: Institutions and their work

Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR)

• Chaturobot: Vision sensors to pick objects (DRDO+CAIR.) Centre for Artificial

Intelligence and Robotics (CAIR) is the premier laboratory for R&D in different
areas in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as applicable to
Defence.
• smartNAV is a robot for navigating the moon surface in the next manned mission
(ISRO)
AIIMs, New Delhi :

• It has successfully performed robotic surgery where it removed the thymus gland
from the patient suffering from ‘Myasthenia Grans’ (it is a disease characterised
by progressive muscular weakness which can sometimes be life-threatening).
Centre for Robotics & Mechatronics, Kanpur (IIT):

• e-Yantra:
• e-Yantra is an initiative to incorporate Robotics into engineering education
with the objective of engaging students and teachers through exciting
hands-on application of math, computer science, and engineering
principles.
• It is an initiative by IIT Bombay that aims to create the next generation of
embedded systems engineers with a practical outlook to help provide
practical solutions to some of the real-world problems.

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Sponsored by MHRD under the National Mission on Education through the ICT
program:

• e-Yantra Robotics Competition (eYRC) is a unique annual competition for

undergraduate students in science and engineering colleges.
• Abstracts of real-world problems assigned as “themes” are implemented by
participating teams using the robotic kits. The winners of this competition are
offered a summer internship at IITB through e-Yantra Summer Internship
Program.

Robotics Society of India

• About:
• The Robotics Society of India is an academic society founded on July 10,
2011, aimed at promoting Indian robotics and automation activities. The
society hopes to serve as a bridge between researchers in institutes,
government research centers and industry.
• Objectives:
• Encourage interaction between robotics researchers in India
(academic/R&D Labs/industry).
• Hold joint workshops and conferences at the national level.
• Associate with other organizations involved in Robotics like IEEE, ASME
etc.
• Publish a newsletter, proceeding, Journals, etc.
Indian Underwater Robotics Society:

The Indian Underwater Robotics Society or IURS is India’s first and only non-profit
research organization NGO for the advancement of low-cost robotics and intelligent
systems research in developing countries.

All India Council for Robotics and Automation

• It is a not-for-profit organization established in 2014.

• It sets up standards in the robotics & automation and education industry, helping
organizations and professionals to solve difficult technical problems while
enhancing their leadership and personal career capabilities.
• It is engaged in various activities and has launched several programs to promote
and build an ecosystem for robotics and automation in India.

Challenges of Robotics in India

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 • The cost of adopting Robotic technology is very high due to the cost of procuring
imported hardware components as well as training personnel.
• As Robotics is a multidisciplinary field, acquiring and retaining quality talent is a
big issue.
• As Robotics is multidisciplinary in nature, barring students in the top schools in
India, the others lack the knowledge required in fou to five engineering disciplines
to become an expert in this field. Also, most of the students develop projects that
already exist in the public domain.
• The capital-intensive nature of Robotics adoption when compared to the low cost
of human labour clearly tips the scale in favour of the latter.
• There is a scarcity of good faculty to teach the subject: Barring a few regions
in India, Robotics as a subject is not taught well to engineering students.

Robotics in Manufacturing: China and India

• Since 2013, China has become the largest market for robots. This may seem like
a paradox: the economy with the largest workforce also having the largest robot
force. Why is an apparently labour-abundant economy ramping up its robot force
so aggressively? The obvious and correct explanation is that its cost
competitiveness in manufacturing based on low wages is rapidly deteriorating. All
this while, the relative cost of robots has been decreasing as prices decline with
volumes and productivity increases with technology.
• China’s big thrust in robotics, which includes the growth of domestic
manufacturers in a space previously dominated by Japan and the United States,
essentially aims to protect its competitiveness even as wages continue to rise
and the size of the labour force dwindles because of ageing.

India stand in this robot race

• India’s workforce is almost as large as China’s, but its share of manufacturing in

the gross domestic product (GDP) is significantly lower, which partly explains the
low robot penetration. But there are clearly other factors at work, too.
• An underlying presumption in India’s collective belief that it will inherit the mantle
of “factory to the world” from China is that its labour-cost advantages will
eventually motivate producers to relocate labour-intensive activities.
• At least three important issues need to be thought through.
• First, what is the skill-wage-productivity configuration that Indian workers
need to achieve in order to out-perform Chinese robots? But to exploit
these, skills will have to be ramped up for large numbers of workers very
quickly; further, any process that aspires to be globally competitive will
have to have significant capital and technology components.
• Second, it is reasonable to expect that growth in Indian manufacturing will
take place largely through the integration of Indian producers into global

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 supply chains. If the world is going robotic, Indian manufacturing cannot
remain aloof from the trend.
• Third, robot factories offer the Indian information technology (IT) sector a
new growth opportunity. Large IT companies typically have business units
that provide remote operations-management services – effectively running
processes in other countries from Bengaluru or elsewhere in India. Robots
will take such operations to an entirely different level.
So, the successful introduction of automation poses a challenge for countries such as
India and Indonesia seeking to lure such “labour-intensive” investment away from
China. “Prematurely deindustrialising” countries such as India will find it much harder to
create jobs; robots might help raise productivity, but this will likely prove a marginal
narrative in the bleak India story.

Conclusion

• Robots are soon going to be a part and parcel of human life. Literary experts and
theorists have predicted that robots can cause a negative impact on humanity by
“turning against us” and attacking us instead of catering to our needs, while many
often dub these as modern solutions to solve bigger problems.
• In reality, the advancement in the field of robotics has both a good side and a bad
side.
• Hence it is up to us humans to understand the safe limits of inventions and utilise
robotic services in specific and judicious ways. Otherwise, these automated
machines that are governed by a set of computer programmes that interact with
the environment and can carry out tasks, are quite a boon to the world.

Information and Communication Technology &

Computers

Information and Communication Technology & Computers are important areas

in science and technology syllabus for the UPSC exam. In this article, you can read
about IT, Computers, and web-based terminologies and concepts in news.

Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to store, retrieve, transmit,

and manipulate data, or information, often in the context of a business or other
enterprise. IT is considered to be a subset of information and communications
technology (ICT).

Information and communication technology or (ICT) is an extensional term for

information technology (IT) that stresses the role of unified communications and the
integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals),
computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-

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visual systems, which enable users to access, store, transmit and manipulate
information.

Development in Mobile Technology

• Mobile technology has evolved gradually but at a faster pace.

• It started with 1G technology and now has reached to 5G technologies in
use and still evolving.
• Its popularity over other electronic devices like laptops, notebooks, tablets, etc. is
that it’s a complete package and combination of all features in one device.
• Portability and internet connectivity simultaneously with voice
communication are cutting edge features.
Networks (Service providers) – Networks have evolved from analog to digital, low
bandwidth to high bandwidth, high network coverage, fewer noise disturbances,
etc. Few network technologies are 3G, 4G LTE, and WCDMA.

Applications –

• Applications have evolved from low-featured OS to high-end OS features like

Android, More User friendly and voice recognition features, gesture recognition,
etc. are the newest features.
• Apart from OS development, daily use applications like Online banking, mobile
banking, Railway reservation, etc. have now at their fingertips.
• Utility applications like Online FIR registration, online tracking of cases, etc. are
new entrants.

‘BASH’ BUG

• Bash is software that is used in the UNIX operating system.

• It is used as a command prompt for executing commands.
• Most of the MNCs and Govt. security systems use UNIX systems.
• It’s a bug that can cause serious security issues.
• The bug can bypass the security and give complete access to the attacker.
• A user can lose its control over his computer system.
• The data and information into the system would become vulnerable to theft
and misuse.

‘HEART BLEED’ BUG

• Heart bleed is a bug in Open SSL

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 • Open SSL is a protocol used for cryptography.
• This cryptography is used over the internet in communications like IM
chats, emails, and data transfers.
• The bug is actually an implementation failure, not a design issue.
• It exposes the secret keys, certificates, IMs, and other confidential
information that is into the system.
• It can be visualized as a hole in the pipe through with information that can be
bypassed to and fro.
• But the system cannot be overtaken by the attacker. He just can steal the
information.
• It exposes serious security issues to those organizations who use this software.
• It leads to the leak of private information.

QR CODES and its application

• Codes are shortcuts to identify something.

• Bar codes are very often used to identify any article’s properties.
• These Bar codes can store information into it but that to have some limitations.
• A dedicated device like an infrared reader is used to decode the bar codes.
• There is a need for next-generation Code that can meet the demand of time
• QR code means Quick Response Code
• It can be said to be a next-level bar code with enhanced features.
• QR Code is 2-dimensional codes, unlike bar code which is one dimensional.
• It can store more information than Bar codes.
• 30% error can be tolerated by QR code. Tampered QR codes can be easily
read. It provides a robust coding technology.
• QR codes can store diverse information like Web URLs, Pictures, Text
information, numbers, etc.
• There is no need for a dedicated device. Smartphone cameras other digital
cameras are enough to scan these codes.
• Simple and easily installable software is needed that translates the bar code into
information coded into it.
• It has wide applications from town planning to enterprise. It is being used in
business marketing.
• Monmouth in South Wales was converted into a ‘Wikipedia town’ by putting QR
Code Markers at every point. A tourist just needs to scan the code to get
information about the place.

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Semantic Web

• The web is an interconnection of multiple systems and networks.

• Networks follow different protocols for data exchange.
• Data formats and Web services follow different protocols.
• In its real sense, the Web is very diverse in its operability due to the presence of
unstructured components.
• There is a need to have common and intelligent semantics on the web so that the
exchange of information becomes easy, fast, and cost-efficient by removing
diversity barriers.
The semantic web is a standard developed by World Wide Web Consortium (W3S).
The goal of the Semantic Web is to make Internet data machine-readable.

• The standard is meant to define data on the web.

• It uses a common and universal language like XML to define the encountered
data
• It can also be said that it is an extension of Old W3 with the new W3 standard
(Semantic web).
• It seals the divide between data and information processing by introducing a rule
of logic that can automatically draw a conclusion and produce the desired result.
• More intelligence of data processing features is embedded into the
Semantic web.
• There are different companies which produce electronics goods with different
standards.
• The large volume of data can be exchanged without conversion overhead.
• Data now will become a global element and remain accessible to each and every
node with ease and convenience.
• A web search would become more accurate by removing ambiguity.
• E-business, e-commerce, e-governance, e-learning all will come on one
platform.
• It will speed up data sharing and information exchange.
Difference between Web 1.0, Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 –

WEB 1.0 WEB 2.0 WEB 3.0

Mostly Read-Only Wildly Read-Write Portable and Personal

Company Focus Community Focus Individual Focus

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 WEB 1.0 WEB 2.0 WEB 3.0

Home Pages Blogs / Wikis Live-streams / Waves

Owning Content Sharing Content Consolidating Content

Web Forms Web Applications Smart Applications

Directories Tagging User Behaviour

Page Views Cost Per Click User Engagement

Banner Advertising Interactive Advertising Behavioural Advertising

Britannica Online Wikipedia The Semantic Web

HTML/Portals XML / RSS RDF / RDFS / OWL

Web 4.0 (Mobile Web)

• Web 4.0 is still a work-in-progress, with no precise description of what it will

entail.
• The symbiotic web is another name for Web 4.0. Interaction between people
and robots in symbiosis is the symbiotic web’s dream.
• Web 4.0 will enable the creation of more sophisticated interfaces, such as mind-
controlled interfaces.
• Web 4.0 services will be autonomous, proactive, content-exploring, self-learning,
collaborative, and content-generating agents based on fully matured semantic
and reasoning technologies as well as AI.
• They will support an adaptive content presentation that will use
the Web database via an intelligent agent.
• Web 4.0 is not really a new version, but is an alternate version of what we
already have. Web needed to adapt to its mobile surroundings. Web 4.0
connects all devices in the real and virtual world in real-time.

Web 5.0 or Society 5.0 or (Emotional Web)

• It’s in an early nascent stage as being developed by Dorsey’s Bitcoin business

unit, The Block Head (TBH).

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 • Web 5.0 is aimed at “building an extra decentralized web that puts one in
control of one’s data and identity”.
• Web 5.0 is being built with an aim to return “ownership of data and identity” to
individuals.
• Web 5.0 is Web 2.0 plus Web 3.0 that will allow users to ‘own their identity on
the Internet and ‘control their data’.
• Both Web 3.0 and Web 5.0 envision an Internet without the threat of
censorship – from governments or big tech, and without fear of significant
outages.
• Significance: It’s about changing the “control of identity” of an individual and
talks about giving users control over their own data, it cites an example that it’s
totally up to the user whether to save his data anonymously encrypted on the
decentralized blockchain or to sell that data to vendors for monetizing and
advertising.

3-D Holography (Holographic Imaging)

• Holography refers to a technique that enables the creation of three-

dimensional images.
• For this, it uses a laser, diffraction, interference, light intensity recording,
etc.
• It allows the viewer to feel that the object on the screen is moving with
respect to the change in position of the viewer thus appearing 3-
dimensional.
• The Hungarian-British physicist Dennis Gabor was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1971 “for his invention and development of the holographic method”.
• Potential applications:
• Military mapping.
• Information storage.
• Medical.
• Fraud and security: Eg- small silver rectangle of a dove on your credit
card.
• Art.

WI-FI Backscatter Technology

• It is an emerging technology that uses radio frequency signals as the power

source and reuses the existing Wi-Fi infrastructure to provide internet
connectivity.

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 • Its successful advancement would set a platform for the Internet of Things and
then connecting billions of devices to the internet would not be a challenge, as
the present connection requires excessive battery backup.
• It differs from other wireless communications since the communication is a half
duplex in nature, i.e. both the sender and receiver cannot transmit
simultaneously. The main advantage of backscattering is that it’s low energy
requirements and low complexity of deployment.
• A basic backscatter communication system has two main components: tags, and
a reader. Tags are encoded with a unique ID and are affixed on moving objects
so that they can be identified or tracked. Readers are the intelligent part of the
system that are installed at tracking points to read information from tags when
they come into range.

DNA Supercomputer

• A Supercomputer that is specialized in genome sequencing.

• It helps in fast DNA sequencing
• It keeps a record of DNA information which will help researchers to analyze
how DNA variations manifest themselves in disease.
• It will ensure a high-speed, low-cost sequencing system.
• A number of biotech companies, research centers, and hospitals will be benefited
and can show clinical breakthroughs.
• Many diseases, like cancer that need extensive analysis of genome
sequencing, can be researched more vigorously.

Supercomputer

• A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared

to a general-purpose computer. The performance of a supercomputer is
measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) instead of million
instructions per second (MIPS).
• The fastest supercomputer on the TOP500 supercomputer list is the
Summit, in the United States, with a LINPACK benchmark score of 122.3
PFLOPS, exceeding the previous record-holder, Sunway TaihuLight, by
around 29 PFLOPS.
• Supercomputers are primarily designed to be used in enterprises and
organizations that require massive computing power.
• For example: weather forecasting, scientific research, intelligence
gathering and analysis, data mining etc.
• Globally, China has the maximum number of supercomputers and maintains
the top position in the world, followed by the US, Japan, France, Germany,
Netherlands, Ireland and the United Kingdom.

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 • India’s first supercomputer was PARAM 8000.
• PARAM Shivay, the first supercomputer assembled indigenously, was
installed in IIT (BHU), followed by PARAM Shakti, PARAM Brahma, PARAM
Yukti, PARAM Sanganak at IIT-Kharagpur, IISER, Pune, JNCASR, Bengaluru
and IIT Kanpur respectively.
• In 2020, PARAM Siddhi, the High-Performance Computing-Artificial Intelligence
(HPC-AI) supercomputer, achieved global ranking of 62nd in Top 500 most
powerful supercomputer systems in the world.

CRYPTOGRAPHY

• Internet communication could be secure or insecure depending upon the

technique used for transmitting digital information over the network.
• With the advancement of Information Technology, most of the information be it
private information or public information is being transmitted with high speed and
frequency. But is it secure? There have been frequent cases of data theft and
information leaks.
• Cryptography is an encoding technique of communication where the actual
message is encrypted into an unreadable format using various algorithms.
This text is called ciphertext.
• It’s then sent over the network. Even if someone sniffs and intercepts the
message, he won’t be able to interpret the exact meaning of the text.
• The receiver receives the message and decrypts the information into plain
text.
• There is two broad technique of implementing cryptography: Symmetric key
technique and Public key technique.
• Cryptography implements the various aspects of information security like data
confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation.
Application –

• It’s now used in our day to day actions like Internet banking, ATM
transaction, Online Shopping.
• Our email communication is encrypted.
• Personal Chats and messaging systems like WhatsApp, Facebook
messaging are also encrypted.

WEBCAST

• Webcast is a presentation technique where audio and video files are

transmitted over the internet.

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 • Webcast is synonymous with broadcast, but webcast is basically on internet
communication in digital formant unlike analogue communication in the
broadcast.
• In webcast streaming, there is a source and there are many listeners and
viewers.
• With the of growth IT, webcast has now becoming popular as it can render
remote services like e-learning, webinars, conferences, media, etc.
• In the 2014 general elections, the Election commission used webcast technology
to monitor the proceedings of sensitive polling booths in far-flung and disturbed
areas.
• The unauthorized movement can be noticed through the steaming. It was
available to the general public on the ECI website.

ETHERNET

• A local-area network (LAN) architecture developed by Xerox Corporation

• Ethernet uses a bus or star topology and supports data transfer rates of 10
Mbps
• Ethernet is an important technology that performs ‘switching’ of data traffic
traversing through the networks.
• With the increasing demand of high-performance data centers, cloud
computing deployments and other heavy Internet services, there is an
unprecedented need for robustness and scalability in the services offered
by Ethernet technologies.

Digital Snooping

• Digital snooping is like spying on personal information or data. It is a

technique of monitoring private and public networks for passwords and
data. The interception of data is done at the network layer and can bypass
security protocols easily.
• The attacker use software programs to read the data passed over the network. It
searches for the password fields and intercepts them.
• If the password is encrypted, it uses various algorithms and brute force
techniques to decrypt them.
• Once the password is obtained, the attacker can obtain computer access to steel
and manipulate data stored into it.
• Recent news of snooping by the USA on various govt. organizations and
personalities have exposed the evil of snooping and called for a debate on
internet governance.

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 • India’s National Snooping program- Central Monitoring System-recently
launched.

AMOLED Display

• AMOLED (active-matrix organic light-emitting diode) is a display technology

for use in mobile devices and televisions.
• OLED describes a specific type of thin-film-display technology in which
organic compounds form the electroluminescent material, and an active matrix
refers to the technology behind the addressing of pixels.
• AMOLED technology is used in mobile phones, media players, and digital
cameras, and continues to make progress toward low-power, low-cost and large-
size (for example, 40-inch) applications.
• An AMOLED display is a hybrid technology that consists of an active matrix
of OLED pixels that generate light (luminescence) upon electrical activation that
have been deposited or integrated onto a thin-film-transistor (TFT) array, which
functions as a series of switches to control the current flowing to each individual
pixel.
• The greatest advantage of AMOLED display is fast pixel switching response
time that makes the display fit and efficient for animation.
• Typically, this continuous current flow is controlled by at least two TFTs at each
pixel (to trigger the luminescence), with one TFT to start and stop the charging of
a storage capacitor and the second to provide a voltage source at the level
needed to create a constant current to the pixel, thereby eliminating the need for
the very high currents required for passive-matrix OLED operation.

IPTV

• IPTV (Internet Protocol television) is a new generation TV that

communicates over Internet protocol in the form of packets rather than
signals in normal TVs.
• It has 3 components: IPTV where content is encoded and decoded; Delivery
Network over which information in the form of packets is transmitted; Setup
Box which is communication link between operator’s broadband modem and
customer’s TV. Also, packets delivered are reassembled here.
• IPTV enables two-way interactivity, in contrast to traditional one-way cable or
satellite broadcast network. The two-way IPTV network means viewers have
more options to personalize interact and control their viewing experience.
• Because IPTV is based on internet protocol, it is sensitive to packet loss and
delays if the IPTV connection is not fast enough.

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VIRTUAL Reality (VR)

• Virtual Reality (VR) is the use of computer technology to create a simulated

environment. Unlike traditional user interfaces, VR places the user inside an
experience. Instead of viewing a screen in front of them, users are immersed and
able to interact with 3D worlds.
• An artificial environment created with computer hardware and software and
presented to the user in such a way that it appears and feels like a real
environment.
• To create this effect, the user needs Hardware devices like goggles, gloves,
and earphones, etc inbuilt with sensors.
• It enables people to deal with information more easily. VR provides a different
way to see and experience information, one that is dynamic and immediate.
Applications:

• Health care: Virtual reality exposure therapy (3-dimensional computer

simulation) in combination with physiological monitoring and feedback to treat
panic and anxiety disorders.
• Education is another area that has adopted virtual reality for teaching and
learning situations. The advantage of this is that it enables large groups of
students to interact with each other as well as within a three-dimensional
environment.
• Tourism is another industry to the use of virtual reality i.e in museums and
historical places. These settings employ interaction as a means of
communicating information to the general public in new and exciting ways.
• Other sets of applications are Business, engineering, sports, Media,
military and scientific visualization.

Internet of things (IOT)

• Internet is a network of networks. Each network is connected to thousands

of devices.
• IoT is an internet concept where each and every device or object is
identified uniquely. Unique id assigned acts as the source of communication.
• These objects can be Smartphone, Laptops, house switching system,
temperature adjustment systems, and health care devices
• All these devices communicate with each other as and when required.
• These devices have built-in features like sensors, Wi-Fi connections, and
underlining internet connections and can communicate with each other even
without human intervention.
• This concept makes life and business easy as we can command and get a
response from anywhere.

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 • In production, different production lines at different locations can be commanded
and can communicate with each other from a far distance.
• In hospitality, the ambiance of hotels can be adjusted from distance
location as per the guest’s request. Example -temperature adjustment, light
adjustment, etc.
• Businesses can flourish by making different devices like smartphones and
dedicated devices interact with each other for fast decision making and delivery
of services.
• In India, CISCO is setting up an IoT hub in Bangalore. This will help in the
development of smart cities, smart street lighting, smart safety and security
system, smart traffic management in the city.

NET NEUTRALITY

• Internet is altogether a new and open world.

• It’s open to everyone from the individual to the business.
• It’s accessible to nearly everyone at an affordable price and speed.
• The strength of the internet is its openness.
• This free area is the ground for innovation and competition.
• Ideas and technology exchange with fast speed boosts investment.
• Knowledge sharing and Learning become global and inclusive.
• Net neutrality means that users get unrestricted access to Internet traffic
without any discrimination.
• In its real sense net neutrality is “Freedom of Speech and Expression without
partiality”.
• In the recent past, there have been violations of net Neutrality by certain
governments and companies.
• The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) enacted the Open Internet
Order in 2010 in order to prevent large telecommunications firms from
stifling competition and innovation online.
• The FCC in its Order stated that the net neutrality rules were intended to
“preserve the Internet as an open platform enabling consumer choice, freedom of
expression, end-user control, competition, and the freedom to innovate without
permission.”
• Few countries like chili have enacted laws to protect net neutrality law.
• In India, there is no net neutrality law and it is not regulated by the
government. India is yet to come up with a transparent and impartial law.
Internet Fast Lanes and Controversy

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 • Internet Fast lanes are the concept of providing fast and dedicated internet
speed to privileged customers.
• These customers are ready to pay more than general rates.
• Service providers intend to provide prioritized services to these customers.
• This concept encounters the law of net neutrality.
• Here it’s a violation of internet democracy as it doesn’t put every netizen on equal
footing.
• If it’s implemented, it will hamper the free exchange of ideas and knowledge
and hence innovation.

E-SWECHA OS

• E-Swecha is a free software development programme to cater to the needs

of engineering students.
• In realization of the free software movement in India, it will develop the
Operating System (OS).
• The participants of this project are students itself of different engineering
colleges, teaching staff, and a team of academicians.
• The development is based on the UNIX operating system. UNIX operating
system is an open-source platform where features can be modified,
customized, and added to enhance the functionality.
• The stakeholders would participate in its development work in groups and teams
to collaborate and implement the project.
• The development of free software will be opening up new doors of learning
and employment generation in India.

SPECIFIC ABSORPTION RATE (SAR)

• It’s a standard for safe exposure to radiofrequency.

• SAR measured as the amount of radiofrequency or electromagnetic
frequency absorbed per unit mass of tissue or human body. It’s measured in
units of Watt per kilogram.
• It has gained importance because of the high exposure of human beings to
Mobile radiofrequency.
• It is assumed that exposure of human tissue to high frequency can cause
mutation and gene transformation. Hence to meet the health standard FCC has
come up with a standard that is tolerable by the human body.
• FCC limit for public exposure from cellular telephones is a SAR level of 1.6
watts per kilogram (1.6 W/kg).

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 • India, Department of Telecommunication has come up with SAR regulation to
check electromagnetic radiation to address health concerns and regulate the
Mobile manufacturing industry.

PROJECT LOON

• The Internet has the power to transform society and bring everyone on equal
footing.
• Project Loon is an internet project to provide internet access to all over the
globe, Started by Google.
• In this set up a network atmosphere of balloons will be created into our
space which will communicate with each other and also devices on the ground.
• The place would be the stratosphere and these balloons will float steadily and will
be a move by stratosphere wind.
• A special Antenna on the ground would be required to connect with these
balloons for data exchange.
The benefits on Google Loon would be:

• It would be easy to use, no need to set up wired networks, and other

complexity would be eliminated.
• High-speed internet all over the globe without a glitch.
• It will increase internet penetration and subscriber base.
• The biggest advantage would be its an extension to those areas where
internet expansion is either complex or not possible. Like forests, deserts,
mountains, hilly areas, etc.
• Also, the remote areas will get affordable internet communication which they are
deprived of now.
• Hence it will bridge the gap of intent distribution and provide equal accessibility
to all.

NEAR FIELD Communication (NFC)

• It’s a new standard of wireless communication.

• It enables users to transmit radio frequency waves over a very short
distance just about few centimeters.
• Since it’s a very short-range communication, power consumption is very
negligible or no power consumption.
• It can transfer the low amount of data between devices enabled with NFC
• No need of pairing the devices, it’s ready to use at just a click or swipe.

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 • Its application is based on short and less voluminous data transfer like
contactless payment terminals, paying for vending machines, paying bus
pass fees, purchasing bus tickets as well concert tickets.
• Its application is varied but it needs to be secure. Security concerns like
Eavesdropping can hamper the communication and leak of private information.

Digital Addressable System (DAS)

• A Digital addressable system is a group of hardware devices and related

software systems for digitization and broadcasting of cable television.
• It is an integrated system through which signals of a cable television network
can be sent in encrypted form, which can be decoded by the device or devices
at the subscriber’s end.
• It can be achieved through the Conditional Access System at the subscriber end
within the limits of authorization made, through the Conditional Access System,
and the subscriber management system by cable operators.
• It will provide good quality signal and least distortion in broadcasting and will
revolutionize media, entertainment, education, and health even in rural areas.

Google Glass

• Google Glass developed by Google Inc. is a physical device resembling

spectacles mounted with a touchpad, camera, and display. It too has a
built-in memory, sensors, and connectivity features like wi-fi and Bluetooth.
• Google Glass offers many functionalities including mapping, recording photos
and videos with the ability to stream live video of what you are looking at,
internet searching, and language translation performed through natural language
voice commands
• It has a wide range of applications like Healthcare, Mass media, and
Journalism.

TELEMEDICINE

• The Interaction between patient and doctor without physically facing each
other through a medium of communication.
• The medium of communication is usually IT and telecommunication
networks.
• Health care facilities like consultation, diagnosis, status report, report analysis,
etc can be provided through it.
Why important?

• Remote area connectivity for medical facilities.

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 • The urgency of consultation like eye treatment etc
• Treatment and consultation of contagious disease like Ebola etc
• In India, Panchayat’s Primary Health Centers (PHCs) can be connected
through telemedicine facilities.
• Cost-benefit for patients
• Speedy diagnosis and treatment facility.
• Can provide health care to neglected sections of society like the elderly, children,
and women.
Issue

• There is a need for security and privacy. Private information need not be
made public.
• Electronic versions of sensitive documents such as X-rays or doctors’
notes must be as secure as paper ones.

Ambient Intelligence

• Ambient intelligence (AmI) is a setup of electronic devices that observes

records, analyzes, and responds to the human environment.
• They have the ability to model user behaviour, activity prediction and
recognition, decision making, and control.
• The objective of AmI is to broaden the interaction between human beings and
digital information technology through the use of ubiquitous computing
devices.
• AmI comprises of three main components: ubiquitous computing,
ubiquitous communication, and user-adaptive interfaces.
• It has a wide range of applications like Smart homes that smartly interact with
residents; Health-related Applications where patients’ activity can be monitored,
analyzed and quick and automatic decisions can be taken; Public transportation
Systems where traffic can be managed efficiently.
• It poses security issues and Privacy challenges.

FERROELECTRIC LIQUID CRYSTAL (FLCD)

• FLCD is a new generation display device like LCD which contains Ferro dielectric
liquid crystal.
• When electricity is passed through it, the liquid becomes strongly magnetized and
emit energy.
Advantages–

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 • FLCD have a very fast switching time (faster than an LCD).
• It has very low dot pitch which results in a high resolution (better than LCD).
• Greater viewing angle.
• Better picture and thinner interface.
• Cheaper to run on electricity.

‘CODE FREE FOR INDIA’

• This initiative is started by the International Centre for Free and Open Source
Software (ICFOSS).
• The initiative invites the free software development community to develop
solutions to address local and global needs.
• Programmers would be invited to develop tools and desktop applications, internet
applications, mobile applications, and enhance the cloud and internet of things
technology.
• It will also encourage the use of local language computing tools and
contemporary free software technology while keeping in mind bandwidth and
device limitations.

GIS- GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

• GIS is a computerized data management system that captures images to

transform it into maps of useful information.
• The capture images are store, manage, retrieve, analyze, and utilized to display
spatial information.
• The biggest advantage of a GIS-based system of mapping is many types of
information are overlapped and represented on a single map.
• This helps in analyzing the map in the most efficient and accurate way.
• It is now heavily being used by government and private agencies for geographical
surveying.
• In recent years govt. has utilized the Web-GIS tool to estimate the rooftop solar
power potential for Indian cities.
• It is also being used by the Environment Ministry to fast-track decision-making
with respect to effective forest management, environment protection, and
biodiversity conservation.
• City planning is being done using web-based GIS.
• GIS can prove to be a next-generation tool for transforming society through better
surveying and planning.

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HAWK-EYE

• Hawk-Eye is a complex computer system used officially in numerous sports such

as cricket, tennis, Gaelic football, hurling, and association football, to visually
track the trajectory of the ball and display a record of its statistically most likely
path as a moving image.
• Hawk-Eye was developed in the United Kingdom by Dr. Paul Hawkins.
• The system was originally implemented in 2001 for television purposes in cricket.
• The system works via six (sometimes seven) high-performance cameras,
normally positioned on the underside of the stadium roof, which track the ball
from different angles.
• The video from the six cameras is then triangulated and combined to create a
three-dimensional representation of the trajectory of the ball.
• Hawk-Eye is not infallible and is accurate to within 5 millimeters (0.19 inch) but is
generally trusted as an impartial second opinion in sports.

Neurobridge technology

• Neurobridge technology uses a specialized sleeve on the forearm to

communicate with a chip implanted in the Patient`s brain.
• The chip processes a patient`s thoughts, then bypasses the spinal cord, sending
signals directly to the sleeve to produce movement. Within a tenth of a second,
the Patient’s thoughts are translated into action.

Spintronics

• Spintronics also known as spin electronics or fluxtronic, is an emerging

technology exploiting both the intrinsic spin of the electron and its
associated magnetic moment, in addition to its fundamental electronic charge,
in solid-state devices.
• Spintronics differs from the older magneto-electronics, in that the spins are not
only manipulated by magnetic fields, but also by electrical fields.
• Spintronic systems are most often realized in dilute magnetic semiconductors
(DMS) and Heusler alloys and are of particular interest in the field of quantum
computing and neuromorphic computing.

RoboEarth

• RoboEarth offers a Cloud Robotics infrastructure, which includes

everything needed to close the loop from the robot to the cloud and back to
the robot.

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 • RoboEarth is a World Wide Web for robots: An open-source database that allows
robots to share knowledge, and a cloud computing platform that gives robots
access to powerful robotic cloud services
• Its components are RoboEarth databases, and RoboEarth Cloud Engine
(Rapyuta).
• The RoboEarth Cloud Engine is an open-source Platform-as-a-Service
(Paas) framework designed specifically for robotics applications.
• It helps robots to offload heavy computation by providing secure customizable
computing environments in the cloud.
• RoboEarth DB is a database that allows you to participate in a community of
users who share data about environments, actions, and objects.

E-EYE

• E-Eye is a pilot project started by the government of India for e-surveillance

• E-surveillance is achieved by providing a set of cameras that are installed
in an area especially National parks which can monitor and record the
movement around it at 360 degrees.
• These cameras are fitted with night vision features. The system can raise alarms
as to when required.
• This system of surveillance is being expanded to keep track of tigers in wildlife
sanctuaries and to prevent poaching and animal-human conflict.
• In India, The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) has approved the
installation of these cameras in Corbet National Park.
• Purpose and Benefits:
• Tracking animal movement
• Checking human trespassing
• Control and avoidance of animal poaching.
• Habitat destruction, cutting of trees, and grazing can be tracked
• It will help in better planning and coordination of authorities.

Awareness in the field of IT and Computers

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Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

• VoIP is a technology that allowing you to make voice calls over a broadband
Internet connection instead of an analog (regular) phone line.
• VOIP is an IP-enabled voice calling technology over the internet.
Example: Skype, Yahoo messenger, MSN messenger.
• It requires broadband connectivity to make a call along with IP enables devices
like Computers, smartphones, etc.
• The voice is converted into digital packets and transmitted to the destination over
packet-switched network.
Some of the advantages of VOIP are:

• The cost of calling is cheaper than a normal phone.

• No need to carry a dedicated device for calling if you just have a computer with
you.
• Its uses existing LANs so need for dedicated wiring features and hence reduces
the complexity of calling.
• Call anywhere anytime; do not worry about Roaming Features and Cost.
• One payment, two services: voice calling and broadband data usage
Disadvantages of VOIP are:

• It is dependent on broadband network connectivity, no internet no calling.

• The quality of voice depends on broadband bandwidth and speed.
• Power shortage can hamper VOIP calling as it’s totally dependent on power-
enabled devices.
• No emergency calling features like normal and Smartphone.
• The highest disadvantage of VOIP is security. It’s really tough to trace the source
and identity if an imposter is at work.
• Threats like phishing, spoofing and sniffing, call tampering, etc. is very common.

3G vs 4G

• 3G was completely a new innovation that transformed mobile telephony.

• For the first time, it provided voice and data connectivity on a single
network.
• The true sense of smartphones came into existence by enabling data
connectivity.
• The development accelerated new ideas like e-learning, e-governance, etc.

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 • It was also an improvement in bandwidth and speed of communication.
• 4G is a new technology highly concentrated on bandwidth enhancement
and improved speed further. It will take 3G to next level.
• There are 2 existing technologies in 4G: 4G LTE and 4G WiMAX.
• In a nutshell, the difference between 3G and 4G is its difference in SPEED.

4G LTE vs 4G WiMAX

• LTE stands for Long Term Evolution. It’s a first-generation 4G technology

termed as “true 4G”.
• WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.
• They differ in their bandwidth; LTE has higher bandwidth than WiMAX.
• LTE is compatible with the existing network but for WiMAX, we need an
altogether new network.
• The cost of installation of LTE is more than WiMAX.
• Overall LTE is gaining popularity and hopes to exist 4G technology in coming
years.

WIMAX
It is a wireless industry coalition dedicated to the advancement of IEEE 802.16
standards for broadband wireless access (BWA) networks.

• WiMAX can provide at-home or mobile Internet access across whole cities
or countries.
• In many cases, this has resulted in competition in markets that typically only had
access through an existing incumbent DSL (or similar) operator.
• Additionally, given the relatively low costs associated with the deployment of a
WiMAX network (in comparison with 3G, HSDPA, xDSL, HFC, or FTTx), it is now

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 economically viable to provide last-mile broadband Internet access in remote
locations.
• WiMAX is competing with the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)’s Long-
Term Evolution (LTE) in the 4G market.
IEEE 802.16 is a series of wireless broadband standards written by the Institute of
Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

The IEEE Standards Board established a working group in 1999 to develop standards
for broadband for wireless metropolitan area networks.

The Workgroup is a unit of the IEEE 802 local area network and metropolitan area
network
standards committee.

4G vs 5G

• The next (5th) generation wireless network will address the evolution beyond
mobile internet to massive IoT (Internet of Things) for the horizon 2019/2020.
The main evolution compared with today’s 4G and 4.5G (LTE advanced) is that
beyond data speed improvements, new IoT and critical communication use cases
will require new types of improved performance. For example, “low latency” is
what provides real-time interactivity for services using the cloud: this is key to the
success of self-driving cars for example. Also, low power consumption is what will
allow connected objects to operate for months or years without the need for
human assistance.
• Unlike current IoT services that make performance trade-offs to get the best
from current wireless technologies (3G, 4G, WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, etc…),
5G networks will be designed to bring the level of performance needed for
massive IoT. It will enable a perceived fully ubiquitous connected world.

5G Technology

• 5G networks are the next generation of mobile internet connectivity, offering

faster speeds and more reliable connections on smartphones and other devices
than ever before. Combining cutting-edge network technology and the very latest
research, 5G should offer connections that are multitudes faster than current
connections, with average download speeds of around 1GBps expected to soon
be the norm.
• The next-generation telecom networks (5G) will hit the market by 2020.
Beyond just speed improvements, 5G is expected to unleash a massive
IoT ecosystem where networks can serve communication needs for
billions of connected devices, with the right trade-offs between speed,
latency, and cost.

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 • NGMN Alliance or Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance defines 5G
network requirements as:
• Data rates of several tens of Mb/s should be supported for tens of
thousands of users.
• 1 Gbit/s to be offered, simultaneously to tens of workers on the same
office floor.
• Several hundreds of thousands of simultaneous connections to be
supported for massive sensor deployments.
• Spectral efficiency should be significantly enhanced compared to 4G.
• Coverage should be improved.
• Signaling efficiency enhanced.
• Latency should be significantly reduced compared to LTE.
• Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance feels that 5G should be rolled
out by 2020 to meet business and consumer demands. In addition to simply
providing faster speeds, they predict that 5G networks will also need to meet the
needs of new use-cases such as the Internet of Things as well as broadcast-like
services and lifeline communications in times of disaster.
• 3GPP has set an early revision, Non-Standalone release of 5G called New Radio
(NR). It will be deployed in two ways, Mobile and Fixed Wireless. The
specification is subdivided into two frequency bands, FR1 (<6 GHz) and FR2
(mmWave) respectively.
Optical Fibre

• Optical fibre is the backbone of the digital infrastructure — the data is

transmitted by light pulses travelling through long strands of thin fibre.
• Metal wires are preferred for transmission in optical fibre communication
as signals travel with fewer damages.
• The optical fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection (TIR).
• Light rays can be used to transmit a huge amount of data (In case of long
straight wire without any bend).
• In case of a bend, the optical cables are designed such that they bend all
the light rays inwards (using TIR).

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LI FI Technology: LIGHT FIDELITY
As we all know that light reaches everywhere. Imagine if certain information is to be
passed using light as a medium. Not only will the communication get fast but also the
possibilities coming with it. Such a technique of using light as a medium is dubbed as
the Li-Fi.

What is Wi-Fi?

• Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity.

• It uses a 2.4 to 5 GHz radiofrequency to deliver wireless Internet access around
our homes, schools, offices, and in public places.
Main problem with the Wi-Fi

• Bandwidth is typically limited to 50-100 megabits per second (Mbps) today using
the IEEE802.11n standard.
• It works fine with many of the internet connections. But it is unable to deliver High
Definition Movies, music libraries, or video games.
• With the recent increase in the use of cloud computing (where you store your
information on a certain web server & not on your local disk), Wi-Fi is not going to
be useful in the future as it will not be able to cater to the need of the increasing
bandwidth & speed.
Other Problems with the Radio Spectrum

• Capacity (Costly & Expensive. Less bandwidth compared to other spectrums.

Insufficient spectrum for increasing data)
• Efficiency (millions of base stations consume a huge amount of energy)
• Availability (Available within the range of Base Stations. Limited Availability.
Unavailable in aircraft)
• Security (Less secure. It passes through walls)

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Components of Electromagnetic Spectrum–

Sr. No Electromagnetic Spectrum Description

1 Radio Waves Expensive, Limited Bandwidth, less secure

2 Infrared Only for Low power Applications

3 Visible Which is not used so far. Sage to Use. Larger Bandwidth.

4 Ultra-violet Dangerous for the human body.

5 X-rays Used for hospitals

6 Gamma Rays Is not used generally as it is very harmful.

What is Li-Fi?

• Li-Fi is the latest communication technology that can transmit data using the
spectrum of visible light.
• Other names for Li-Fi: Optical Wireless technologies / Visible Light
Communication (VLC) but mostly called Li-Fi (Light Fidelity)
• Speed possible to Achieve: 10 Gbit/S (Giga bit per second). It is around 250
times faster than “superfast” broadband.
• The name “Li-Fi” was first coined by Edinburgh University’s Prof. Harald Hass in
2001.
How Li-Fi Technology works?

• It works by sending data over the light.

• For this purpose, a LED (Light Emitting Diode) light bulb, anyone at all, can be
flicked on and off in order to be able to generate signals. A proper Light Receiver
is made for receiving the LED signals.
• The LED bulb will hold a microchip that will do the job of processing the data.
• The light intensity can be manipulated to send data by tiny changes in amplitude.
• Properties of LED: (Fundamental property of Li-Fi):
1. Intensity can be modulated into very high speeds and varying amplitudes.
2. LED can be switched on and off with a very high speed.
• The question that comes to mind is that why would someone sit below a flickering
light bulb? But this is not the thing. The technology is focusing on making sure

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 that the light bulb is flickered up to billions of times a second! At that rate, the
human eye simply cannot notice the light bulb being flicked on and off.
• The LIFI product consists of 4 primary sub-assemblies: Bulb, RF power amplifier
circuit (PA), Printed circuit board (PCB) & Enclosure
• The PCB controls the electrical inputs and outputs of the lamp and houses the
microcontroller used to manage different lamp functions.
• An RF (radio-frequency) signal is generated by the solid-state PA and is guided
into an electric field about the bulb. The high concentration of energy in the
electric field vaporizes the contents of the bulb to a plasma state at the bulb’s
center; this controlled plasma generates an intense source of light. All of these
sub-assemblies are contained in an aluminum enclosure.
1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission.
2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Infrared Rays in remote control of TV

• Single data stream

• 10,000 or 20,000 bits per second
• Not usable for video streaming
Why Li-Fi

• For increasing Communication speed

• For increasing Flexibility
• For increasing Usability
• Reduced cost
• Greater efficiency
• It uses LED instead of bulbs & hence is indirectly helping the environment.
Drawback of Li-Fi

• The data receiver would have to be in sight of the transmitter-bulb as visible light
does not penetrate solid materials. (Note: Some experts are considering it as an
advantage as the hackers won’t be able to hack the Li-Fi network without being in
sight.
• The presence of Light is required.
Difference between Wi-Fi & Li-Fi

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 Sr.
Key WiFi LiFi
No.

1 Definition WiFi stands for Wireless Fidelity. LiFi stands for Light Fidelity.

WiFi was invented by NCR LiFi was coined by Prof. Harald

2 Invented
corporation on 1991. Haas in 2011.

WiFi transmits data using radio LiFi transmits data using light
3 Operation
waves using WiFi router. signals using LED bulbs.

Device WLAN 802.11/b/g/n/ac/d standard

4 IrDA compliant devices.
Compliance compliant devices.

Data Transfer WiFi transfer speed ranges from 150 LiFi transfer speed is about 1
5
Speed Mbps to 2 Gbps. Gbps.

10,000 times radio frequency

6 Frequency 2.4Ghz, 4.9Ghz and 5Ghz.
spectrum.

WiFi coverage area is upto 32 LiFi coverage area is about 10

7 Coverage
meters. meters.

LED bulb, LED driver and photo

8 Components Routers, Modems and access points.
detector.

Used in internet browsing using Used in airlines, under sea

9 Applications
WiFi hotspot. explorations.

Li-Fi and Wi-Fi

• The appearance of the Li-Fi cannot wipe off the need for Wi-Fi.
• Li-Fi is complementary.
Advantages of use of Visible Light over Radio Waves

• Visible light is more plentiful than radio waves. (more bandwidth)

• Visible light can achieve far greater data density.
• Can be used underwater without radio interference because salt conducts
electricity
• Transmission can be blocked by walls so there is less risk for data leaking

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 • Can be safely used on planes because it does not interfere with radio equipment.
Uses of Li Fi

• It can be used in Hospitals where Radio Frequency signals are a threat to the
medical equipment present in the hospital.
• It can be used in Mobiles to transfer data speedily.
• In Radio Frequency Restricted Environments
• In vehicles and traffic lights, reducing accidents and traffic congestion
• Street lamps (as free access points)
• In Aircraft cabins.

Spectrum Auction
What is Spectrum?

• The word spectrum refers to a collection of various types of electromagnetic

radiations of different wavelengths.
• Spectrum or airwaves are the radio frequencies on which all communication
signals travel.
• In India, the radio frequencies are being used for different types of services like
space communication, mobile communication, broadcasting, radio navigation,
mobile satellite service, aeronautical satellite services, defense communication,
etc.
• Radiofrequency is a natural resource but unlike other resources, it will deplete
when used. But it will be wasted if not used efficiently.
• The spectrum allocated to Indian telecom operators is most crowded and
inadequate to accommodate the usage by 650 million mobile subscribers as on
date. This has affected the quality of customer service and resulted in poor voice
quality, call drop, and undelivered messages of mobile services in India.
What is mobile spectrum?

• Mobile or cellular spectrum is that part of the whole electromagnetic spectrum

which is used by the Indian government to offer mobile services. Hence the name
“Mobile Spectrum”.
• Generally, the following frequencies are used for this purpose – 800 Mhz (for
CDMA), 900 Mhz (for 2G) & 1800 Mhz (for 3G/4G).
• But technically any frequency band can be used for any purpose. Like 900 Mhz
frequency can be used to deliver 3g Services also.
Agencies allocating Spectrum

• For international purposes, the spectrum is allocated by the world body called the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU).

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 • For domestic purposes, it is done by Wireless Planning and Coordination (WPC)
Wing of the Ministry of Communications, created in 1952, is the National Radio
Regulatory Authority responsible for Frequency Spectrum Management, including
licensing and caters for the needs of all wireless users in the country. It issues
licenses to operate wireless stations.
What is Reserve Price?

• It is the minimum amount set by the government from which the auction starts i.e.
it is the starting amount or base price from which the auction starts.
Why auction of spectrum is done?

• Spectrum is a scarce resource. It needs to be managed efficiently.

• Also, the spectrum can’t be used by many people. It has to be allocated to some
persons who can manage the services under it. Hence it is auctioned.
• Government auctions it because the spectrum is a resource & the ownership
rights for it are vested in the Government of India. It is not private property. So,
government auctions it.
• Also, a lot of revenue is generated by selling the spectrum. That money can be
used for developmental programs in India.
Reasons for superiority of 900 Mhz and 1800 Mhz band

• According to the laws of Physics, for any wave, the higher the frequency of the
wave, the lesser will be the distance traveled by it. So naturally, frequencies
of 900 Mhz will cover more distance than the frequencies of 1800 Mhz & hence
mobile operators are more interested in the 900 Mhz frequency.
• More investment needed by the companies who buy the 1800 Mhz
frequency spectrum: the 1800 Mhz frequency has poor coverage than the 900
Mhz frequency. So, for matching the existing coverage mobile operators have to
install additional base stations (i.e. mobile towers) to give the same effect as the
frequencies under 900 Mhz.
• Also, hardware equipment required for carrying out the operation of 1800
Mhz frequency is costly. The main reason behind it is that the 900 Mhz
frequency band has been in use for mobile communications globally for over 20
years and as a result technology standards have been better developed
compared with the 1800 Mhz band, which has been in use only recently.

LTE (Long Term Evolution)

LTE (Long Term Evolution) is a wireless broadband technology designed to support
roaming Internet access via cell phones and handheld devices. Because LTE offers
significant improvements over older cellular communication standards, some refer to it
as a 4G (fourth generation) technology along with WiMAX.

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LTE, an acronym for Long Term Evolution, commonly marketed as 4G LTE, is a
standard for wireless communication of high-speed data for mobile phones and data
terminals.

Long Term Evolution or LTE is the first step towards true 4G technologies. To be a truly
4G technology, download speeds of 100 Mb/s and 1Gb/s should be available from
moving (i.e. in a car) or pedestrian points respectively. It was however widely decided
across the world that companies could market LTE as “4G LTE” due to some having
already taken that step and to avoid further consumer confusion with the terms 3.5G or
3.9G that were starting to surface.

LTE offers maximum download speeds of 299.6 Mb/s although there has been
controversy over the speeds some operators running LTE networks are providing,
sometimes being lower than the supposedly ‘inferior’ HSPA (plus) technology.
Commercially available speeds vary wildly and using the (at the time of writing) recently
launched UK LTE network, tests have shown anywhere in between 8-50 Mb/s in
available areas. LTE requires brand new network technology and masts/radios. This
also means that the devices that support LTE will also need to have a compatible
receiver.

What is Multiplexing? What are its types?

• Any information i.e. voice/date in this case can be sent to another party only by
the use of communication channel.
• In this case, the communication channel is the Radio Waves.
• But the spectrum under these radio waves is limited i.e. limited users can use
these communication channels. Hence communication channels have to be used
efficiently.
• For efficient use, the communication channel is allotted to the users in number of
ways which is called Multiplexing.
• Types of Multiplexing: a) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) b) Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA) c) Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• FDMA: In FDMA, the goal is to divide the frequency spectrum into slots and then
to separate the signals of different users by placing them in separate frequency
slots.
• TDMA: In TDMA, the goal is to divide time into slots and separate the signals of
different users by placing the signals in separate time slots.
• CDMA: In CDMA, signals are sent at the same time in the same frequency band.
Signals are either selected or rejected at the receiver by recognition of a user-
specific signature waveform, which is constructed from an assigned spreading
code.
Advantages of CDMA techniques:

• Efficient practical utilization of fixed frequency spectrum.

• Flexible allocation of resources.

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 • Many users of CDMA use the same frequency, TDD or FDD may be used
• Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because of large-signal bandwidth
• No absolute limit on the number of users, Easy addition of more users.
• Impossible for hackers to decipher the code sent
• Better signal quality
• No sense of handoff when changing cells
• The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz wide.
• CDMA networks use a scheme called soft handoff, which minimizes signal
breakup as a handset passes from one cell to another.
• CDMA is compatible with other cellular technologies; this allows for nationwide
roaming.
• The combination of digital and spread-spectrum modes supports several times as
many signals per unit bandwidth as analog modes.
Difference between GSM & CDMA

You may have heard that mobile phones are available in GSM or CDMA. Even when
you go to a mobile recharge shop, you are asked by the shopkeeper, “Do you want to
recharge for GSM or CDMA?” What exactly is he asking to you is the type of technology
being used by your mobile. A recharge voucher meant for GSM mobiles can’t work for
CDMA mobiles & vice versa.

Sr.
Parameter CDMA GSM
No.

Global System for Mobile

1 Stands for Code Division Multiple Access
Communication

SIM (Subscriber identity

2 Storage Type Internal Memory
module) Card

Global
3 Market 25% 75%
share

Dominant standard worldwide

4 Dominance Dominant standard in the US
except the US

There is one physical channel and a

5 Network Every cell has a corresponding
special code for every device in the
network tower, which serves
coverage network. Using this code, the

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 signal of the device is multiplexed, and the mobile phones in that
the same physical channel is used to cellular area.
send the signal.

International
6 Less Accessible Most Accessible
roaming

Frequency Multiple (850/900/1800/1900

7 Single (850 MHz)
band MHz)

Network SIM specific. User has option to

8 Handset specific
service select handset of his choice.

What is GPRS?

GPRS is a system used to transmit data at speeds of up to 60 Kbits per second and is a
battery-friendly way to send and receive emails and to browse the internet but in these
days of broadband connectivity, it will be seen as slow by some.

What is EDGE?

EDGE (Exchanged Data rates for GSM Evolution) is a recent development based on the
GPRS system and has been classified as a ‘3G’ standard due to the fact that it can run
at up to 473.6 Kbits per second. If a smartphone is EDGE compliant it can be used for
heavy mobile data transmission such as receiving large email attachments and browsing
complex web pages at great speed.

What is HSDPA?

HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access) is a technology-based on the 3G

network which can support speeds of up to 7.2 Mbits per second. In reality, you will most
likely get a top speed of around 3 Mbits but this is useful for mobile TV streaming and
other high-end data transmissions. To use HSDPA your phone must be able to support
the technology and of course, you will need to be located within range of a cell site that
has been upgraded to offer the service.

What is HSPA (Plus)?

• This is an evolution of the HSPA (HSDPA & HSUPA) standard and allows for
faster speeds. The maximum download speed allowed by the standard is 168
Mbit/s although in reality networks that support HSPA (plus) will offer 21 Mbit/s
downloads. This is because the existing 3G network architecture operators would
have deployed and made compatible was never designed to handle such
massive bandwidth.
• The operators need additional spectrum to improve the quality of services. The
Government should formulate a spectrum policy that will promote efficient use of
spectrum by developing market incentives and differential pricing of spectrum in

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 congested areas. An open and transparent auction format will ensure that the
government realizes the best price for spectrum as per the market forces and at
the same time the telecom operators minimize and efficiently use the spectrum.

OPTICAL FIBRE Technology

• Fibre-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place

to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an
electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information.
• Fibre is preferred over electrical cabling when high bandwidth, long-distance, or
immunity to electromagnetic interference is required.
• Optical fibre is made up of semiconducting materials and usually has a cylindrical
structure. In inner core, there is the material of higher refractive index than in the
outer core resulting in Total Internal Reflection (TIR).

Free-Space optical communication (FSO)

Free-space optical communication (FSO) is an optical communication technology that
uses light propagating in free space to wirelessly transmit data for telecommunications
or computer networking. “Free-space” means air, outer space, vacuum, or something
similar. This contrasts with using solids such as optical fiber cable.

It is a Line of Sight (LOS) technology. It consists of an optical transceiver at both ends to

provide full duplex (bidirectional) capability.

It is capable of sending up to 1.25 Gbps of data, voice, and video communications

simultaneously through the air.

Advantages: low initial investment, flexible network that delivers better speed than
broadband, security due to line of sight operation, etc.

Challenges: misalignment errors, geometric losses, background noise, weather

attenuation losses and atmospheric turbulence.

Radio-frequency identification (RFID)

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically
identify and track tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically-stored
information.

Passive tags collect energy from a nearby RFID reader’s interrogating radio waves.
Active tags have a local power source (such as a battery) and may operate hundreds of
meters from the RFID reader.

Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be
embedded in the tracked object. RFID is one method for Automatic Identification and
Data Capture (AIDC).

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RFID can be used in a variety of applications, such as:

• The electronic key for RFID based lock system

• Access management
• Tracking of goods
• Tracking of persons and animals
• Toll collection and contactless payment
• Machine-readable travel documents
• Smartdust (for massively distributed sensor networks)
• Airport baggage tracking logistics
• Timing sporting events
• Tracking and billing processes
RFID provides a way for organizations to identify and manage stock, tools, and
equipment (asset tracking), etc. without manual data entry.

RFID is used for item-level tagging in retail stores. In addition to inventory control, this
provides both protection against theft by customers (shoplifting) and employees
(“shrinkage”) by using electronic article surveillance (EAS), and a self-checkout process
for customers.

Yard management, shipping and freight, and distribution centers use RFID tracking. In
the railroad industry, RFID tags mounted on locomotives and rolling stock identify the
owner, identification number, and type of equipment and its characteristics. This can be
used with a database to identify the lading, origin, destination, etc. of the commodities
being carried.

BIG DATA
Big data is a term used to refer to the study and applications of data sets that are so
big and complex that traditional data-processing application software is
inadequate to deal with them. Big data challenges include capturing data, data
storage, data analysis, search, sharing, transfer, visualization, querying, updating,
information privacy, and data source.

There are a number of concepts associated with big data: originally there were three
concepts volume, variety, velocity. Other concepts later attributed to big data are
veracity (i.e., how much noise is in the data) and value.

Big data can be described by the following characteristics:

• Volume – The quantity of generated and stored data. The size of the data
determines the value and potential insight, and whether it can be considered big
data or not.

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 • Variety – The type and nature of the data. This helps people who analyze it to
effectively use the resulting insight. Big data draws from text, images, audio,
video; plus it completes missing pieces through data fusion.
• Velocity – In this context, the speed at which the data is generated and
processed to meet the demands and challenges that lie in the path of growth and
development. Big data is often available in real-time.
• Veracity – The data quality of captured data can vary greatly, affecting the
accurate analysis.
Applications–

Government –

Big data is being increasingly used by the government in policy formation. The use and
adoption of big data within governmental processes allow efficiencies in terms of cost,
productivity, and innovation, but does not come without its flaws.

International development –

Research on the effective usage of information and communication technologies for

development (also known as ICT4D) suggests that big data technology can make
important contributions but also present unique challenges to International development.
Advancements in big data analysis offer cost-effective opportunities to improve decision-
making in critical development areas such as health care, employment, economic
productivity, crime, security, and natural disaster and resource management.

Manufacturing–

A conceptual framework of predictive manufacturing begins with data acquisition where

different type of sensory data is available to acquire such as acoustics, vibration,
pressure, current, voltage, and controller data. The vast amount of sensory data in
addition to historical data construct big data in manufacturing. The generated big data
acts as the input into predictive tools and preventive strategies such as Prognostics and
Health Management (PHM).

Healthcare–

Big data analytics has helped healthcare improve by providing personalized medicine
and prescriptive analytics, clinical risk intervention and predictive analytics, waste and
care variability reduction, automated external and internal reporting of patient data,
standardized medical terms, and patient registries and fragmented point solutions.

Education–

A McKinsey Global Institute study found a shortage of 1.5 million highly trained data
professionals and managers and a number of universities including the University of
Tennessee and UC Berkeley, have created master’s programs to meet this demand.
Private boot camps have also developed programs to meet that demand, including free
programs like The Data Incubator or paid programs like General Assembly.

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Media–

• Targeting of consumers (for advertising by marketers)

• Data capture
• Data journalism: publishers and journalists use big data tools to provide unique
and innovative insights and infographics.
Insurance–

Health insurance providers are collecting data on social “determinants of health” such as
food and TV consumption, marital status, clothing size and purchasing habits, from
which they make predictions on health costs, in order to spot health issues in their
clients. It is controversial whether these predictions are currently being used for pricing.

Internet of Things (IoT)

Big data and the IoT work in conjunction. Data extracted from IoT devices provides a
mapping of device interconnectivity. Such mappings have been used by the media
industry, companies, and governments to more accurately target their audience and
increase media efficiency. IoT is also increasingly adopted as a means of gathering
sensory data, and this sensory data has been used in medical, manufacturing, and
transportation contexts.

End-to-end encryption (E2EE)

End-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a system of communication where only
communicating users can read the messages. In principle, it prevents potential
eavesdroppers – including telecom providers, Internet providers, and even the provider
of the communication service – from being able to access the cryptographic keys
needed to decrypt the conversation.

Point-to-point encryption (P2PE)

Point-to-point encryption (P2PE) is a standard established by the PCI Security
Standards Council. Payment solutions that offer similar encryption but do not meet the
P2Pe standard are referred to as end-to-end encryption (E2Ee) solutions. The objective
of P2Pe and E2Ee is to provide a payment security solution that instantaneously
converts confidential payment card (credit and debit card) data and information
into indecipherable code at the time the card is swiped to prevent hacking and
fraud. It is designed to maximize the security of payment card transactions in an
increasingly complex regulatory environment.

DEEP WEB
The deep web, invisible web, or hidden webs are parts of the World Wide Web
whose contents are not indexed by standard web search engines for any
reason. The opposite term to the deep web is the surface web, which is accessible

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to anyone using the Internet. Computer scientist Michael K. Bergman is credited with
coining the term deep web in 2001 as a search indexing term.

The content of the deep web is hidden behind HTTP forms and includes many very
common uses such as webmail, online banking, and services that users must pay
for, and which is protected by a paywall, such as a video on demand, some online
magazines, and newspapers, and many more.

Content of the deep web can be located and accessed by a direct URL or IP
address and may require a password or other security access past the public website
page.

DARK WEB
The dark web is the World Wide Web content that exists on darknets, overlay
networks that use the Internet but require specific software, configurations, or
authorization to access. The dark web forms a small part of the deep web, the part of
the Web not indexed by web search engines, although sometimes the term deep web
is mistakenly used to refer specifically to the dark web.

The darknets which constitute the dark web include small, friend-to-friend peer-to-
peer networks, as well as large, popular networks like Tor, Freenet, I2P, and Riffle
operated by public organizations and individuals. Users of the dark web refer to the
regular web as Clearnet due to its unencrypted nature.

The Tor dark web may be referred to as Onionland, a reference to the network’s top-
level domain suffix. onion and the traffic anonymization technique of onion routing.

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WANNACRY
The WannaCry ransomware attack was a May 2017 worldwide cyberattack by the
WannaCry ransomware cryptoworm, which targeted computers running the
Microsoft Windows operating system by encrypting data and demanding ransom
payments in the Bitcoin cryptocurrency.

It propagated through EternalBlue, an exploit in older Windows systems released by The

Shadow Brokers a few months prior to the attack.

While Microsoft had released patches previously to close the exploit, much of
WannaCry’s spread was from organizations that had not applied these or were using
older Windows systems that were past their end-of-life. WannaCry also took advantage
of installing backdoors onto infected systems.

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BOTNET
A botnet is a number of Internet-connected devices, each of which is running one
or more bots. Botnets can be used to perform distributed denial-of-service attack
(DDoS attack), steal data, send spam, and allows the attacker to access the device
and its connection. The owner can control the botnet using command and control
(C&C) software. The word “botnet” is a combination of the words “robot” and “network”.
The term is usually used with a negative or malicious connotation.

DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) Attack

A DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attack is an illegal large-scale cyber
campaign where a big number of devices are used to create traffic to a certain
server.

If the number of devices involved is big enough, the overwhelming traffic would
be more than what the targeted server is capable of handling.

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The malware first creates a network of bots — called a botnet — and then uses the
botnet to ping a single server at the same time.

In such a case, the server would get overburdened which would lead to crashes.
After a successful DDoS attack, the customers of the service that had its servers
targeted would not be able to use/access the said service due to the server crash
triggered by the DDoS attacks.

Reaper is a highly evolved malware capable of not only hacking devices like WiFi
routers and security cameras, but also able to hide its own presence in the bot —
a device taken over by malware.

Spectrum Pooling
Spectrum pooling is a spectrum management strategy in which multiple radio spectrum
users can coexist within a single allocation of radio spectrum space. One use of this
technique is for primary users of a spectrum allocation to be able to rent out use of
unused parts of their allocation to secondary users. Spectrum pooling schemes
generally require cognitive radio techniques to implement them.

Cognitive Radio
A cognitive radio (CR) is a radio that can be programmed and configured dynamically to
use the best wireless channels in its vicinity to avoid user interference and congestion.
Such a radio automatically detects available channels in wireless spectrum, then
accordingly changes its transmission or reception parameters to allow more concurrent
wireless communications in a given spectrum band at one location. This process is a
form of dynamic spectrum management.

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HTTPS
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) for secure communication over a computer network and is widely used
on the Internet.

The principal motivation for HTTPS is authentication of the accessed website and
protection of the privacy and integrity of the exchanged data while in transit. It protects
against man-in-the-middle attacks.

The bidirectional encryption of communications between a client and server protects

against eavesdropping and tampering of the communication. In practice, this provides a
reasonable assurance that one is communicating without interference by attackers with
the website that one intended to communicate with, as opposed to an impostor.

QUANTUM COMPUTER
Quantum computing is computing using quantum-mechanical phenomena, such
as superposition and entanglement. A quantum computer is a device that
performs quantum computing. Such a computer is different from binary digital
electronic computers based on transistors.

Whereas common digital computing requires that the data be encoded into binary digits
(bits), each of which is always in one of two definite states (0 or 1), quantum
computation uses quantum bits or qubits, which can be in superpositions of
states. The qubit is the basic unit of quantum computing and the subatomic
equivalent of the binary system comprising 0s and 1s that we use today.

It uses binary properties of particles, electron spin (up and down), photon
polarization (positive and negative), etc, but, much like Schrödinger’s cat, can
actually be in both states simultaneously, a phenomenon called superposition.

Physicists have observed that when one particle is observed, it seems to affect the state
of the completely different, opposite particle in a phenomenon called
entanglement. This is the basis of quantum computing and communication.

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QUANTUM SUPREMACY

• Quantum supremacy is the ability to use a quantum computer to perform a single

calculation that no conventional computer, even the biggest supercomputer, can
perform in a reasonable amount of time.
• Google researchers claim to have achieved a major milestone in computer
science known as “quantum supremacy.”.
• The Google research involved checking whether the output of an algorithm for
generating random numbers was truly random. The researchers were able to use
a quantum computer to perform this complex mathematical calculation in three
minutes and 20 seconds, according to the paper.
• It is claimed that it would have taken Summit 3—an IBM-built machine that is the
world’s most powerful commercially-available conventional computer—about
10,000 years to perform the same task.
Sycamore – Sycamore is Google’s state-of-the-art quantum computer that was used for
Quantum
Supremacy.

Quantum-Enabled Science & Technology (QuEST) Programme

India is starting work on building infrastructure and acquiring human resources in the
first phase of its push to develop quantum computers under the Department of Science
& Technology’s (DST’s) -Quantum-Enabled Science & Technology (QuEST) program.

Currently, QuEST is being funded by the DST, which has put in Rs 80 crore for Phase 1.
After three years, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), the
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), and the Department of Atomic Energy
(DAE) are expected to jointly fund Phase 2 with Rs 300 crore.

Blockchain
Blockchains are basically digital ledgers or decentralized database of financial
transactions that are immutable and instantly updated across the world.

By design, a blockchain is resistant to modification of the data. It is “an open, distributed

ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and
permanent way”. For use as a distributed ledger, a blockchain is typically managed by a
peer-to-peer network collectively adhering to a protocol for inter-node communication
and validating new blocks.

Once recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without the
alteration of all subsequent blocks, which requires consensus of the network majority.

Although blockchain records are not unalterable, blockchains may be considered secure
by design and exemplify a distributed computing system with high Byzantine fault
tolerance. Decentralized consensus has therefore been claimed with a blockchain.

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Blockchain was invented by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public
transaction ledger of the cryptocurrency bitcoin. The invention of the blockchain for
bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve the double-spending problem
without the need for a trusted authority or central server.

The bitcoin design has inspired other applications, and blockchains that are readable by
the public are widely used by cryptocurrencies. Private blockchains have been proposed
for business use. Some marketing of blockchains has been called “snake oil”.

BITCOIN
Bitcoin is a cryptocurrency, a form of electronic cash. It is a decentralized digital
currency without a central bank or single administrator that can be sent from user to user
on the peer-to-peer bitcoin network without the need for intermediaries.

Transactions are verified by network nodes through cryptography and recorded in a

public distributed ledger called a blockchain. Bitcoin was invented by an unknown
person or group of people using the name Satoshi Nakamoto and released as open-
source software in 2009. Bitcoins are created as a reward for a process known as
mining. They can be exchanged for other currencies, products, and services.

Bitcoin has been criticized for its use in illegal transactions, its high electricity
consumption, price volatility, thefts from exchanges, and the possibility that bitcoin is an
economic bubble. Bitcoin has also been used as an investment, although several
regulatory agencies have issued investor alerts about bitcoin.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
AI, is the “science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs”. AI enables intelligent machines that can execute functions, similar
to human abilities like speech, facial, object or gesture recognition, learning, problem-
solving, reasoning, perception and response.

AI enables machines to think intelligently, somewhat akin to the intelligence human

beings employ to learn, understand, think, decide, or solve a problem in their daily
personal or professional lives. Intelligence is intangible.

The present wave of enthusiasm in AI is backed by the industry, with Apple, Amazon,
Google, Facebook, IBM, Microsoft, and Baidu in the lead. Automotive industry is also
unleashing benefits of AI for self-driving cars, led by Tesla, Mercedez-Benz, Google, and
Uber.

Real-world examples from around us:

• AI-empowered cars are already under rigorous testing and they are quite likely to
ply on the roads soon.
• The social humanoid robot Sophia became a citizen of Saudi Arabia in 2017.

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 • Apple’s intelligent personal assistant, Siri, can receive instructions and interact
with human beings in natural language.
• Autonomous weapons can execute military missions on their own, identify and
engage targets without any human intervention.
• Facial detection has instated deep interest from law enforcement and security
agencies.
• China is known to be building a massive facial recognition system, connected
with its surveillance camera networks, to assist in detecting criminals and
fugitives.
• AI is also changing the ways militaries command, train, and deploy their forces.

Applications of AI
The gaming industry, where AI-empowered computers can think of a large number of
possible positions in games such as chess, poker, and go. These computers can test
the skills of the human beings who are playing against these AI-enabled computers, in
games or simulations which require the greater mathematical and strategic depth.

Computers with natural language processing capability can understand and

generate human language, including speech, imitating human capabilities of listening,
comprehending, thinking, and responding.

Law enforcement or internal security requirements for detecting and recognizing

individuals or criminals, with multitudes of data streaming from police databases or the
network of surveillance cameras.

Healthcare industry to design optimized treatment plans, assistance in repetitive jobs,

data management for medical records, or even assistance in clinical decision making
with better analysis of diagnostics and interpretation of clinical laboratory results.

Banking and financial services for fraud detection using advanced algorithms to
identify patterns in transactions and consumer behaviors that are risk-prone.

The automotive industry is already using AI algorithms to enhance fuel efficiency and
safety in vehicles to build features such as automatic braking, collision avoidance
systems, alerts for pedestrians and cyclists, and intelligent cruise controls.

DEEP LEARNING
It is an aspect of artificial intelligence (AI) that is concerned with emulating the learning
approach that human beings use to gain certain types of knowledge. At its simplest,
deep learning can be thought of as a way to automate predictive analytics.

While traditional machine learning algorithms are linear, deep learning algorithms are
stacked in a hierarchy of increasing complexity and abstraction. To understand deep
learning, imagine a toddler whose first word is the dog. The toddler learns what a dog is
(and is not) by pointing to objects and saying the word dog. The parent says, “Yes, that

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is a dog,” or, “No, that is not a dog.” As the toddler continues to point to objects, he
becomes more aware of the features that all dogs possess. What the toddler does,
without knowing it, is clarify a complex abstraction (the concept of dog) by building a
hierarchy in which each level of abstraction is created with knowledge that was gained
from the preceding layer of the hierarchy.

MACHINE LEARNING
Machine learning is an application of artificial intelligence (AI) that provides systems the
ability to automatically learn and improve from experience without being explicitly
programmed. Machine learning focuses on the development of computer programs that
can access data and use it to learn for themselves.

The process of learning begins with observations or data, such as examples, direct
experience, or instruction, in order to look for patterns in data and make better decisions
in the future based on the examples that we provide. The primary aim is to allow the
computers to learn automatically without human intervention or assistance and adjust
actions accordingly.

The key difference between AI and ML are:

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE MACHINE LEARNING

AI stands for Artificial intelligence, where intelligence is ML stands for Machine Learning which
defined acquisition of knowledge intelligence is defined is defined as the acquisition of
as an ability to acquire and apply knowledge. knowledge or skill

The aim is to increase the chance of success and not The aim is to increase accuracy, but it
accuracy. does not care about the success

It is a simple concept machine that

It works like a computer program that does smart work
takes data and learns from data.

The goal is to learn from data on a

The goal is to simulate natural intelligence to solve a certain task to maximize the
complex problem performance of the machine on this
task.

ML allows the system to learn new

AI is decision making.
things from data.

It leads to developing a system to mimic human to It involves creating self-learning

respond to behave in circumstances. algorithms.

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 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE MACHINE LEARNING

ML will go for the only solution for that

AI will go for finding the optimal solution.
whether it is optimal or not.

AI leads to intelligence or wisdom. ML leads to knowledge.

Project Brainwave
Microsoft has launched “Project Brainwave”, a deep learning acceleration platform for
real-time artificial intelligence (AI).

It uses the massive field-programmable gate array (FPGA) infrastructure.

The system architecture allows very high throughput, with the FPGA processing
requests as fast as the network can stream them.

Significance: Real-time AI is becoming increasingly important as cloud infrastructures

process live data streams, whether they be search queries, videos, sensor streams, or
interactions with users.

Humanoid Robot
A humanoid robot is a robot with its body shape built to resemble the human body. The
design may be for functional purposes, such as interacting with human tools and
environments, for experimental purposes, such as the study of al locomotion, or for other
purposes.

In general, humanoid robots have a torso, a head, two arms, and two legs, though some
forms of humanoid robots may model only part of the body, for example, from the waist
up. Some humanoid robots also have heads designed to replicate human facial features
such as eyes and mouths. Androids are humanoid robots built to aesthetically resemble
humans.

Features of Humanoid Robots –

• Self-maintenance
• Autonomous learning
• Avoiding harmful situations to people, the property, and itself
• Safe interacting with human beings and the environment
Humanoid Robot Sophia became the world’s first robot citizen as Saudi Arabia granted
citizenship to her in a bid to promote artificial intelligence.

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Sophia
Sophia is a social humanoid robot developed by Hong Kong-based company
Hanson Robotics. Sophia was activated on April 19, 2015. She is able to display
more than 50 facial expressions.

In November 2017, Sophia was named the United Nations Development Programme’s
first-ever Innovation Champion, and the first non-human to be given any United Nations
title.

Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)

Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) is a pioneer initiative of India to prevent
misappropriation of the country’s traditional medicinal knowledge at International
Patent Offices on which healthcare needs of more than 70% population and livelihood
of millions of people in India is dependent. Its genesis dates back to the Indian effort on
the revocation of the patent on wound healing properties of turmeric at the USPTO.

Besides, in 2005, the TKDL expert group estimated that about 2000 wrong patents
concerning Indian systems of medicine were being granted every year at the
international level, mainly due to the fact that India’s traditional medicinal knowledge
which exists in local languages such as Sanskrit, Hindi, Arabic, Urdu, Tamil, etc. is
neither accessible nor comprehensible for patent examiners at the international patent
offices.

Traditional Knowledge Digital Library has overcome the language and format barrier by
scientifically converting and structuring the available contents (till date 0.29 million
medicinal formulations) of the ancient texts on Indian Systems of Medicines i.e.
Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and Yoga, into five international languages, namely, English,
Japanese, French, German and Spanish, with the help of information technology tools
and an innovative classification system – Traditional Knowledge Resource
Classification (TKRC).

TKRC has structured and classified the Indian Traditional Medicine System in
approximately 25,000 subgroups for Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and Yoga. TKRC
has enabled the incorporation of about 200 subgroups under A61K 36/00 in International
Patent Classification instead of a few sub-groups earlier available on medicinal plants
under A61K 35/00 thus enhancing the quality of search and examination of prior-art with
respect to patent applications filed in the area of traditional knowledge.

TKDL has also been able to set international specifications and standards for setting up
to TK databases based on TKDL specifications. This was adopted in 2003 by the
Committee in the fifth session of the
Intergovernmental Committee (IGC) of WIPO on Intellectual Property and Genetic
Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Expression of folklore.

TKDL technology integrates diverse disciplines and languages such as Ayurveda,

Unani, Siddha, Yoga, Sanskrit, Arabic, Urdu, Persian, Tamil, English, Japanese,

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Spanish, French, German, modern science &
modern medicine.

Till date, TKDL is based on 359 books of Indian Systems of Medicine, which are
available at a cost of approx US$ 1000, in the open domain, and can be sourced by any
individual/organization at the national/international level. TKDL acts as a bridge between
these books (Prior-art) and International patent examiners. It is the TKDL technology
that has created a unique mechanism for a Sanskrit verse to be read in languages like
German, Japanese, English, Spanish and French by an examiner at any International
Patent Office on his computer screen.

At present, as per the approval of the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, access
of TKDL is available to nine International Patent Offices (European Patent Office, United
State Patent & Trademark Office, Japan Patent Office, United Kingdom Patent Office,
Canadian Intellectual Property Office, German Patent Office, Intellectual Property
Australia, Indian Patent Office, and Chile Patent Office), under TKDL Access (Non-
disclosure) Agreement. Negotiations are underway to conclude the Access Agreement
with the Intellectual Property Office of Russia and Malaysia.

As per the terms and conditions of the Access Agreement, examiners of the patent office
can utilize TKDL for search and examination purposes only and cannot reveal the
contents of TKDL to any third party unless it is necessary for the purpose of citation.
TKDL Access Agreement is unique in nature and has in-built safeguards on
Nondisclosure to protect India’s interest against any possible misuse.

In addition, pre-grant oppositions are being filed at various International Patent Offices,
along with prior-art evidence from TKDL. A significant impact has already been
realized. So far about 200 patent applications of the pharmaceutical companies of
the United States, Great Britain, Spain, Italy, China, etc. have either been set aside/
withdrawn/ amended, based on the Prior art evidences present in the
TKDL database without any cost and in few weeks/months of time, whereas
APEDA had to spend
about seven crores towards legal fee only for getting few claims of Basmati rice patent
revoked. A similar
outcome is expected in about 1200 more cases, where TKDL has filed pre-grant
opposition.

TKDL is proving to be an effective deterrent against bio-piracy and is being

recognized as a global leader in the area of traditional knowledge protection. In
2011, an International Conference was organized by the World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO) in collaboration with CSIR on ‘Utilization of Traditional Knowledge
Digital Library as a Model for Protection of Traditional Knowledge’, at New Delhi.
Pursuant to this, WIPO in collaboration with CSIR and DIPP (Ministry of Commerce and
Industry) organized an ‘International Study Visit To TKDL’ for 19 countries interested in
the replication of TKDL.

TKDL has made waves around the world, particularly in TK-rich countries by
demonstrating the advantages of proactive action and the power of strong deterrence.
The idea is not to restrict the use of traditional knowledge, but to ensure that wrong
patents are not granted due to lack of access to the prior art for Patent examiners.

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For entering into TKDL Access Agreement by a Patent Office, Head, CSIR Traditional
Knowledge Digital Library Unit may be contacted.

Digiceuticals
What if an app could replace a pill? That’s the big question behind an emerging
trend known as “digital therapeutics.” The idea: software that can improve a
person’s health as much as a drug can, but without the same cost and side-
effects.

Digital therapeutics, or “digiceuticals,” as some call them, have become a Holy Grail
in some quarters of Silicon Valley, where investors see the chance to deliver medicine
through your smartphone.

Some digiceuticals will work better alongside conventional drugs, rather than on
their own– opening up possibilities for alliances between tech and pharma firms.
Voluntis, a startup, develops companion software for specific medications or medical
devices. These programs can monitor side-effects, help manage symptoms and connect
patients with doctors and nurses.

CIMON (CREW INTERACTIVE MOBILE COMPANION)

• It is a 3D-printed artificial intelligence system, described by its creators as a

“flying brain”.
• It is made up of plastic and metal, created using 3D printing
• It is being developed by Airbus; an aeronautics company based in
the Netherlands
• It will be the first AI-based mission and flight assistance system
• It will join the crew aboard the International Space Station (ISS) to assist
astronauts.
• It is designed to support astronauts in performing routine work.

Cryptojacking

• Cryptojacking is defined as the secret use of your computing device to

mine cryptocurrency.
• Cryptojacking used to be confined to the victim unknowingly installing a program
that secretly mines cryptocurrency
• Attackers employ malware to force an entry into the computers of remote
users and then using their hardware to mine for coins.
• This form of distributed computing can be profitable since it eliminates the cost
burden of owning a mining rig with hundreds of processors.

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 • Cryptojackers usually target popular websites that draw audiences
numbering in the millions every day.

Haptic Communication
Haptic communication is a technology that transmits the sensation of touch over
the Internet, had been developed by engineers in the Virtual Reality Laboratories
at the University at Buffalo (UB).

The breakthrough leads to the creation of haptic technologies that convey the sense of
touch and taught users how to master skills and activities — such as surgery,
sculpture, playing the drums or even golf – that require the precise application of
‘touch’ and movement.

DigiShala
DigiShala, a free Doordarshan DTH channel is launched to educate and inform
people about the various modes of digital payments. DigiShala will be available
through GSAT15 (DD Direct DTH), 93.5 degree East, Receive frequency: 11590 Mhz

The channel will help people understand the use of a unified payments interface (UPI),
USSD, aadhar-enabled payments system, electronic wallets, debit, and credit cards.

A website was also launched which will serve as a repository of knowledge regarding
digital payments.

Both the channel and website were launched as a part of the ‘Digi Dhan Abhiyan’, a
campaign conceptualized by the IT ministry to enable every citizen, small trader and
merchant to adopt digital payments in their everyday financial transactions.

Significance:

• DigiShala will enable and empower every citizen of the country, especially
farmers, students, Dalits and women in rural areas to learn the usefulness
and benefits of digital payment in our everyday life to adopt the same on a
mass scale.
• The provision of digital literacy to the semi-urban and rural sectors of the
economy has become the major focus area for the government.

COMPUTER FIREWALL
A firewall is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a
private network. You can implement a firewall in either hardware or software form,
or a combination of both. Firewalls prevent
unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the
Internet, especially intranets.

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All messages entering or leaving the intranet (i.e., the local network to which you are
connected) must pass through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks
those that do not meet the specified security criteria.

In protecting private information, a firewall is considered a first line of defense; it

cannot, however, be considered the only such line. Firewalls are generally
designed to protect network traffic and connections, and therefore do not attempt to
authenticate individual users when determining who can access a particular computer or
network.

CYBER-ATTACKS
Cyber-attacks involve the unauthorized access of private or confidential
information contained on computer systems or networks, but the techniques and
methods used by the attacker further distinguish whether the attack is an active cyber-
attack, a passive type attack, or some combination of the two.

According to Symantec, both active and passive cyber-attack types are defined by
unique characteristics and techniques, and each type of attack presents unique
challenges to victims, system users, system administrators, and cybersecurity
professionals.

Knowing the difference between passive and active cyber-attacks can help system users
and administrators identify when an attack is taking place so that action can be taken to
try and contain the attack.

Active Cyber Attacks

Active cyber-attacks are often aggressive, blatant attacks that victims immediately
become aware of when they occur. Active attacks are highly malicious in nature,
often locking out users, destroying memory or files, or forcefully gaining access to a
targeted system or network. Viruses, worms, malware, Denial of Service attacks, and
password crackers are all examples of active cyber-attacks. Usually, hackers that use
active attacks are not much concerned with their activities being detected because by
the time the attack is detected the damage is already done or is underway.

Passive Cyber Attacks

Passive cyber-attacks often employ non-disruptive and covert methods so that
the hacker does not draw attention to the attack. The purpose of the passive attack
is to gain access to the computer system or network and to collect data without
detection. Many data security breaches involving the exposure of credit card and debit
card payment information are the result of passive attacks, as are data breaches where
the targeted data collected during the attack is user name, passwords, and other
personal identifying information.

Passive attacks are usually data-gathering operations, which means they usually employ
some sort of malware or hack that eavesdrops on system communications (i.e., scrubs
email for personal identifying information) or records system communications (i.e.,

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keystroke recording malware). Information that is gathered in a passive cyber-attack is
usually sold on the black market and dark web for the financial
the gain of whoever perpetrated the passive attack.

Digital Signature Certificate (DSC)

A Digital Signature Certificate (DSC) is a secure digital key that certifies the
identity of the holder, issued by a Certifying Authority (CA). It typically contains
your identity (name, email, country, APNIC account name, and your public key).

• Digital Certificates use Public Key Infrastructure meaning data that has been
digitally signed or encrypted by a private key and can only be decrypted by its
corresponding public key. A digital certificate is an electronic “credit card” that
establishes your credentials when doing business or other transactions on the
Web.
• Digital Signatures are legally admissible in a Court of Law, as provided under the
provisions of IT Act, 2000.

Open-source software (OSS)

Open-source software (OSS) is computer software with its source code made
available with a license in which the copyright holder provides the rights to study,
change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source
software may be developed in a collaborative public manner.

• The main occurrence of open-source sharing goes back to even before the
primary PC was created. In 1911, progressive automaker Henry Ford was
instrumental in propelling the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association. This
affiliation propelled an open-source activity that saw real US vehicle makers
sharing innovation licenses straightforwardly without looking for any money
related advantages consequently.

Software-defined Radio

• Software-defined radio (SDR) is a radio communication system where

components that have been traditionally implemented in hardware (e.g.
mixers, filters, amplifiers, modulators/demodulators, detectors, etc.) are instead
implemented by means of software on a personal computer or embedded
system.
• A basic SDR system may consist of a personal computer running SDR
software that interfaces with analog-to-digital converter over USB or ethernet,
preceded by some form of RF front end with RF amplifiers, filters, and
attenuators.

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LIDAR-(Light Detection and Ranging)

• LIDAR, which stands for Light Detection and Ranging, is a remote sensing
method that uses light in the form of a pulsed laser to measure ranges
(variable distances) to the Earth.
• A LIDAR instrument principally consists of a laser, a scanner, and a specialized
GPS receiver. Airplanes and helicopters are the most commonly used
platforms for acquiring LIDAR data over broad areas.
• Two types of LIDAR are topographic and bathymetric.
• Topographic LIDAR typically uses a near-infrared laser to map the
land, while bathymetric lidar uses water-penetrating green light to
also measure seafloor and riverbed elevations.

Programmes, Policies, and Initiatives related to

ICT

Digital India Initiative

Digital India was an initiative taken by the Government of India for providing high-speed
internet networks to rural areas.

Digital India Mission was launched by PM Narendra Modi on 1st July 2015 as a
beneficiary to other government schemes including Make in India, Bharatmala,
Sagarmala, Startup India, BharatNet, and Standup India.

Digital India Mission is mainly focused on three areas:

1. Providing digital infrastructure as a source of utility to every citizen.

2. Governance and services on demand.
3. To look after the digital empowerment of every citizen.
Digital India was established with a vision of inclusive growth in areas of electronic
services, products, manufacturing, and job opportunities.

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Digital India aims to provide the much-needed thrust to the nine pillars of growth areas.
Each of these areas is a complex programme in itself and cuts across multiple Ministries
and Departments. The nine pillars of Digital India are given below:

• Broadband Highways– This covers three sub components, namely Broadband

for All – Rural, Broadband for All – Urban and National Information Infrastructure
(NII).
• Universal Access to Mobile Connectivity- This initiative focuses on network
penetration and filling the gaps in connectivity in the country.
• Public Internet Access Programme- The two sub components of Public
Internet Access Programme are Common Services Centres (CSCs) and
Post Offices as multi-service centres.
• e-Governance: Reforming Government through Technology- Government
Process Re-engineering using IT to simplify and make the government processes
more efficient is critical for transformation to make the delivery of government
services more effective across various government domains and therefore needs
to be implemented by all Ministries/ Departments.
• e-Kranti – Electronic Delivery of Services- To improve the delivery of public
services and simplify the process of accessing them. In this regard, several e-
governance initiatives have been undertaken by various State Governments and
Central Ministries to usher in an era of e-Government. e-Governance in India has
steadily evolved from the computerization of Government Departments to
initiatives that encapsulate the finer points of Governance, such as citizen
centricity, service orientation and transparency.
• Information for All- This pillar aims to ensure transparency and availability of
reliable data generated by the line ministries for use, reuse and redistribution for
the people of India.
• Electronics Manufacturing- This pillar focuses on promoting electronics
manufacturing in the country.
• IT for Jobs- This pillar focuses on providing training to the youth in the skills
required for availing employment opportunities in the IT/ITES sector.
• Early Harvest Programmes- This pillar consists of a group of different short-term
projects which have immediate effect on the Indian digital ecosystem like IT
platform for mass messaging, crowd Sourcing of eGreetings, biometric
attendance in the government offices, WI-FI in all universities etc.

Objectives of Digital India

The motto of the Digital India Mission is ‘Power to Empower’. There are three core
components to the Digital India initiative. They are digital infrastructure creation, digital
delivery of services, and digital literacy.

The major objectives of this initiative are listed below:

1. To provide high-speed internet in all gram panchayats.

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 2. To provide easy access to Common Service Centre (CSC) in all the locality.
3. Digital India is an initiative that combines a large number of ideas and thoughts
into a single, comprehensive vision so that each of them is seen as part of a
larger goal.
4. The Digital India Programme also focuses on restructuring many existing
schemes that can be implemented in a synchronized manner.

Advantages of Digital India Mission

Digital India Mission is an initiative that encompasses plans to connect the rural areas of
the country with high-speed internet networks. Public Internet Access Programme is one
among the nine pillars of digital India. On the platform of digital adoption, India ranks
amongst the top 2 countries globally and the digital economy of India is likely to cross $1
trillion by the year 2022.

Some of the advantages of Digital India are:

1. There is an increase in electronic transactions related to e-governance.

2. An optical fiber network of 2, 74,246 km has connected over 1.15 lakh Gram
Panchayats under the Bharat Net programme.
3. A Common Service Center (CSC) is created under the National e-Governance
Project of the Indian government which provides access for information and
communication technology (ICT). Through computer and Internet access, the
CSCs provide multimedia content related to e-governance, education, health,
telemedicine, entertainment, and other government and private services.
4. Establishment of digital villages along with well-equipped facilities such as solar
lighting, LED assembly unit, sanitary napkin production unit, and Wi-Fi choupal.
5. Internet data is used as a major tool for the delivery of the services and the urban
internet penetration has reached 64%.

Challenges of Digital India

The government of India has taken an initiative through the Digital India Mission to
connect the rural areas of the country with high-speed internet networks. Apart from the
various initiatives taken by Digital India, there are several challenges faced by it.

Some of the challenges and drawbacks of Digital Mission are mentioned below:

1. The daily internet speed, as well as the Wi-Fi hotspots, are slow as compared to
other developed nations.
2. Most of the small and medium scale industry has to struggle a lot for adapting to
the new modern technology.
3. Limited capability of entry-level smartphones for smooth internet access.
4. Lack of skilled manpower in the field of digital technology.

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 5. To look for about one million cybersecurity experts to check and monitor the
growing menace of digital crime.
6. Lack of user education.

Initiatives
The Government has taken up many initiatives under the Digital India campaign.
Discussed below are few such important initiatives:

1. DigiLockers – This flagship initiative aims at ‘Digital Empowerment’ of the citizen

by providing access to authentic digital documents to citizen’s digital document
wallet
2. E-Hospitals – It is a Hospital Management Information System (HMIS) which is
a one-stop solution in connecting patients, hospitals and doctors through a single
digital platform. Till February 2021, as many as 420 e-Hospitals had been
established under the Digital India campaign
3. E-Pathshala – Developed by NCERT, e-Pathshala showcases and disseminates
all educational e-resources including textbooks, audio, video, periodicals and a
variety of other print and non-print materials through the website and mobile app
4. BHIM – Bharat Interface for Money is an app that makes payment transactions
simple, easy and quick using Unified Payments Interface (UPI)

Impact of Digital India Campaign

Since its launch in 2015, the Digital India campaign has left its impact in various fields:

• Around 12000 post office branches in the rural areas have been linked
electronically.
• The Make in India initiative has improved the electronic manufacturing sector in
India
• Digital India plan could boost GDP up to $1 trillion by 2025
• Healthcare and education sector has also seen a boost
• Improvement in online infrastructure will enhance the economy of the country

Bharat Net Project

• It is the world’s largest rural broadband connectivity programme using
Optical fibre. And also a flagship mission implemented by Bharat Broadband
Network Ltd. (BBNL).
• BBNL is a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) set up by the Government of
India under the Companies Act, 1956 with an authorized capital of Rs
1000 crore.

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• It is a highly scalable network infrastructure accessible on a non-discriminatory
basis, to provide on demand, affordable broadband connectivity of 2 Mbps
to 20 Mbps for all households and on demand capacity to all institutions, to
realise the vision of Digital India, in partnership with States and the private
sector.
• It is being implemented by the Department of Telecommunication under the
Ministry of Communications.
• National Optical Fibre Network (NOFN) which was launched in October 2011
was renamed as Bharat Net Project in 2015.
• NOFN was envisaged as an information superhighway through the
creation of a robust middle-mile infrastructure for reaching broadband
connectivity to Gram Panchayats.
• In 2019, the Ministry of Communications also launched the ‘National Broadband
Mission’ to facilitate universal and equitable access to broadband services
across the country.
• Funding:
• The entire project is being funded by Universal service Obligation Fund
(USOF), which was set up for improving telecom services in rural and
remote areas of the country.
• Objective:
• The objective is to facilitate the delivery of e-governance, e-health, e-
education, e-banking, Internet and other services to rural India.
• Phases of the Project:
• First Phase:
• Provide one lakh gram panchayats with broadband connectivity by
laying underground Optic Fibre Cable (OFC) lines by December
2017.
• Second Phase:
• Provide connectivity to all the gram panchayats in the country
using an optimal mix of underground fibre, fibre over power lines,
radio and satellite media by March 2019.
• Third Phase:
• From 2019 to 2023, a state-of-the-art, future-proof network,
including fibre between districts and blocks, with ring
topology to provide redundancy would be created.
• Current Extension of BharatNet:
• The project will be extended to all inhabited villages beyond the gram
panchayats in 16 States which are:
• Kerala, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam,

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 Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal
Pradesh.
• The revised strategy will include creation, upgrading, operation,
maintenance and utilisation of BharatNet by the private sector
partner, who will be selected by a competitive international bidding
process.
• The selected private sector partner is expected to provide reliable, high
speed broadband services as per predefined Services Level
Agreement (SLA).
• Significance of PPP in BharatNet:
• Faster Roll Out:
• The PPP Model will leverage private sector efficiency for
operation, maintenance, utilisation and revenue
generation and is expected to result in the faster roll out of
BharatNet.
• Increased Investment:
• The private sector partner is expected to bring an equity
investment and raise resources towards capital expenditure
and for operation and maintenance of the network.
• Better Access:
• Extension of BharatNet to all inhabited villages will enable better
access to e-services offered by various governments, enable
online education, telemedicine, skill development, e-
commerce and other applications of broadband.

PM WANI (Prime Minister WiFi Access Network

Interface) Scheme
• It was approved by the Union Cabinet in December 2020.
• Department of Telecom (DoT), Ministry of Communications is the nodal agency
to proliferate Broadband through Public Wi-Fi networks under the framework of
Prime Minister’s Wi-Fi Access Network Interface (PM-WANI)
• This was first recommended by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of
India (TRAI) in 2017.
• The objective is to provide public Wi-Fi service through Public Data Offices
(PDOs) spread across the length and breadth of the country just like
what PCOs (Public Call Offices) did for telephone spread in India.
• The Public Wi-Fi Networks will be set up by Public Data Office Aggregators
(PDOAs).
• The Public Data Offices (PDOs) will be there with no requirement of the license,
registration, or any other fees.

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 • Key Highlights: PM-WANI ecosystem will be operated by different players such
as Public Data Office (PDO); Public Data Office Aggregator (PDOA); App
Provider; Central Registry.
• The PDOs will either provide internet on their own or will lease from
some other Internet Service Provider (ISP).
• A central registry will be set-up which will maintain details of all app
providers, PDOAs and PDOs.
• It will be handled by the Centre for Development of Telematics
(C-DoT).
• It will also have an app developer who will build a platform to register
users and discover Wani-compliant WI-Fi hotspots in an area and display
them on the app.
Significance

• New Internet Users: PM WANI will be able to connect new users not just
to commercial and entertainment options, but also to education, telehealth,
and agriculture extension, and bring greater accountability to the
government by boosting transparency and interactivity.
• Strengthen Digital India: The scheme would enable small shopkeepers to
provide Wi-Fi service and boost internet connectivity strengthening
the Digital India mission.

• Reach to rural India: PM WANI can result in a rapid scale-up of the Internet in
rural India.
• Low-Cost Alternative: Upcoming mobile technologies such as 5G may provide
good quality data, but they involve high investment in the new spectrum,
connectivity equipment, and regular subscriber fees.
Challenges in implementation of PM WANI

• Security Risks: Public Wi-Fi accessibility is prone to security attacks due to the
non-encryption of such networks. In the past, there are cases where it was
misused for unauthorized access.
• Lack of supporting infrastructure: Like getting the space (Access Point) for the
tower etc.
• Low Speed: As public WiFI networks are usually accessed by several people at
the same time, it results in a considerable loss of bandwidth resulting in a slow
network speed.
• Right of Way (RoW) issues: Complex procedures across states, non-uniformity
in levies and obtaining approvals from various government agencies leads to
delay in deployment of optical fibre cables (underground) and mobile towers
(overground) infrastructure.

Tarang Sanchar Portal

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 • Tarang Sanchar is a a web portal for information sharing on Mobile Towers and
Electromagnetic frequency (EMF) Emission Compliance.
• It has been developed in Public Private Partnership (PPP) mode by
Department of Telecommunications with Industry.
• The portal has a public interface with a map-based search feature which will
help users view the mobile towers in any locality.
• This Portal envisages disseminating the information to the public regarding
Electro Magnetic Fields (EMF) signals and to allay the misconceptions and
fear of health issues due to EMF emissions from mobile towers.
• The public, at large will be now able to check the current status of the mobile
tower located anywhere in the country and the EMF signal compliance
status of the same.
• This Portal also enables the public to go through the latest developments and
corresponding information available in respect of EMF emissions from
mobile towers and to submit their feedback and comments on the same.

Crime and Criminal Tracking Network System

(Cctns)
• CCTNS is a Mission Mode Project under the National e-Governance Plan of
Govt. of India, MHA started in 2009.
• CCTNS aims at creating a comprehensive and integrated system for enhancing
the efficiency and effectiveness of policing through adopting a principle of
e-Governance and the creation of nationwide networking infrastructure for
the evolution of IT-enabled-state-of-the-art tracking system.
• The goals of the system are to facilitate the collection, storage, retrieval,
analysis, transfer, and sharing of data and information at the police station
and between the police station and the State Headquarters and the Central
Police Organizations.
• It will help in online tracking cases and arresting criminals and speedy
investigating any case.
• The implementation of this software will integrate different software and platforms
used by these states under a unilateral platform that will track criminals across
the nation at ease.
• The CCTN project will also involve the training of police technology in
using the latest technology. It also fulfills the additional objective of
strengthening e-governance across the states.
• The Project will interconnect about 15000 Police Stations and additional 5000
offices of supervisory police officers across the country
• It will digitize data related to FIR registration, investigation and charge sheets in
all police stations.

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 • It would help in developing a national database of crime and criminals
• The full implementation of the project with all the new components would lead to
a Central citizen portal having linkages with State level citizen portals that will
provide a number of citizen friendly services.

National Policy On Information Technology (Npit)

• India aspires to become a knowledge economy by developing its IT and
Information Technology Enabled Service (ITES).
• NPIT vision is to develop India into IT hub and use IT cyberspace as a
source for inclusive and rapid growth in national economy.
• Objective of NPIT
• Increase revenue of IT and ITES.
• Acquire global market share in emerging IT technologies and services
• Promote innovation and R&D in cutting edge technologies.
• Adopt strategies to improve competitiveness and productivity.
• Aid SMEs to adopt IT technologies,
• To make at least one individual in every household e-literate.
• Provide all public services in electronic mode.
• Utilize ITC in social sectors like Education, health, rural development and
financial services.
• Capacity building by developing Human resource.
• These goals can be achieved by following a systematic strategy. There is
need to create an environment of IT/ITES competitiveness so as to
enhance productivity
• Human resource development through skill development and expertise
creation can prove to be good.
• R&D, internet and mobile driven services, GIS based IT services and security of
cyber space can be other strategies.

Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (Cert-

In)
• CERT-In is the national nodal agency for responding to computer security
incidents as and when they occur. The constituency of CERT-In is the Indian
Cyber Community.
• CERT-In was established in 2004 as a functional organization of the Ministry of
Electronics and Information Technology.

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 • Functions: The Information Technology (Amendment) Act 2008 designated
CERT-In to serve as the national agency to perform the following functions in the
area of cyber security:
• Collection, analysis and dissemination of information on cyber incidents.
• Forecast and alerts of cyber security incidents
• Emergency measures for handling cyber security incidents
• Coordination of cyber incident response activities.
• Issue guidelines, advisories, vulnerability notes and whitepapers relating
to information
• security practices, procedures, prevention, response and reporting of
cyber incidents.
• Such other functions relating to cyber security as may be prescribed.
• It reports the incidence on daily basis and alerts computer system users about
the vulnerability of the system. Recently it reported multiple vulnerabilities in
Apple iOS.
• In 2014 CERT-in reported a new Virus and malware named Hikiti Malware,
Dyreza Trojan, and ShellShock Malware.

Computer Emergency Response Team in Financial Sector (Cert-

Fin)

• Cert-Fin will act as an umbrella Cert for the financial sector and report to
Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (Cert-In) at the national level,
in accordance with the information technology Act and rules.
• Cert-Fin will work closely with all financial-sector regulators and stakeholders on
issues of cyber security.
• Cert-Fin will be an independent body, to be set up as a company
under Section 8 of the Companies Act, 2013, with a governing board.
• It will have an advisory board for providing direction, reviewing
performance and recommendations, and allocation of resources.
• It has also been recommended that each financial-sector regulator will
have a separate entity that will provide information in real-time to Cert-Fin.
• There would be a bank-Cert (which would be the Reserve Bank of
India), a securities-cert, insurance-cert, and pension-cert; all of which will
directly report to Cert-Fin.
• Cert-Fin will then report to the National Critical Information
Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC), which monitors, and
coordinates protected systems of critical national infrastructure.

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Importance of CERT-Fin

• Cert-Fin will collect, analyze and disseminate information on cyber incidents

across financial sectors. It will forecast and send alerts on cybersecurity
incidents. It will also take emergency measures on cybersecurity incidents.
• It will coordinate responses and activities for cyber incidents and issue
guidelines, advisories, and white papers relating to vulnerabilities and information
security.
• It will monitor efforts in the financial sector towards maintaining modern
cybersecurity architecture, developing awareness among regulated entities
and the public in general.
• Cert-Fin will also create awareness on security issues through the
dissemination of information on its website and operate a 24×7 incidence
response help desk.
• It will also provide incident prevention and response services as well as
quality management services and will carry out functions similar to Cert-In, which
operates at the national level, for priority cybersecurity in the financial sector.
• Cert-Fin will offer policy suggestions for strengthening financial sector
cybersecurity to all the stakeholders, including regulators and the government.

The Information Technology Act, 2000

• The Information Technology Act, 2000 was enacted by the Indian
Parliament in 2000. It is the primary law in India for matters related to
cybercrime and e-commerce.
• It is the primary law in India dealing with cybercrime and electronic
commerce. It is based on the United Nations Model Law on Electronic
Commerce 1996 (UNCITRAL Model) recommended by the General Assembly of
United Nations by a resolution dated 30 January 1997.
• The original Act contained 94 sections, divided in 13 chapters and 4
schedules. The laws apply to the whole of India.
• Persons of other nationalities can also be indicted under the law if the crime
involves a computer or network located in India.
• The Act provides the legal framework for electronic governance by giving
recognition to electronic records and digital signatures.
• The formation of Controller of Certifying Authorities was directed by the Act, to
regulate issuing of digital signatures.
• It also defines cybercrimes and prescribed penalties for them. It
also established a Cyber Appellate Tribunal to resolve disputes arising from
this new law.

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 • The Act also amended various sections of the Indian Penal Code, 1860,
Indian Evidence Act, 1872, Banker’s Book Evidence Act, 1891, and Reserve
Bank of India Act, 1934 to make them compliant with new technologies.
Side Note: Struck down of Section 66A of the IT Act

• In Shreya Singhal vs. Union of India (2015), the Supreme court struck down
Section 66A of the IT Act.
• The section had criminalised the sending of any message through a computer
resource that was grossly offensive, menacing, or caused annoyance,
inconvenience, danger, insult, injury and intimidation.
• The Court found the offence was defined so widely that both innocent and
offensive messaging could be brought under its ambit.
• It led to the constitutional protection for free speech and expression.

1. Service providers
2. Data centres
3. Body corporate
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Cyber Surakshit Bharat

• Cyber Surakshit Bharat is first public-private partnership of its kind.
• It will leverage the expertise of the IT industry in cybersecurity.
• The founding partners include leading IT companies such as Microsoft,
Intel, WIPRO, Redhat and Dimension Data.
• Its knowledge partners include Cert-In, NIC, NASSCOM and FIDO Alliance
and premier consultancy firms Deloitte and EY.
• It will be operated on three principles of awareness, education and enablement.
• It will include an awareness program on importance of cybersecurity.
• It will also include a series of workshops on the best practices and enablement of
the officials with cybersecurity health tool kits to manage and mitigate cyber
threats.

Digilocker

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 • DigiLocker is a flagship initiative of MeitY under ‘Digital India’ programme. Digi
Locker is a “digital locker” service operated by the Government of India that
enables Indian citizens to store certain official documents on the cloud.
• The service is aimed towards reducing the need to carry physical
documents and is part of the government’s Digital India initiative.
• 1 GB of storage space is offered to users to store identification card issued
by government agencies, education certificates, PAN cards, driving
licenses, vehicle ownership documents and some other documents.
• There is also an associated facility for e-signing documents. The service is
intended to minimize the use of physical documents, reduce administrative
expenses, provide authenticity of the e-documents, provide secure access to
government-issued documents, and to make it easy for the residents to receive
services.
• Apart from e-documents, DigiLocker can store a Uniform Resource Identifier
(URI) link of e-documents issued by various issuer departments.

1. It is a digital locker system offered by the Government under Digital India

Programme.
2. It allows you to access your e-documents irrespective of your physical location.
Select the correct answer using the code given below–

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

India’s Supercomputer
• A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance as compared to
a general-purpose computer.
• The performance of a supercomputer is commonly measured in floating-point
operations per second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second
(MIPS). Supercomputers were started in 1960s.
• Supercomputers are primarily designed to be used in enterprises and
organizations that require massive computing power. For example: weather
forecasting, scientific research, intelligence gathering and analysis, data mining
etc.
• Globally, China has the maximum number of supercomputers and maintains
the top position in the world, followed by the US, Japan, France, Germany,
Netherlands, Ireland and the United Kingdom.
• India’s first supercomputer was PARAM 8000.
• PARAM Shivay, the first supercomputer assembled indigenously, was
installed in IIT (BHU), followed by PARAM Shakti, PARAM Brahma, PARAM

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 Yukti, PARAM Sanganak at IIT-Kharagpur, IISER, Pune, JNCASR, Bengaluru
and IIT Kanpur respectively.
• In the 12th five-year plan, the government of India (GOI) had committed that
$2.5bn would be sanctioned for the research in the supercomputing field.
• In 2015, GOI approved a 7-year supercomputing program known as National
Supercomputing Mission which aims to create a cluster of 73
supercomputers connecting various academic and research institutions across
India with $730mn investment.
• India’s two fastest supercomputers built for weather forecasting, Pratyush
and Mihir, have broken into the top 100 list globally in 2018.
• Pratyush and Mihir are the supercomputers established at the Indian Institute
of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune, and National Center for Medium-
Range Weather Forecast (NCMRWF), Noida respectively.
• They are located at two government institutes, one being 4.0 PetaFlops unit at
IITM, Pune, and another 2.8 PetaFlops unit at the National Centre for Medium-
Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF), Noida. Both units and provides a
combined output of 6.8 PetaFlops.
• In 2020, PARAM Siddhi, the High-Performance Computing-Artificial Intelligence
(HPC-AI) supercomputer, achieved global ranking of 62nd in Top 500 most
powerful supercomputer systems in the world.
• The National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) has also deployed PARAM
Ganga – a High-Performance Computational (HPC) facility at IIT
Roorkee, with a supercomputing capacity of 1.66 Petaflops, and Earlier to this,
the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bengaluru installed the supercomputer
‘Param Pravega’.

National Supercomputing Mission

• In 2015, the National Supercomputing Mission was launched to enhance the
research capacities and capabilities in the country by connecting them to form a
Supercomputing grid, with National Knowledge Network (NKN) as the
backbone.
• The NKN project is aimed at establishing a strong and robust Indian
network which will be capable of providing secure and reliable
connectivity.
• It supports the government’s vision of ‘Digital India’ and ‘Make in
India’ initiatives.
• The Mission is being jointly steered by the Department of Science and
Technology (DST) and the Ministry of Electronics and Information
Technology (MeitY).
• It is implemented by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing
(C-DAC), Pune, and the IISc, Bengaluru.
• The mission was planned in three phases:

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 • Phase I looking at assembling supercomputers,
• Phase II looking at manufacturing certain components within the country.
• Phase III where a supercomputer is designed by India.
• An indigenously developed server platform called ‘Rudra’ is being tried out in
a pilot system, with an interconnect for inter node communication called
Trinetra also having been developed.

National Knowledge Network (Nkn)

National Knowledge Network is a multi-gigabit national research and education
network, whose purpose is to provide a unified high speed network backbone for
educational and research institutions in India. The network is managed by the
National Informatics Centre.

The leading mission-oriented agencies in the fields of nuclear, space, and defense
research are also part of NKN. By facilitating the flow of information and knowledge,
the network addresses the critical issue of access and creates a new paradigm of
collaboration to enrich the research efforts in the country.

The network design is based on a proactive approach that takes into account the future
requirements and new possibilities that this infrastructure may unfold, both in terms of
usage and perceived benefits. This will bring about a knowledge revolution that will be
instrumental in transforming society and promoting inclusive growth.

Role of NKN:

• Establishing a high-speed backbone connectivity which will enable knowledge

and information sharing amongst NKN connected institutes
• Enabling collaborative research, development and innovation amongst NKN
connected institutes
• Facilitating advanced distance education in specialized fields like engineering,
science, medicine etc.
• Facilitating an ultra-high-speed e-governance backbone
• Facilitating connection between different sectoral networks in the field of
research.

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National Digital Communications Policy, 2018
The new National Digital Communications Policy -2018 will replace the existing
National Telecom Policy-2012, to cater to the modern technological
advancements such as 5G, IoT, M2M etc. in the Telecom Sector.

1. Connect India: Creating Robust Digital Communications Infrastructure.

• National Broadband Mission (Rashtriya Broadband
Abhiyan)- Provide Universal broadband connectivity at 50Mbps to every
citizen by 2022.
• BharatNet- Provide 1 Gbps connectivity to all Gram Panchayats of India
by 2020 and 10 Gbps by 2022.
• GramNet – Connecting all key rural development institutions with 10
Mbps upgradeable to 100 Mbps.
• NagarNet – Establishing 1 Million public Wi-Fi Hotspots in urban areas.
• JanWiFi – Establishing 2 Million Wi-Fi Hotspots in rural areas.
• Enable 100 Mbps broadband on demand to all key development
institutions including all educational institutions by 2022.
• Fibre First Initiative to take fibre to the home, to enterprises and to key
development institutions in Tier I, II and III towns and to rural clusters.
• Establishment of a National Digital Grid by National Fibre Authority.
• Strengthening Satellite Communication Technologies in India
by reviewing SATCOM policy, making available new spectrum bands,

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 streamlining administrative processes for assignment and allocations,
clearances and permissions related to satellite communication systems,
etc.
• Ensuring Customer Satisfaction, Quality of Service and effective
Grievance Redressal by establishing Telecom Ombudsman, framing a
comprehensive policy to encourage the adoption of environmental and
safety standards and incentivising the use of renewable energy
technologies in the communications sector.
2. Propel India: Enabling Next Generation Technologies and Services through
Investments, Innovation and IPR generation.
• Attract investments of USD 100 Billion in the Digital Communications
Sector, expand IoT ecosystem to 5 Billion connected devices,
accelerate transition to Industry 4.0 by 2022.
• Creation of innovation led Start-ups in Digital Communications sector.
• Creation of Globally recognized IPRs (Intellectual Property Rights) in
India.
• Development of Standard Essential Patents (SEPs) in the field of digital
communication technologies.
• Train/ Re-skill 1 Million manpower for building New Age Skills.
3. Secure India:Ensuring Sovereignty, Safety and Security of Digital
Communications.
• Establish a comprehensive data protection regime for digital
communications that safeguards the privacy, autonomy and choice of
individuals and facilitates India’s effective participation in the global digital
economy.
• Ensure that net neutrality principles are upheld and aligned with service
requirements, bandwidth availability and network capabilities
including next generation access technologies.
• Develop and deploy robust digital communication network security
frameworks.
• Build capacity for security testing and establish appropriate security
standards.
• Address security issues relating to encryption and security clearances.
• Enforce accountability through appropriate institutional mechanisms to
assure citizens of safe and secure digital communications infrastructure
and services.
National Telecom Policy-2012

• GoI had launched NPT-2012 in the backdrop of the 2-G scam. This policy
aims to provide a Unified Licensing Regime with the approval of the Ministry of IT
and Communication.

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 • The vision of the policy is, “to provide secure, reliable, affordable and high
quality converged telecommunication services anytime, anywhere for an
accelerated inclusive socio-economic development”.
• The policy also aims at recognizing telecom as infrastructure in order to realize
the potential of ICT for development.
• The main components of the policy are:
• Broadband Rural Telephony and Universal Service Obligation Fund
• R&D, Manufacturing and Standardization of Telecommunication
Equipment
• Licensing, Convergence and Value Added Services
• Spectrum Management
• Quality of Service and Protection of Consumer Interest
• Security

Cloud Computing And Meghraj Initiative

Cloud Computing

• Cloud computing is a general term for anything that involves delivering hosted
services over the internet.
• These services are divided into three main categories or types of cloud
computing: infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS)
and software as a service (SaaS).
• It is the pool of shared resources such as networks, servers, storage,
applications, and services that can be provided to the consumer rather than the
consumer managing them on her own which is costly and time-consuming.
• Rather than owning their own computing infrastructure or data centres,
companies or individuals can rent access to storage (or application or services)
from a cloud service provider.
• The Government of India is embracing cloud computing technology for expanding
its e-governance initiatives throughout the country. In India, the focus of e-
governance is to reduce corruption and ensure the government schemes are
reaching people living in rural areas of the country. Further, e-governance
services ensure quicker service delivery and eliminate the involvement of
middlemen who tend to capitalize on loopholes for quick money by means of
exploiting people.
• In order to utilise and harness the benefits of Cloud Computing, Government of
India has embarked upon an ambitious initiative – “GI Cloud” which has been
named as ‘MeghRaj’.
MeghRaj

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 • Meghraj is the name given to the initiative of the Government of India for its
new program which is going to take advantage of the Cloud Computing.
Meghraj is just a name coined for the purpose (Megh=Cloud, Raj=Rule i.e. Rule
of Cloud Computing).
• It will enable the government to leverage cloud computing for the effective
delivery of e-services.
• This initiative is to implement various components including governance
mechanisms to ensure proliferation of Cloud in the government.
• The focus of this initiative is to accelerate delivery of e-services in the
country while optimizing ICT spending of the Government.
• MeghRaj will ensure optimum utilization of the infrastructure and speed up the
development and deployment of eGov applications.
• The architectural vision of GI Cloud encompasses a set of discrete cloud
computing environments spread across multiple locations, built on existing or
new (augmented) infrastructure, following a set of common protocols, guidelines
and standards issued by the Government of India.
Advantages of Cloud Computing:

• Seamless Connectivity: Cloud-based software offers companies from all

sectors a number of benefits, including the ability to use software from any device
either via a native app or a browser. As a result, users can carry their files and
settings over to other devices in a completely seamless manner.
• Higher Accessibility: Cloud computing is far more than just accessing files on
multiple devices. Thanks to cloud computing services, users can check their
email on any computer and even store files using services such as Dropbox and
Google Drive.
• Improved Disaster Recovery: Cloud computing services also make it possible
for users to back up their music, files, and photos, ensuring those files are
immediately available in the event of a hard drive crash.
• Cost-Saving: It also offers big businesses huge cost-saving potential. Before the
cloud became a viable alternative, companies were required to purchase,
construct, and maintain costly information management technology and
infrastructure.
• Scalability: can be improvised to cater to increased demand, say in SMART city
mission
• Companies can swap costly server centers and IT departments for fast Internet
connections, where employees interact with the cloud online to complete their
tasks.
• The cloud structure allows individuals to save storage space on their desktops or
laptops.
• Increased Collaboration and flexibility: It also lets users upgrade software
more quickly because software companies can offer their products via the web

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 rather than through more traditional, tangible methods involving discs or flash
drives.
• For example, Adobe customers can access applications in its Creative Suite
through an Internet-based subscription. This allows users to download new
versions and fixes to their programs easily.
• Environmentally friendly: Cloud computing reduces a company’s carbon
footprint by minimizing energy consumption and carbon emissions by more than
30%. For small businesses, the decreased energy usage can reach up to 90% =
A huge money saver.
Cloud computing in Indian Governance:

• E-Gram Panchayat
• The majority of the Indian population lives in villages, and the Panchayats
represent the face of governance for these villagers. To improve the
quality of governance, the Indian government initiated an e-governance
scheme known as ePanchayat to simplify and enhance internal
government operations. The module was constructed in 4 phases of e-
governance.
• Indian Railways on Cloud
• Governed by the Central Railway Ministry of India, the Indian railway
network is the largest rail network in Asia and second-largest rail network
in the world. A research carried by the railway ministry says out of 17
million passengers every day, only 1 million passengers carry confirmed
rail tickets. This results in substantial monetary loss. To avoid loss, the
Indian government decided to implement cloud technology for Indian
railways. Today, the central government maintains the railway data on the
cloud.
• Kisan Suvidha
• The Indian government came up with the portal Kisan Suvidha to help
farmers with the relevant information instantly. It delivers farmers with
detailed knowledge on weather, market prices, seeds, fertilizers,
pesticides, agriculture machinery, dealers, agro advisories, plant
protection and IPM practices. It notifies them with extreme weather
conditions and the changing market price.
• DigiLocker
• DigiLocker is the public cloud-based storage introduced by the Indian
government for the citizens of India. It is much more than an online drive
where you upload your documents to be accessed depending on your
convenience. The documents are digitally verified and signed by the
government of India in a few seconds with an authentic DigiLocker
verification seal. With more than 57.13 million users and 4.27 billion
issued documents, DigiLocker has proved to be one of the biggest
success stories of cloud in the government.
• eHospital

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 • eHospital is the cloud-based healthcare projected implemented by the
government of India to ease the process of healthcare management. The
system was designed to speed up services like online registration,
payment of fees and appointment, online diagnostic reports, checking on
the availability of blood online, etc. This hospital model assigns a unique
identification number to every patient at the time of registration. The
medical history of a particular patient can be accessed using the number.
• In India, cloud computing has ensured the success of national initiatives and
schemes such as Swachh Bharat Mission, e-Hospital, National Scholarship,
My-Gov and e-Transport.
• One of India’s most landmark initiatives, the Government e-Marketplace
(GeM) uses a multi-cloud architecture to ensure scalability. Today, the GeM
serves over 50,000 buyer organisations and has a listing of over 19 lakh products
and more than 80,000 services.
• NIC’s SaaS-based service, S3WaaS, has empowered district administrators to
create, configure and deploy scalable and accessible websites without much
effort and technical knowledge.
• The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI), announced last year that it
had gone fully digital with the launch of a unique cloud-based and AI-powered big
analytics platform. All project documents and correspondences related to NHAI
will be stored in a cloud-based data lake, which is linked with GIS tagging and a
unique project ID, so that project data can be retrieved easily from any location.
• The Indian Railways has given the responsibility of deploying open
source Hospital Management Information System (HMIS), an integrated
clinical information system, for its 125 health facilities and 650 polyclinics across
the country for improved hospital administration and patient healthcare, using a
cloud platform.
Limitations:

• With all of the speed, efficiencies, and innovations that come with cloud
computing, there are naturally risks.
• Security has always been a big concern with the cloud especially when it comes
to sensitive medical records and financial information.
• While regulations force cloud computing services to shore up their security and
compliance measures, it remains an ongoing issue. Encryption protects vital
information, but if that encryption key is lost, the data disappears.
• Servers maintained by cloud computing companies may fall victim to natural
disasters, internal bugs, and power outages, too.
• The geographical reach of cloud computing cuts both ways: A blackout in
California could paralyze users in New York, and a firm in Texas could lose its
data if something causes its Maine-based provider to crash.
• As with any technology, there is a learning curve for both employees and
managers. But with many individuals accessing and manipulating information
through single portal, inadvertent mistakes can transfer across an entire system.

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 • Maintenance costs: While the upfront or capital cost for the cloud-based server
is very low compared to traditional hosting, the cloud server requires the same
amount to be paid each month to maintain both servers as well as data.
• Internet connectivity: For cloud-based services, consistent internet connection
is important because if any one of the cloud-based service providers loses
connectivity, then the company will be out of business until that internet
connection returns.
• A common argument from critics is that cloud computing cannot succeed
because it means that organizations must lose control of their data, such as an
email provider that stores data in multiple locations around the world. A large
regulated company, like a bank, might be required to store data in the United
States.

Community Radio
• Community radio is a radio service offering a third model of radio
broadcasting in addition to commercial and public broadcasting.
• Community stations serve geographic communities and communities of interest.
• They broadcast content that is popular and relevant to a local, specific
audience but is often overlooked by commercial or mass-media
broadcasters.
• Community radio stations are operated, owned, and influenced by the
communities they serve.
• They are generally non-profit and provide a mechanism for enabling individuals,
groups, and communities to tell their own stories, to share experiences, and, in a
media-rich world, to become creators and contributors of media.
• In India, the campaign to legitimize community radio began in the mid-
1990s, soon after the Supreme Court of India ruled in its judgment of
February 1995 that “airwaves are public property”.
• The judgment inspired several free speech advocates, academics, and
community members across the country to being a concerted campaign to
legitimize community radio in India.
• In 1996, a Bangalore-based media advocacy group called VOICES organized a
gathering of community radio stakeholders.
• By early 2003, the government of India released the first set of community radio
guidelines drafted by Dr. Hari Om Srivastava and also the technology to be used,
but unfortunately, restricted eligibility to educational institutions only.
• On 16 November 2006, the government of India implemented new Community
Radio Guidelines, which permit NGOs, educational institutions and agricultural
institutions to own and operate community radio stations.

Global Centre For Cybersecurity

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 • The Global Centre for Cybersecurity will function as an autonomous
organization under WEF.
• It will help to build a safe and secure global cyberspace.
• Its aim is to establish first global platform for governments, businesses, experts
and law enforcement agencies to collaborate on cybersecurity challenges.
• It will draw on WEF’s government and industry support to work towards more
secure cyberspace through its established multi stakeholder approach.

Budapest Convention
• The Council of Europe’s (CoE) Cybercrime Convention is also known as
the Budapest Convention. It was open for signature in 2001 and came into
force in 2004.
• The convention is the sole legally binding international multilateral treaty on
cybercrime.
• It coordinates cybercrime investigations between nation-states
and criminalizes certain cybercrime conduct.
• It is open for ratification even to states that are not members of the Council
of Europe.
• It serves as a guideline for any country developing comprehensive national
legislation against Cybercrime and as a framework for international
cooperation between state parties to this treaty.
• The Budapest Convention is supplemented by a Protocol on
Xenophobia and Racism committed through computer systems.
• Significance: Almost all stakeholders agree that the current form of cross-border
data sharing for law enforcement through the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty
(MLAT) is insufficient for the digital age. However, there is an ongoing debate
whether to revamp MLAT or form an entirely new system for cybercrimes in the
form of this Convention.
• This Convention has eagerly called for Indian participation since its formation in
2001, but India has decided not to be a party to it.
India’s concerns over signing of this agreement:

• India did not participate in the negotiation of the Convention and thus is
worried about it.
• The Convention, through its Article 32b allows for trans-border access to data
and thus infringes on national sovereignty.
• The regime of the Convention is not effective, “the promise of cooperation not
firm enough,” or that there are grounds for refusal to cooperate.

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 Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

Intellectual Property rights means providing property rights through patents,

copyrights, and trademarks. Holders of intellectual property rights have a monopoly
on the usage of property or items for a specified time period. The term intellectual
property began to be used in the 19th Century. Only in the 20th century did it become
part of the world’s legal systems.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)

• Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are the rights acquired by an owner of
intellectual property.
• Intellectual property is a category of property that includes intangible creations
of the human intellect.
• In simple terms, it refers to creations of the mind, such as
• inventions
• literary & artistic works
• designs & symbols,
• names & images used in commerce.
• The main purpose of intellectual property law is to
• encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods &
• strike the right balance between the interests of innovators & wider
public interest.
• These rights are outlined in Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, which provides for the right to benefit from the protection of moral and
material interests resulting from authorship of scientific, literary, or artistic
productions.

Various International Treaties

There are different subject matters of intellectual property like Patents, Copyright,
Trademarks, Industrial design, Plant Varieties, etc. The need for protection in these
different subjects arose in different periods. These are reflected in different
treaties. Agreement on TRIPS, under aegis of WTO, remains most influential,
comprehensive, and inclusive of all.

The importance of IPR was first recognized in the

1. Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883) &

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 • Since it deals only with Industrial property, it covered only Patents and
Trademarks.
• It was among the first treaties to recognize various principles of
international trade like National Treatment, Right of Priority, Common
rules, etc.
2. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary & Artistic Works (1886).
• It provided for copyright system. It doesn’t provide for any formality to
claim protection.
• Protection is automatically accorded to any creation, provided work is
original and other conditions under the treaty are fulfilled. It means that
your work, if original, is already protected. You can claim that you have
copyright.

• Both (Paris Convention & Berne Convention) are administered by the World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
• IPRs have been outlined in Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.
• WTO governs IPR through Trade-Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property
Rights (TRIPS).

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

• WIPO is one of the 17 specialized agencies of the United Nations (UN).

• WIPO was created to promote and protect intellectual property (IP) across the
world by cooperating with countries as well as international organizations.
• It began operations in 1970.
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
• WIPO currently has 193 member states.
• WIPO’s activities include
• hosting forums to discuss and shape international IP rules and policies,
• providing global services that register and protect IP in different countries,
• resolving transboundary IP disputes,
• helping connect IP systems through uniform standards and infrastructure,
and
• serving as a general reference database on all IP matters.
• India joined WIPO in 1975.

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Trade-Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

• TRIPS is an international agreement on intellectual property rights.

• It is a landmark and most comprehensive treaty on Intellectual property.
• While earlier treaties’ subject matters were specific, TRIPS deal with 8 kinds of
property rights –
• Patents,
• Trademarks,
• trade dress,
• Copyrights,
• Industrial Designs,
• Plant Varieties,
• Integrated Circuits and layouts, and
• Geographical Indication.
• Further, almost all countries are party to TRIP. In earlier treaties, only limited
countries participated.
• It also provides an enforcement mechanism that was not available in WIPO
treaties. It mandated all member countries to make their domestic laws complaint
to TRIPS.
• India passed certain laws and amended others. India’s IPR regime now stands
fully compliant to TRIPS.
• For E.g. India amended patent law in 2005 to provide ‘product’ patent
protection. Earlier protection was available only to ‘processes’.
• TRIPS was the result of discussions held in the Uruguay round which led to
the formation of WTO. This treaty is an offshoot of the General Agreement on
Trade in Goods (GATT). This treaty provided a robust Dispute Resolution
Mechanism and stringent penal provisions under the auspices of WTO.
• It came into force in 1995 & is binding on all members of the World Trade
Organization (WTO).
Further, every treaty under WTO is based some principle which are –

1. National Treatment – No foreign products, once they enter domestic territories,

shall be discriminated in any manner. This also applies to intellectual property.
Members must accord similar treatment to foreign creations, as they do to
domestic ones.
2. Most Favored Nation – If a member provides some privilege, favorable
treatment, or exemption to another country or group, then other members must
get similarly favorable treatment.

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 3. Right to priority treatment – If a similar patent application has been filed in two
different countries, then the prior applicant has the right to the patent.
4. Concept of Minimum Standards – This treaty provides for a minimum level of
protection that every member should provide to intellectual property. Members
have the discretion to provide more protection than minimum standards.
5. Universal Copyright Convention, 1952 – This convention is administered by
UNESCO. This exists simultaneously with Bern Convention. This treaty provides
for procedural formalities for filing and recognition of copyright. As the Bern
convention provides for the automatic route to copyright, this treaty has lost its
relevance.

Types of Intellectual Property

Patents

• A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a new product

or process that meets conditions of
• novelty,
• non-obviousness, &
• industrial use.
• A patent provides the owner with the right to decide how – or whether – the
invention can be used by others.

Criteria for issuing Patents in India

1. Novelty: it should be new (not published earlier + no prior Public Knowledge/

Public Use in India)
2. Non-obviousness: It must involve an inventive step (technical advanced in
comparison to existing knowledge + non‐obvious to a person skilled in the
relevant field of technology)
3. Industrial use: It should be capable of Industrial application

• Patents in India are governed by “The patent Act 1970” which was amended
in 2005 to make it compliant with TRIPS.

What cannot be patented?

• Frivolous Invention: Invention that harms public order/Morality/ health of animals,

plants & humans
• Methods of agriculture or horticulture
• Traditional Knowledge

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 • Computer Program
• Inventions related to Atomic Energy
• Plants & Animals
• Mere discovery of scientific principle

Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2020

• The central government has published an amended Patent (Amendment) Rules,

2020.
• The new rules have amended the format of a disclosure
statement that patentees & licensees are required to annually submit to
the Patent Office.
• The format contains disclosing the extent to which they have commercially
worked or made the patented inventions available to the public in the
country.
• The disclosure is to be made in the Form 27 format as prescribed under the
Patent Rules, 2003.
• The patentees & licensees as well as the Patent Office have blatantly
disregarded this statutory requirement.
• There has been significant pressure from MNCs & the U.S. to do away with
this requirement.

Criticism of Patent (Amendment) Rules, 2020

• The amendment has significantly weakened the requirement of submitting

information in the disclosure.
• This could hamper the effectiveness of India’s compulsory licensing
regime which depends on full disclosure of patent working information.
• This in turn could hinder access to vital inventions including life-saving medicines.

Industrial Designs

• An industrial design constitutes the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an

article/object.
• A design may consist of three-dimensional features, such as the shape or surface
of an article, or of two-dimensional features, such as patterns, lines or colors.
• Industrial Designs in India are governed by “The Designs Act 2000”.

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Copyright

• Copyright is a legal term used to describe the rights that creators have over
their literary & artistic works.
• Works covered by copyright range from books, music, paintings, sculpture &
films, to computer programs, databases, advertisements, maps & technical
drawings.
• Copyrights in India are governed by “The Copyright Act, 1957”.

Trademarks

• A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one

enterprise from those of other enterprises.
• Trademarks date back to ancient times when artisans used to put their signature
or “mark” on their products.
• Trademarks in India are governed by Trade Marks Act 1999 which was
amended in 2010.

Geographical Indications

• A GI tag is a legal recognition given primarily to an agricultural, natural or a

manufactured product (handicrafts & industrial goods) originating from a definite
geographical territory.
• GI tag conveys an assurance of quality & distinctiveness of a product, which
is essentially attributable to the place of its origin.
• Most commonly, a geographical indication includes the name of the place of
origin of the goods.
• Once the GI protection is granted, no other producer can misuse the name to
market similar products.
• It also provides comfort to customers about the authenticity of that product.
• Geographical Indicators in India are governed by “The Geographical
Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999”.

What is the difference between a Geographical Indication (GI) & a

Trademark?

• A trademark is a sign/word/phrase used by an entity to distinguish its goods &

services from those of others.

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 • A geographical indication tells consumers that a product is produced in a
certain place & has certain characteristics that are due to that place of
production.
• A trademark gives the entity the right to prevent others from using the trademark.
• On the other hand, GI may be used by all producers who make their products
in the place designated by a geographical indication.

Trade secrets

• Trade secrets are IP rights on confidential information which may be sold or

licensed.
• The unauthorized acquisition use or disclosure of such secret information by
others is regarded as an unfair practice & a violation of the trade secret
protection.
• There is no specific law.

Plant Variety Protection

• It refers to the protection granted for plant varieties.

• These rights are given to the farmers & breeders to encourage the development
of new varieties of plants.
• Plant variety protection in India is governed by “The Protection of Plant
Varieties & Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001”.

Protection of Plant Varieties & Farmers’ Rights (PPVFR) Act,

2001

• PPVFR Act, 2001 has been enacted in India for giving effect to
the TRIPS Agreement.
• The PPVFR Act retained the main spirit of TRIPS viz., IPRs as an incentive for
technological innovation.
• However, the Act also had strong provisions to protect farmers’ rights.
• The act allows farmers to plant, grow, exchange & sell patent-protected
crops, including seeds, & only bars them from selling it as “branded seed”.
• It recognised three roles for the farmer: cultivator, breeder & conserver.
• As cultivators, farmers were entitled to plant-back rights.
• As breeders, farmers were held equivalent to plant breeders.
• As conservers, farmers were entitled to rewards from a National Gene Fund.

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After joining WTO in 1995, the choice before India was to either enact a law or to accept
the plant breeders’ rights given by the International Union for Protection of New Plant
Varieties (UPOV Convention).

UPOV option was earlier rejected because it denied the farmers the freedom to re-
use farm-saved seeds & to exchange them with their neighbours. However, in
2002, India joined the UPOV convention.

Objectives of the PPVFR Act

• Facilitate an effective system for the protection of plant varieties & the rights of
farmers.
• Encourage the development of new varieties of plants.
• Protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution in conserving plant
genetic resources.
• Facilitate the growth of the seed industry which will ensure the availability of high
quality seeds.

Criticism of PPVFR Act, 2001

• Discourages research & innovation: PPVFR Act allows farmers to use

patented varieties & hence private companies are not keen to bring new
technology.
• India neither invests in public sector nor respects private & foreign players’ IPR
(bad for business).

National IPR Policy, 2016

• The Policy aims to push IPRs as a marketable financial asset, promote
innovation & entrepreneurship while protecting public interest.
• The plan will be reviewed every five years in consultation with stakeholders.
• To have strong & effective IPR laws, steps would be taken — including review of
existing IP laws — to update & improve them or to remove anomalies &
inconsistencies.
• The policy is entirely compliant with the WTO’s agreement on TRIPS.
• Department of industrial policy & promotion (DIPP) is the nodal agency for
all IPR issues.
• The policy retains the provisions on Compulsory Licensing (CL) as well
as preventing ever-greening of drug patents (Section 3(d) of India’s Patents
Act).

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 • Under Indian Patents Act, a CL can be issued for a drug if the medicine is
deemed unaffordable, among other conditions, & the government grants
permission to qualified generic drug makers to manufacture it.

Objectives under policy are

Intellectual Property Rights Issues: The Five Major

Challenges Faced

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 • There are many IPR issues that one faces while getting IP rights in India. The
issues are as follows:

Patent Evergreening Prevention

• One of the most important intellectual property rights issues challenges is the
prevention of the evergreening of the patents for multinational companies.
• Evergreening is strategy for extending the term of granted patent which is about
to expire without increasing therapeutic efficacy in order to retain royalties.
• As we know, the companies cannot evergreen their patents simply by
making minor changes.
• So, section 3(d) in the Indian Patent Act (IPA) possess as one of the biggest
issues with regards to IPR.
• This act bars the grant of patents to new forms of substances.
• This has discouraged investments from western countries.

Subsidies & IPR Issues

• A major form of subsidies includes food subsidy, fertilizer subsidy, education

subsidy, etc.
• For the complete implementation of TRIPS agreements, one needs to reduce or
eliminate these subsidies.
• Thus, GOI needs to create a balance between providing subsidies &
providing IP rights in India.

The Product Patents Process

• A product patent protects a product.

• It offers high protection to the original inventor to reduce the competition for the
same product.
• Whereas a process patent protects the process through which one
manufactures the product & not the product.
• It reduces the element of monopoly in the market.
• As India is a part of the TRIPS agreement, the agreement requires all its
members to shift their patent regime from process to product patent.
• This remains a challenge for India, as process patent would be more helpful to a
country like India.
• This is since India is a developing country & ordinary people are struggling with
basic necessities like food.

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Protecting traditional knowledge

• Traditional knowledge, especially in the field of medicine, is like a gold mine.

• GOI is bound to protect traditional knowledge by not allowing MNC’s to get
patents on traditional culture.
• Above all, the government has created a Traditional Knowledge Digital Library
(TKDL) to prevent the patenting of traditional knowledge.
• So, this is one of the intellectual property rights issues in India.

Compulsory Licensing & Drug Price Control Order

• One of the most important intellectual property rights issues that the government
needs to address is the use of compulsory licensing.
• Compulsory licenses are authorizations given to a third-party by the
Government to make, use or sell a particular patented product without the
need of the permission of the patent owner.
• The provisions regarding compulsory licenses are given in the Indian Patents Act,
1970 & in the TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)
Agreement.
• It is a relaxation available to the developing countries under the TRIPS
agreement, something which organizations misuse sometimes.
• Moreover, under section 84 of the IPA, a company can acquire a compulsory
license for “private commercial use” under certain circumstances.
• With the Drug Price Control Order, the company needs to justify the price of the
drug with regards to investments.
• If someone plays foul, then the government has the right to intervene.
• Multinationals are asking the government to revoke this provision.
• However, the government is not ceding the demands to protect the interest of the
masses.

Some other issues

• Trademark Violations: India has very high level of trademark counterfeiting

against which the authorities in India do not take proper actions.
• Enforcement of IPR regulations is quite weak in the country because of two
important reasons
• India is key exporter of counterfeit fake products such as foodstuffs, textiles,
shoes, electronics etc
• Judicial delays in IPR disputes

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 • India maintains high custom duties on IP intensive products as advocated by
western countries impacting the investment (US puts India into priority watch list
i.e., special 301 report).

Achievements under new IPR policy

Global rankings

• India is continuing to improve its global ranking. In the last years’ global
innovation index, we improved five places to 52nd (2019).
IPR filings (Report of 2017-18)

1. The number of patent applications examined more than doubled (108.2%

increase over the previous year).
2. Grant of patents increased by 32.5% and disposal of applications increased by
57.6%.
3. The filing of copyright applications has increased by 7.4% during the year.
4. a total of 11837 design applications were filed showing a 15.9% increase over the
last year.
5. A total number of 25 Geographical Indications were registered.
Strengthening of Institutional Mechanism

• simplified trademark procedures and removal of redundant resulted in a reduction

of the number of Forms from 74 to 8
Clearing Backlog/ Reducing Pendency in IP applications

• The augmentation of technical manpower by the government has resulted in

a drastic reduction in pendency in IP applications.
• Automatic issuance of electronically generated patent and trademark certificates
has also been introduced.
Creating IPR Awareness

• Awareness creation in over 200 academic institutions through satellite

communication. Awareness generation is done also for various stakeholders
such as industry, police, customs, and judiciary.
IPRs in School Syllabus

• The NCERT curriculum (Commerce stream) has included IPRs in its subjects.
Technology and Innovation Support Centres (TISCs)

• 6 TISCs have been formed in various institutions in the country.

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 1. Compulsory licensing (CL) is when a government allows someone else to
produce
a patented product or process without the consent of the patent owner or plans to
use
the patent-protected invention itself.
2. It is one of the flexibilities in the field of patent protection included in the WTO’s
agreement on intellectual property — the TRIPS.
3. When a CL is issued, the patent owner loses rights over the patent and need not
be
compensated for copies of the products made under the compulsory license.
a. 1 only
b. 1 and 2 only
c. 2 and 3 only
d. 1, 2, and 3

Answer: b. 1 and 2 only

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