Gist of GC Leong

By Rohit Lodha
 Chapter 1: The Earth and the Universe

▪ Stars are not scattered regularly in space and occur in clusters - described as
galaxies or nebulas. Each galaxy with 100 million stars i.e. earth’s own galaxy Milky
Way (1,00,000 million stars). Light travels with the speed of 186,000 miles/second)
from nearest star/sun/moon takes 4 years/8 min/a second to reach earth.
▪ Solar System: Sun + 8 planets (developed from condensation of gases & revolving
around sun in elliptical orbits, shine only by reflected light of sun) + other lesser
bodies. Mercury closest to sun (36 miles away)/smallest- completes orbit fast- a
year of only 88 days.
▪ Venus called Earths Twin (close proximity in size/mass/weight/density). Earth has
natural satellite i.e. Moon (238900 miles away), revolving eastward around Earth
once in every 27 days.
▪ Mars has dark patches on its surface, also have possibility of life
▪ Jupiter is largest (H/He/Methane over surface) and distinguished from others by circular
light/dark bands and 79 satellite circling around it. It is 485 million miles away from
sun/cold surface (-130°C)
▪ Saturn has 7 rings & 82 satellites and 2nd largest after Jupiter—takes 29.5 years to
complete its orbit.
▪ Uranus was 1st seen as faint bluish green discontinuous orbits around sun in clockwise
direction unlike other planets-from east to west with 13 satellites revolving around it.
▪ Neptune/Pluto are just visible with telescope.
▪ Their discoveries were result of mathematical calculations on their irregular gravitational
effects on neighboring planetary bodies
▪ Neptune closely resembles Uranus, except that it has 6 satellites & is probably
much colder.
▪ Pluto was given the status of 9th planet of solar system but International
Astronomical Union (IAU) demoted Pluto to dwarf planet in 2006 because it
should meet 3 conditions as follows:
1. It must revolve around the sun in well established orbit.
2. It must be so massive to be a sphere under its own gravitational force
3. It must not intersect the orbits of other planets
▪ As Pluto could not meet the third condition, it was given the status of dwarf planet
and is the second largest dwarf planet in the solar system after Eris.
▪ Sun: surface temp. 6000 C (10800F)—increases to 20 million C in interior. Fiery
gases over surface, leaping up in whirls of glowing flames; 300000 X Earth's in size
▪ Shape of Earth: earlier days, sailors feared to venture far into distant ocean -
considering earth to be flat, having edge. But earth is spherical (from accumulated
knowledge, experience, observations in different parts of the world.
▪ Equatorial Circumference: 24897 miles & Polar Circumference: less by 83 miles.
Equatorial Dia: 7926 miles &Polar Dia: shorter by 26 miles.- shows earth is not
perfect sphere, -little flattened at both ends (like orange), may be called geoid
(earth shaped).
▪ Spherical shape of earth is also masked by intervening highlands & oceans on its
surface.
 Evidence of Earth’s Sphericity

▪ Circum-navigation of the earth: First voyage around the world by Ferdinand

Magellan & his crew (1519-22) provide that earth is spherical. No traveler going
round the world by land/sea ever encountered an abrupt edge, over which he
world fall. Modern air routes/ocean navigation are based on assumption that
earth is round.
▪ Circular Horizon: Distant horizon viewed from deck of a ship at sea, or from a cliff
on land is always/ everywhere circular in shape. This circular horizon widens with
increasing attitude & could be seen on spherical body.
▪ Ship’s Visibility: When ship appears over distant horizon, top of mast is seen first
before the hull. When it leaves harbour, its disappearance over curved surface is
equally gradual. If earth was flat, entire ship would be seen/obscured all at once.
▪ Sunrise & Sunset: sun rises & sets at different times in different places. As earth
rotates from west to east, places in east see sun earlier than those in west, (would
happen at same time all over the world if it was flat)
▪ Lunar Eclipse: shadow cast by earth on moon during lunar eclipse is circular. Takes
outline of arc of circle. Only a sphere can cost such a circular shadow.
▪ Planetary bodies(sun/moon/satellites/stars) are strictly spherical: earth can’t be
exception.
▪ Driving poles on level ground on a curved path: engineers when driving poles of
equal length at regular intervals of ground, found they do not give perfect
horizontal level. The centre pole projects slightly above poles at either end
because of earth’s curvature.
▪ Surveyors/field engineers made certain corrections for this inevitable curvature i.e.
8 inches to the mile.
▪ Aerial Photograph: pictures taken from high altitudes by
▪ Rockets/satellites shows curved edge of earth.
▪ Earth’s Movement: moves in 2 ways, rotates on its own axis from west to east once
in every 24 hours, causing day & night; Revolves round the sun in orbit, once in
every 365 days, causing seasons & year.
▪ Day & Night: when earth rotates on its own axis, only one portion of earth’s surface
comes into rays of sun & experiences daylight. Other portion which is away from
sun's rays will be in darkness. As earth rotates from west to east, every parts of
earth’s surface will be brought under sun at some time or other.
▪ A part of earth’s surface that emerges from darkness into sun’s rays experiences
sunrise. Later, when it is gradually obscured from sun’s beams it experiences
sunset. Sun is stationary and earth rotates.
▪ Earth’s Revolution: Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. One
revolution takes 365.4 days. This 0.4 (6 hours) is adjusted to leap year.
 Varying Length of Day and Night
▪ The axis of the Earth is inclined at an angle of 66 1/2 degree with orbital plane giving rise to different
seasons and varying lengths of days and nights. Orbital plane is the plane of earth’s orbit around the
Sun.
▪ In Northern hemisphere in winter (December) as we go northwards, the hours of darkness steadily
increases.
▪ At the Arctic Circle (66 1/2 degree north), the sun never rises and there is darkness for the whole day
in mid winter or 22nd December.
▪ Beyond Arctic Circle the number of days with complete darkness increases, until we reach the North
Pole when half the year will have darkness.
▪ In the summer (June) conditions are exactly reversed. Daylight increases as one goes polewards.
▪ At the Arctic Circle the sun never sets at midsummer (21st June) and there is complete 24 hour period
of continuous daylight.
▪ In southern hemisphere the same process takes place except the conditions are reversed.
 Apparent Motion of the Sun

▪ Due to the inclined axis of the earth and its revolution round the sun there are
changes in apparent altitude of the midday sun.
▪ The sun is vertically overhead at the two days of each year that is 21st March and
23rd September. They are known as equinoxes.
▪ On these two days all parts of the world have equal days and nights.
▪ In summer solstice that is 21 June the northern hemisphere will have longest day
and shortest night. While on Winter solstice that is 22nd December, the northern
hemisphere will have shortest day and longest night.
▪ The tropics thus mark the limits of the overhead sun, for beyond these, the sun is
never overhead at any time of the year.
Seasonal changes and their effects on temperature

▪ In summer the sun is overhead and its rays fall almost vertically on the earth,
concentrating its heat on small area.
▪ Thus temperature rises and summer becomes warm.
▪ In winter the oblique rays of the sun spread on greater area thus leads to little heat
and thus temperature remains low.
▪ In addition days are longer in summer and shorter in winter.
 Latitude

▪ Latitude represents north-south location, and it is shown on a map or globe by a

series of east-west running lines that parallel the equator, which marks the
midpoint between the two poles all around the earth's circumference -- these lines
of latitude are called "parallels."
▪ It is parallel to a line, the equator. Thus these lines are called parallels of the
latitude.
▪ Besides the equator (0°), the north pole (90°N) and the south pole (90° S), there
are four important parallels of latitudes–
▪ Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the northern hemisphere.
▪ Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the southern hemisphere.
▪ Arctic Circle at 66½° N of the equator.
▪ Antarctic Circle at 66½° S of the equator.
 Longitude

▪ It is an angular distance measured in degrees along the equator east or west of the Prime
Meridian.
▪ As the latitude become shorter polewards, so the meridians of the longitude, which
converge at the poles, enclose in narrower space.
▪ Longitude is used to determine the local time w.r.t. GMT or Greenwich Mean Time and
date w.r.t. IDL.
▪ Since the earth makes one complete rotation of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it passes
through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
▪ The Earth rotates from west to east so every 15 degrees we go eastwards, local time
advanced by 1 hour. Conversely, if we go westwards, local time is retarded by 1 hour.
▪ We may thus conclude that places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time,
whereas places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose time.
▪ The Indian government has accepted the Meridian of 82.5 degree east for standard time
which is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of GMT.
 The Structure of Interior of the Earth

▪ The earth is made up of several layers as follows

▪ The outer layer is earth’s crust i.e. continental and
oceanic crust
▪ Continental crust is made up of granitic rocks
(density 2.7) and oceanic crust is made up of
basaltic rocks (density 3)
▪ Beneath the crust immediately there is mantle (or
mesosphere) composed of olivine.
▪ Upper mantle is consist of asthenosphere (depth of
300km)
▪ The layer below mantle is core (or barysphere)
present at 2900km.
 The Rocks

Igneous Rocks
▪ They are solidified form of magma or lava and
are also known as Primary rocks.
▪ They are mostly hard rocks.
▪ Mostly granular or crystalline in nature.
▪ They do not form strata or layers.
▪ They are less affected by chemical weathering.
▪ They do not contain any fossils.
▪ E.g. Granite, Gabbro, Pegmatite, Basalt etc.
Sedimentary Rocks:
▪ They contain fossils of plants and animals. Around 75% of surface area of the earth is made up of these
rocks. Despite of their largest coverage over surface they constitute only 5% area of the crust.
▪ The deposition of various types & sizes to form sedimentary rocks takes place in certain sequence &
system.
▪ Thus they contain several layers or strata and are seldom crystalline rocks.
▪ Like crystalline rocks they are not found in massive forms.
▪ The layers of these rocks are generally deformed due to compressional and tensional forces.
▪ They may be well consolidated poorly consolidated & even unconsolidated.
▪ Most of the rocks are permeable and porous.
▪ E.g. Sandstone, Conglomerate, Shale, Loess, Gypsum, Dolomites, limestone etc.
Metamorphic Rocks

▪ It is formed out of existing rocks undergoing

recrystallization.

▪ It includes rocks that have been changed either in

form or composition without disintegration but
through pressure, volume & temperature changes.

▪ Unlike igneous rocks, the texture of metamorphic

rocks is the result of recrystallization or conversion of
one mineral to another in the solid state.

▪ Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced down to

lower levels by tectonic processes or when molten
magma rising through the crust comes in contact with
the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are subjected
to great amount of pressure by overlying rocks.
 Earth Movements and Major Landforms

▪ Agents of denudation (running water/rain/frost/sun/wind/ glaciers/wave)

constantly changes earth's face - varied/diverse present landforms.
▪ These agents modify patterns of mountain/plateau/plains which have been
modified by movements of earth’s crust.
▪ So far 9 orogenic/mountain building movements taken place—
folding/fracturing the earth's crust.
▪ Some during Pre-Cambrian times -600-3500 million years ago. 3 recent
orogenies: Caledonian, Hercynian & Alpine
 Types of mountains
Fold Mountains
▪ Formed by folding of geosyncline sediments under compressible tectonic
forces
▪ Length is greater but width is narrow
▪ For Ex. Himalaya, Alps, Rockies, Andes, Applachian, Ural, Aravalis
▪ Since the rock strata have been elevated to great heights, Fold Mountains
are also called mountains of elevation
▪ Are closely associated with volcanic activities
▪ Contains many active volcanoes, especially in circum Pacific fold mountain
system.
▪ Are rich in mineral resources such as Tin, Copper, Gold & Petroleum
 Types of Folds

▪ Wave like bends are formed in the crustal rocks due to compressive forces, such bends are called
folds.
▪ The up folded rock strata are called anticlines while down folded part is called syncline.
▪ Symmetrical folds: The limbs of which incline uniformly.
▪ Asymmetrical folds: These are unequal & irregular limbs. Both the limbs are inclined at different
angle
▪ Monoclinal folds: One limb inclines moderately while other limb incline at right angle to the
surface
▪ Isoclinal folds: are formed when both limbs of the folds become parallel but not horizontal
▪ Recumbent folds: They are parallel as well as horizontal
▪ Overthrust folds: Fracture in recumbent fold when one limb slides forward over thrust plane.
 Block Mountains

▪ Formed due to faults caused by tension or

compression forces which lengthen or shorten
earth’s crust
▪ It causes a section of it to subside or rise above
the surrounding level
▪ For Ex. Vosges (France), Black Forest (Germany)
▪ Faulting results in formation of Block
Mountains & their counterparts in rift valleys
▪ In general, large scale Block Mountains & rift
valleys are due to tension rather than
compression
 Volcanic Mountains

▪ Also known as mountains of

accumulation
▪ Formed due to accumulation of
thick lava as a result of volcanic
eruption
▪ Common in circum pacific belt
▪ For Ex. Fuji Yama (Japan), Mt.
Popa (Myanmar), Mt. Mauna
loa (Hawai), Mt. Mayon
(Phillipines), Mt. Agung (Bali),
Mt. Merapi (Sumatra) & Mt.
Cotopaxi (Euador)
 Residual Mountains

▪ Formed due to waning of previously

existing elevated regions by erosion
▪ For Ex. Nilgiris, Parasnath Hills of Peninsula
India, Mt. Monadnock (USA)
▪ Mountains evolved by denudation, where
the general level of land have been
lowered by agents of denudation; also
known as mountains of denudation
 Plateaux

▪ An elevated area compared to its surroundings, having

a large almost flat top area (Also known as tableland)

▪ Like all highlands, Plateaus are also subjected to

erosional processes, as a result their original
characteristics are highly altered

▪ According to their mode of formation & their physical

appearance, plateaus may be divided into 3 types viz.

1. Tectonic Plateau
2. Volcanic Plateau
3. Dissected Plateau
4. Piedmont Plateau
 Plains

▪ A plain is an area of lowland, either level or

undulating; seldom rising > 100 ft. above sea
level. There may be low hills (giving typical
rolling topography);
▪ Plains usually form best land of a country & are
often intensively cultivated; high concentration
of population/settlements; with economic
importance when traversed by rivers (most of
them are) ex: Indo-Gangetic plain, the
Mississippi plain, Yang-tze plain
▪ Some of the most extensive temperate plains
are grasslands like Russian Steppes, North
American Prairies, Argentinian Pampas
 Types of Plains

Structural Plains:
▪ These are structurally depressed areas of the world; makes up some most extensive
natural lowlands on earth's surface; formed by horizontally bedded rocks; relatively
undisturbed by the crustal movements of the earth.
▪ Russian Platform, Great Plains of USA, Central lowlands of Australia
Depositional Plains:
▪ Plains formed by deposition of materials brought by various agents of
transportation; comparatively level but rise gently towards adjacent highlands;
fertility/economic development depend greatly on types of sediments they laid
down
▪ Few are due to deposition by large rivers. Active erosion in upper course results in
large quantities of alluvium being brought down to the lower course & deposited
to form extensive alluvial plains, food plains & deltaic plains. They form most
productive agricultural plains of world, intensively tilled & very densely populated.
▪ Winds may blow Aeolian deposits -very fine particles known as loess—from
interior deserts or barren surfaces & deposits them upon hills, valleys or plains
forming a loess plateauas in N-W China, or a loess plain, as in Pampas of Argentina.
The loess helps to level an undulating plain by filling up grooves/depressions. Many
of loess-covered plains in world are fertile agri-regions.
Erosional Plains:
▪ Carved by agents of erosion -^Rain/rivers/ice/wind help to smooth out the irregularities of
earth's surface & in terms of millions of years, even high mountains can be reduced to low
undulating plains. Such plains of denudation are described as peneplains (means: almost-
plains)
▪ Rivers deepen the valleys, widening their banks in their course from source to sea. The
projecting spurs are cut back so that the level ground bordering the river is constantly
widened. At the same time the higher land b/w the rivers is gradually lowered.
▪ In glaciated regions, glaciers & ice sheets scoured/leveled the land forming ice- scoured
plains. Hollows scooped out by the ice are now filled by lakes. There are extensive ice-
scoured plains in northern Europe & northern Canada. Finland have 35K lakes (occupying
10% of the total land surface of the country)
▪ In arid/semi-arid regions, wind deflation sweeps away much of the eroded desert materials,
lowering the level of land & forming extensive plains ex: the gravelly or stony desert plains
called reg in Africa. Mechanical weathering wears back the mountain slopes to leave a gently
sloping pediments or pediplains
 Chapter 3 Volcanism and Earthquakes

▪ It is a process of eruption of molten material or magma into the crust or is

poured out on its surface. The molten material is called ‘lava’ when it comes
out on the surface of the earth.
▪ Subduction of one plate under other in case of converging plate boundary
and resultant melting of rocks due to high temp and pressure which rises
along the fissures of rocks.
▪ In case of diverging boundaries thinning of upper crust leads to reduction in
overlying pressure of rocks causing decrease in rock melting point and
formation of magma which rises and erupts as lava from fissure volcanoes.
▪ Some continental volcanoes located away from plate boundaries are also
formed due to stressing of plates and creation of faults.
 Types of lava
Basic Lava:
▪ Rich in iron & magnesium.
▪ Poor in silica content.
▪ Highly fluid in nature, thus flows faster.
▪ It is also known as mafic lava due to low silica content.
Acidic Lava:
▪ Poor in iron & magnesium.
▪ Rich in silica content.
▪ Highly viscous thus flows slowly.
▪ It is also known as felsic lava due to high silica content.
 Types of volcanoes
▪ On this basis volcanoes are classified as-Active, Dormant and Extinct. An
active volcano is a volcano that has had at least one eruption during the
past 10,000 years. An active volcano might be erupting or dormant. Mount
Etna and Stromboli of Mediterranean Sea are the most significant examples
of it. Most of the active volcanoes are found around MOR representing
divergent plate boundaries.
▪ The volcano which has not erupted for a longtime but is expected to be
active at any time is called a dormant volcano for E.g. Visuvious volcano is
the best example of dormant volcano. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania (Africa) is
considered to be a dormant volcano.
▪ An extinct volcano has not had an eruption for at least 10,000 years and is
not expected to erupt again in a comparable time scale of the future for
e.g. Mount Buninyong in Australia.
 Extrusive Topography

Shield Volcano
▪ These are the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth
▪ A shield volcano is a type of volcano usually built almost entirely of fluid
lava flows thus it is not steep.
▪ Its eruption is like a fountain and is not explosive
▪ They are named for their low profile, resembling a warrior's shield lying on
the ground.
▪ Largest shield volcano is the Mouna Loa on Hawaiin Islands
Composite Volcano
▪ A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano
consisting of layers of solid lava flows mixed with layers of other rock such as
tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash.
▪ They are the highest of all volcanic cones.
▪ Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile and
periodic explosive eruptions & are the most common type of volcanoes on Earth.
▪ The magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high-to-intermediate levels of
silica
▪ E.g. Mount Fuji, Krakatoa
Dome Volcano
▪ These are formed where the lavas coming out of volcanic eruptions are highly
viscous and rich in silica content. They erupt with moderate intensity.
▪ Such cones are very often known as Strombolian type of cones
Cinder Cone Volcano
▪ Cinder(a small piece of partly burnt coal or wood that has stopped giving off
flames but still has combustible matter in it.) cones are mounds of basaltic
fragments. Streaming gases carry liquid lava blobs into the atmosphere that rain
back to earth around the vent to form a cone.
▪ The lava blobs commonly solidify, or partially solidify, during flight through the air
before landing on the ground. They are called "bombs."
▪ The longer the eruption the higher the cone. Some are no higher than a few
meters and others rise to as high as 610 meters or more
▪ E.g. Paricutin volcano, Mexico
 Depressed Forms

Craters:
▪ The depression formed at the mouth of a volcanic vent is called a crater
or a volcanic mouth which is funnel shaped.
Calderas:
▪ Generally, enlarged form of a crater is called as caldera.
▪ It is surrounded by steep walls from all sides. The caldera is formed due to
subsidence of a crater.
 Intrusive Volcanic Topography or Hypabyssal
Landforms
Batholiths:
▪ These are long irregular and undulating forms of solidified intruded magmas.
▪ They are usually dome shaped.
Laccoliths:
▪ They are mushroom shaped having convex summital form.
▪ The ascending gases during a volcanic eruption force the upper strata of the flat layered
igneous rocks to arch up in the form of a convex arch or a dome.
Phacoliths:
▪ Formed due to injection of magma along the anticlines and synclines in the regions of folded
mountains.
Lopoliths:
▪ When magma is injected and solidified in a concave shallow basin whose central part is sagged
downward, the resultant form of solidified magma is called lopolith.
Sills:
▪ These are solidified horizontal lava layers inside the earth.
▪ The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending
on the thickness of the material.
▪ The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
Dykes:
▪ When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it
solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
▪ It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such structures are
called dykes.
▪ These are the most commonly found in intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the
Deccan traps.
Geysers:
▪ These are the special type of hot springs which throws out hot water and vapour from
time to time.
▪ The difference between hotspring and geyser is that, in hotspring there is continuous
spouting of hot water while there is irregular spouting of water from geyser.
Fumaroles:
▪ It means such a vent through which there is emission of gases and water vapor.
▪ It appears from the distant place that there is emission of enormous volumes of smokes
from a particular center.
▪ Emission of gases and vapour begins after the emission of volcanic material is terminated
in an active volcano.
 World distribution of Volcanoes

Circum-Pacific Belt or Ring of Fire:

▪ Volcanic activity here is mainly the result of convergent oceanic plate margins.
▪ This volcanic belt is also known as Ring of Fire. Regions are western side of South
and North America and eastern side of Philippines, Indonesia, Japan etc.
▪ Most of the volcanic cones & high volcanic mountains are found in this zone. E.g.
Mt. Cotopaxi, Mt. Fujiyama, Mt. Shasta etc.
Mid-Continental Plate:
▪ This belt includes the volcanoes of Alpine mountain chains & Mediterranean sea &
the volcanoes of fault zones of eastern Africa.
▪ The important volcanic mountains in this region are Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt. Meru,
Mt. Elgon etc.
Mid-Atlantic Belt:
▪ Here the volcanoes are mainly fissure eruption type and occur along the
constructive plate boundaries.
▪ The MOR can be seen in this region.
Intraplate Volcanoes:
▪ Other than above mentioned regions there are certain scattered
volcanoes found in the inner parts of the continents.
▪ The reason of their formation is mostly hotspot activity.
 Chapter 4: Weathering, Mass Movement and
Groundwater
▪ Earth crust is constantly undergoing geological change caused by internal forces—
create new relief features. Orogenesis build new mountain ranges;
uplift/depression of particular area is caused by faulting/folding; volcanic
disruptions modify landscapes. External forceswork vigorously to wear away
surface. Interaction of both forces—diversified landforms.
▪ Wearing away of earth cause general lowering/leveling out of surface- called
denudation. It is carried out in 4 phases
1. Weathering: Gradual disintegration of rocks by atmospheric or weather forces
2. Erosion: The active wearing away of earth’s surface by moving agents like running
water, wind, ice and waves etc.
3. Transportation: the removal of the eroded debris to new position
4. Deposition: the dumping of the debris in certain part of the earth to accumulate.
 Chemical Weathering

▪ Solution: Process involves removal of solids in solution and depends upon

solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids.
▪ Carbonation: Reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals which helps in
breaking down of those carbonate minerals.
▪ Hydration: Chemical addition of water. Minerals take up water and expand. This
not only increases their volume but also produces chemical changes resulting in
the formation of new minerals which are softer and more voluminous. Calcium
sulphate takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is more unstable than
calcium sulphate.
▪ Oxidation & Reduction: It means a combination of a mineral with oxygen to form
oxides or hydroxides. When oxidized minerals are kept in an environment where
O2 is absent, reduction takes place.
 Physical Weathering

▪ Repeated temperature changes: In desert due to extreme heating outer

layers of the rock gets heated more than inner layers during day, while during
night outer layers contract more than inner layers due to cooling. This creates
internal stress. Repitation of such process leads to cracks and splits.
▪ Repeated wetting and drying: Exfoliation is not confined to desert areas,
happens similar by repeated wetting & drying of layers. Rocks become wet
due to rainfall or other sources & absorbs certain amount of moisture &
expand. When they dry this moisture evaporates quickly shrinks, -repeated -
outer layers split off. Rocks dry very quickly after being wetted by brief desert
rain storm
▪ Mainly at high altitudes & cold climates where during day cracks & joints
inside rock fill with water & during night they get frozen
▪ This leads to increase in volume of water in rock approx. by 9 %
Biotic Weathering
▪ Plants and animals including man largely control breakdown of rocks. Biotic weathering is divided into
3 types as:
1. Faunal weathering: Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, rodents etc., help in
exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the penetration of moisture and air.
2. Floral weathering: Weathering of rocks by vegetation takes place in 2 ways-
i) Physical weathering: Plant roots exert a tremendous pressure on the earth materials
mechanically breaking them apart.
ii) Chemical weathering: Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humic,
carbonic and other acids which enhance decay and solubility of some elements.
3. Anthropogenic weathering: Mining activities for extraction of minerals, blasting of hills and ridges
by dynamites for road and dam construction and mineral extraction, quarrying for industrial
and building materials etc. result in such a fast rate of disintegration of geomaterials that this
may be accomplished by natural weathering processes in thousands and millions of years.
 Mass Movement

▪ It is the movement of weathered material down a slope due to gravity.

▪ This movement can be sudden or gradual, depending upon the gradient of the slope,
the weight of the weathered debris or whether there lubrication provided by water.
Some of the types are,
▪ Creep: Occur on moderately steep, soil covered slopes. Movement of material is
extremely slow and imperceptible. (E.g. Bending of telephone pole)
▪ Solifluction: Slow down slope flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris saturated or
lubricated with water. Common in moist temperate areas where surface melting of
deeply frozen ground and long continued rain occur frequently.
▪ Earthflow: Movement of water saturated clayey or silty earth materials down low angle
terraces or hillsides is known as earthflow.
▪ Mudflow: In the absence of vegetation cover and with heavy rainfall, thick
layers of weathered materials get saturated with water and either slowly
or rapidly flow down along definite channels. It looks like a stream of mud
within a valley.
▪ Avalanche: An avalanche (also called a snowslide or snowslip) is a rapid
flow of snow down a sloping surface. Avalanches are typically triggered in
a starting zone from a mechanical failure in the snowpack (slab avalanche)
when the forces on the snow exceed its strength.
▪ Landslides: It is the movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope. They
result from the failure of the material which make up the hill slope and are
driven by the force of gravity. Some types are slump, debris slide etc.
 Groundwater

▪ Porous rocks are those, like sandstone which have many pore spaces between the
grains.
▪ Permeable or pervious rocks are those which allow water to pass through them
easily. Thus most porous rocks are also permeable. However some rocks are
porous but not permeable.
▪ Vadose Zone: The vadose zone, also termed the unsaturated zone, is the part of
Earth between the land surface and the top of the phreatic zone, the position at
which the groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) is at atmospheric pressure.
▪ Phreatic Zone: The phreatic zone, or zone of saturation, is the area in an aquifer,
below the water table, in which relatively all pores and fractures are saturated
with water. The phreatic zone defines the lower edge of the vadose zone.
▪ Aquifers: An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock,
rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt).
There are four types of aquifers
▪ Unconfined aquifers: An aquifer which is not overlain by any confining layer but has a
confining layer at its bottom is called unconfined aquifer. It is normally exposed to the
atmosphere and its upper portion is partly saturated with water. The upper surface of
saturation is called water table which is under atmospheric pressure therefore this aquifer is
also called phreatic aquifer.
▪ Perched aquifers: It is a special case of an unconfined aquifer. This type of aquifer occurs
when an impervious or relatively impervious layer of limited area in the form of a lens is
located in the water bearing unconfined aquifer. As shown in Fig. 16.3 the water storage
created above the lens is perched aquifer and its top layer is called perched water table.
▪ Confined aquifers: It is also called artesian aquifer. It is a type of aquifer overlain as well as
underlain by confining layers. The water within the aquifer is therefore held under pressure.
It is sometimes called pressure aquifer also.
▪ Leaky aquifers: In nature, truly confined aquifers are rare because the confining layers are
not hundred per cent impervious. An aquifer which is overlain or underlain by a semi-
pervious layer (aquitard) through which vertical leakage takes place due to head difference is
called leaky aquifer or semi-confined aquifer.
 Chapter 5: Landforms made by Running Water

▪ Types of fluvial erosion

1. Solution or Corrosion involves the dissolution of soluble materials through
the processes of disintegration and decomposition of carbonate rocks. The
soluble materials are removed from the parent rocks and are mixed with
the running water of the streams.
2. Abrasion or Corrasion involves the removal of loosened materials of the
rocks of valley walls and valley floors with the help of erosional tools
(boulders, pebbles, cobbles etc.)
3. Attrition is the mechanical wear and tear of erosional tools in themselves.
4. Hydraulic Action involves the breakdown of the rocks of valley sides due to
the impact of water currents of channel.
 Erosional Landforms
▪ River Valleys: Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills will gradually develop
into long and wide gullies; the gullies will further deepen, widen and lengthen to
give rise to ravines. A ravine is a landform narrower than a canyon and is often the
product of stream cutting erosion. Further erosion of ravines would form valleys.
Depending upon dimensions and shape, many types of valleys like V-shaped
valley, gorge, canyons etc. can be recognized. A gorge is a deep valley with very
steep to straight sides and a canyon is characterized by steep step like side slopes
and may be as deep as gorge. A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as well as
its bottom. In contrast, a canyon is wider at its top than at its bottom.
▪ Potholes and Plunge Pools: Over the rocky beds of the hill streams more or less
circular depression called potholes form because of stream erosion aided by the
abrasion of rock fragments. At the foot of waterfalls also, large potholes, quite
deep and wide, form because of the shear impact of water and rotation of
boulders. Such large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls are called plunge
pools.
▪ Waterfalls: Waterfalls are caused by sudden descent or abrupt
break in the longitudinal course of the rivers due to factors
such as variation in the relative resistance of the rocks, fall in
the sea level, earth movements etc.

▪ Rivers Meandering: It refers to the bends of longitudinal

courses of the rivers. Meandering is a natural process which is
governed by a number of environmental factors viz.
lithological characteristics, topography, general slope,
vegetation, annual precipitation etc.

▪ Oxbow lakes: When the curvature of the meander loops is so

accentuated due to lateral erosion, the meander loops
become almost circular and the two ends of the meander
loops come closer, consequently, the streams strengthen their
courses and meander loops are abandoned to form oxbow
lakes.
 Depositional Landforms

▪ Alluvial fans and cones: They are formed due to accumulation of materials formed
at the base of foothills where there is abrupt drop in the channel gradient. The
transporting capacity of the streams decreases enormously at the foothill zones
while they leave the mountains and enter the plain topography because of the
substantial decrease in their velocity consequent upon decrease in channel
gradient. Consequently, load consisting of finer to coarser and big sized materials
coming from upstream is deposited at the point of break in slope or foothill zone
and thus alluvial fans or cones are formed.
▪ Natural levees: The narrow belt of ridges of low height built by the deposition of
sediments by the spill water of the stream on its either bank is called natural levee
or natural embankments.
▪ Point bars: It is a depositional feature made up of alluvium that accumulates on the
inside bend of the stream and river below the slip off slope. Point bars are found in
abundance in mature or meandering streams. They have very gentle slope and an
elevation very close to water level.
Alluvial Fans and Cones
▪ Delta: The depositional feature of almost triangular shape at the mouth of a river
debouching either in the lake or a sea is called delta. The ideal condition for the
formation of delta include:
1. Shallow Sea
2. Long course of the rivers.
3. Medium size of the sediments.
4. Relatively calm sea at the mouth of the rivers.
5. Large amount of sediment supply.
6. There should not be too many lakes in the course of the river.
7. River should be in young stage at the place of origin, in mature stage in the middle
course and should be in old stage at the mouth.
 Types of Delta
▪ Arcuate Delta: Such deltas are formed when the river water is as dense as the sea water. Arcuate delta are formed of
coarser materials such as gravels, sand and silt. Such deltas are very often formed in the regions of semi-arid climate.
E.g. Ganges Delta, Nile Delta.
▪ Bird Foot delta: Such deltas are formed when river water is lighter than the sea water. E.g. Mississippi delta.
▪ Estuarine delta: The deltas formed due to filling of the estuaries of rivers are called estuarine deltas. E.g. Narmada and
Tapi rivers.
▪ Abandoned delta: When the rivers shift their mouths in the seas and oceans, new deltas are formed, while the
previous deltas are left unnourished. Such deltas are called abandoned deltas. E.g. Hoogli River.
▪ Truncated delta: Sea waves and ocean currents modify and even destroy deltas deposited by the river through their
erosional work. Thus, eroded and dissected deltas are called truncated deltas. E.g. Lough Leanne river Delta, Ireland.
▪ Blocked delta: Blocked deltas are those whose seaward growth is blocked by sea waves and ocean currents through
their erosional activities. The progradation of deltas may also be hampered due to sudden decrease in the supply of
sediments consequent upon climatic change or management of catchment areas of concerned rivers.
▪ Cuspate Delta: Cuspate deltas are vaguely shaped like a V with curved sides. Cuspate deltas form when a river flows
into a sea with waves that hit it head on, spreading the deposited sediment out. e.g. Ebro Delta, Spain, Tiber Delta, Italy.
 Chapter 6: Landforms of Glaciation
▪ The Ice Age and Types of Ice Masses: During the Pleistocene period or Ice Ages, about
30000 years ago, great continental ice sheets covered much of the temperate latitudes. It is
estimated that more than 12 mn sq miles of northern hemisphere were buried by ice, half
of which was in North America and the rest in Europe, Greenland and the high mountains of
Eurasia.
▪ Warmer climate later led to retreat of the glacier. Today we have only two major ice caps
i.e. the Greenland and the Antarctica.
▪ Glaciation gives rise to erosional features in the highlands and depositional features on the
lowlands.
▪ A Glaciar erode its valley by two processes i.e. plucking and abrasion.
▪ In plucking the glacier freezes the joints and the beds of the underlying rocks, tears out
individual blocks and drag them away.
▪ By abrasion, the glacier scratches, scrapes, polishes and scours the valley floors.
 Erosional Landforms
▪ Cirque: The cirques quite often are found at the heads of glacial valleys. The
accumulated ice cuts these cirques while moving down the mountain tops. They
are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with very steep concave to vertically
dropping high walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water can be seen quite
often within the cirques after the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called cirque
lake or tarn lakes.
▪ Hanging Valley: The valleys of the tributary glaciers which join the main glacial
valleys of much greater depth are called hanging valleys. After deglaciation the
melt water of hanging valley forms waterfalls while joining the main valley.
▪ Horns/ Aretes: Horn forms through head ward erosion of the cirque walls. If three
or more radiating glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet, high, sharp
pointed and steep sided peaks called horn form.
▪ Crag and tail: It is a mass of hard rock with a steep slope on the upstream side
which protects the softer leeward slope from being completely worn down by the
oncoming ice.
▪ U-Shaped Valley: Due to excessive weight of the glaciers they may form a U-
shaped valley in the mountains within which they flow. The valley is characterized
by concave slopes and broad and flat valley floors.
▪ Fjords: It is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by glacial
erosion. Norway’s coastline is estimated to have 1190 fjords and thus form
excellent site for natural harbours.
▪ Nunatak: The higher peaks and mounds surrounded by ice from all sides are
called nunataks. They look like scattered small islands amid extensive ice masses.
Thus they are also called as glacial islands. They decrease in size due to erosion
caused by glacial erosion and frost action.
▪ Bergschrund: At the head of a glacier, where it begins to leave the snowfield of a
corrie, a deep vertical crack opens up called as bergschrund or rumave. This
mostly happens in summer when, although the ice continues to move out of the
corrie, there is no new snow to replace it.
 Depositional Landforms

▪ Moraines: They are long ridge of deposits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are long ridges
of debris deposited at the end of the glaciers. Lateral moraines form along the sides
parallel to the glacial valleys.
▪ Eskers: These are long, narrow, sinus ridges composed of sand and gravel which mark the
former sites of sub glacial melt water streams.
▪ Drumlins or Basket Egg Topography: The swarms of rounded hummocks resulting from the
deposition of glacial till are called drumlins. They look like an inverted boat or a spoon.
Usually these occur in cluster and regular pattern. Such topography is called ‘basket egg
topography’.
▪ Kames: Kames are small hills or irregular mounds of bedded sands and gravels which are
deposited by meltwater near or at the edge of the retreating ice sheets.
▪ Outwash Plains: The meltwater caused due to ablation of a glacier at its snout descends
through the terminal moraine and spreads like sheet water. This spreading water erodes
the terminal moraines and deposits the eroded sediments in front of the terminal
moraines and thus forms a plain which is called outwash plain. It is in fact, formed due to
coalescence of several alluvial fans in front of terminal moraines.
 Chapter 7: Arid or Desert Landforms

▪ Due to strong moving winds in the deserts winds causes deflation, attrition
(Mechanical wear and tear of the particles), saltation (movement of sands and
gravels through the mechanism of bouncing, jumping and hopping) etc. Deflation
involves the lifting and blowing away of loose materials from the ground. The wind
action creates a number of interesting erosional and depositional features in the
deserts.
▪ Deserts of the world are mostly formed between 15 to 30 degree latitude. Some
of the reasons are:
1. Offshore trade winds
2. Cold Currents
3. Subtropical high pressure belt
4. Leewards side of the mountains
 Types of desert

▪ Hamada or rocky desert: Large stretches of bare rocks, lack of sandy layer
removed due to wind. Exposed rocks are smooth. E.g. Hamada el Homra
of Libya in Sahara Desert
▪ Reg or stony desert: Composed of extensive sheets of angular pebbles
and gravels which winds are not able to blown off. Large herds of camels
are kept there.
▪ Erg or sandy desert: Winds deposit vast stretches of undulating sand
dunes in the desert . E.g. Calanscio Sand Sea in Libya. In Turkmenistan,
sandy deserts are aka koum
▪ Badlands: The term denotes badly eroded surface due to occasional
rainfall into gullies and ravines. E.g. Painted Desert of Arizona.
 Erosional Landforms

▪ Mushroom rocks- Having broad upper part and narrow base resembling an
umbrella or mushroom are called mushroom rock or pedestal rock. They are
formed due to abrasive work of the winds.
▪ Inselberg- They are sharply rising residual hill above the flat surfaces. They are
generally located in subhumid and humid climates.
▪ Deflation Hollows- Weathered material from over the rocks or bare soil, gets blown
out by persistent movement of wind currents in one direction. This process may
create shallow depression called deflation hollows.
▪ Yardangs- A sharp irregular ridge of sand lying in the direction of the prevailing
wind in exposed desert regions, formed by the wind erosion of adjacent material
which is less resistant.
▪ Zeugen- A table-shaped area of rock found in arid and semi-arid areas formed
when more resistant rock is reduced at a slower rate than softer rocks around it.
▪ Demoiselles- These are rock pillars which stand as resistant rocks above soft rocks
as a result of differential erosion of hard and soft rocks.
 Depositional Landforms
▪ Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune
formation are equally important.
▪ Crescent shaped sand dunes are called as Barchans with the points or wings directed away
from the wind direction.
▪ Parabolic dunes form when sand surfaces are partially covered with vegetation. That means
parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with wind direction being the same.
▪ Seif is similar to barchans with a small difference. Seif has only one wing or point.
Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand is poor and wind direction is constant. They
are aligned parallel to the wind direction and appear as long ridges of considerable length
but low in height.
▪ Longitudinal dunes are almost parallel to each other and they are separated by sand free
bare surfaces known as reg or hammada.
▪ Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular to wind direction. These dunes form when wind
direction is constant and source of sand is an elongated feature at right angles to the wind
direction.
Chapter 8: Limestone and Chalk Landforms

▪ Limestones and chalk are sedimentary rocks of organic origin derived

from the accumulation corals and shells in the sea.
▪ Limestone is made up of calcite or calcium carbonate and when it is
mixed with magnesium it is called dolomite.
▪ Karst topography is a landscape formed from the dissolution of
soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum.
▪ It is so named after a province of Yugoslavia on the Adriatic Sea coast
where such formations are most noticeable.
 Essential Conditions for the Development of
Karst Topography:

▪ The limestones must be massive, thickly bedded, hard and tenacious, well cemented and well
jointed (high density of joints).
▪ Limestones should not be porous wherein permeability is largely controlled by joints and not by the
mass of rocks because if limestones are porous, the water may pass through the rock mass and thus
whole rock mass will become weak and will collapse. On the other-hand, if limestones are non-
porous and thickly bedded, water will infiltrate through joints resulting into effective corrosion of
limestones along the joints and solution holes would be formed.
▪ The position of limestones should be above the groundwater table so that surface drainage may
disappear through sinks, blind valleys and sinking creeks to have subterranean (subsurface) drainage
so that cave, passages and galleries and associated fea¬tures may be formed.
▪ The limestones should be widely distributed in both areal and vertical dimensions.
▪ The carbonate rocks should be very close to the ground surface so that rainwater may easily and
quickly infiltrate into the beds of limestones and may corrode the rocks to form solution landforms.
▪ The limestones should be highly folded, fractured or faulted.
▪ There should be enough rainfall so that required amount of water is available to dissolve carbonate
rocks.
 Karst Landforms

Sink Hole/Swallow Hole

▪ Sink holes are funnel-shaped depressions having an average depth of three
to nine metres.
▪ These holes are developed by enlargement of the cracks found in such
rocks, as a result of continuous solvent action of the rainwater.
▪ The surface streams which sink disappear underground through swallow
holes.
▪ Some swallow holes when further enlarged due to dissolution form the
larger depression called as dolines. Larger form of dolines is called poljes.
▪ Karst Window: When a number of adjoining sink holes collapse, they form an open,
broad area called a karst window.
▪ Sinking Creeks/Bogas: In a valley, the water often gets lost through cracks and fissures in
the bed. These are called sinking creeks, and if their tops are open, they are called
bogas.
▪ Stalactite and Stalagmite: The water containing limestone in solution, seeps through the
roof in the form of a continuous chain of drops. A portion of the water hangs on the roof
and on evaporation of water, a small deposit of limestone is left behind contributing to
the formation of a stalactite, growing downwards from the roof. The remaining portion
of the drop falls on the floor. This also evaporates, leaving behind a small deposit of
limestone aiding the formation of a stalagmite, thicker and flatter, rising upwards from
the floor. Sometimes, stalactite and stalagmite join together to form a complete pillar
known as the column.
▪ Lapies: The highly corrugated and rough surface of limestone lithology characterized by
low ridges, pinnacles and narrow clefts is called Lapies.
 Chapter 10: Coastal Landforms

▪ Coastal processes are the most dynamic and hence most destructive. Most of the
changes along the coasts are accomplished by the waves. Storm waves and tsunami
waves can cause far reaching changes in a short period of time than normal breaking
waves. As wave environment changes, the intensity of the force of breaking waves
changes.
▪ When the waves approach the coast the depth of the water decreases thus the
wave height increases and the wavelength decreases to such an extent that the crest
of the wave topples over and the wave is transformed into ‘breaker’ which then
collapse.
▪ When the turbulent breaking waves rushes towards the shoreline it is called as
swash. After colliding against the coastal area they retreat back as undercurrents
and take along with them some debris and sand particles on the coastline. This
process of retreat is known as backswash.
 Erosional Landforms

▪ Capes and Bays: A cape is a headland or a promontory of large size

extending into a body of water, usually the sea. It usually represents a
marked change in trend of the coastline. Their proximity to the coastline
makes them prone to natural forms of erosion, mainly tidal actions.
▪ A bay has a wider mouth than a gulf. Bays are more often formed by the
erosion of a coastline or flooding, while gulfs are generally created by the
movement of the Earth’s plates to form deeper, more enclosed waters.
▪ Wave cut cliffs and terraces are two forms usually found where erosion is
the dominant shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep and may range
from a few metre to 30 m or even more. At the foot of such cliffs there may
be a flat or gently sloping platforms covered by rock debris derived from
sea cliff behind. Such platform occurring at elevation above the average
height of waves is called wave cut terrace.
▪ The lashing of waves against the base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets
smashed against the cliff along with lashing waves create hollows and those
hollows gets widened and deepened to form sea caves. The roof of the cave
collapse and the sea cliffs recede further inland. Retreat of the cliff may leave
some remnants of rock standing isolated as small islands just off the shore. Such
resistant masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill are called sea stacks.
These sea stacks are eroded, leaving behind only the stump which are just visible
above the sea level.
▪ Gloups and Geos: The occasional splashing of the waves against the roof of the
cave may enlarge the joints when compressed air is trapped inside. A natural shaft
is thus formed which may eventually pierce through to the surface. Waves
breaking into the cave may force water or air out of this hole. Such a shaft is
termed as a gloup or blowhole. The enlargement of the blow-holes and the
continued action of waves weakens the cave roof. When the roof collapses a long
narrow inlet or creek develops. This is known as Geos.
 Depositional Landforms

▪ Beaches and Dunes: Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that are dominated by
deposition, but may occur as patches along even the rugged shores. Most of the
sediments making up the beaches come from land carried by streams or rivers or from
wave erosion.
▪ Just behind the beach, the sands lifted from over the beach surfaces will be deposited as
sand dunes. Sand dunes forming long ridges parallel to the coastline are very common
along low sedimentary coasts.
▪ Bars, Barriers and Spits: A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea in the off-shore
zone lying approximately parallel to the coast is called an offshore bar. Such a connecting
bar that joins two land masses is better known as Tombolo. An offshore bar which is
exposed due to further addition of sand is termed a barrier bar.
▪ The offshore bars and barriers commonly form across the mouth of a river or at the
entrance of a bay. Sometimes such barrier bars get keyed up to one end of the bay when
they are called spits.
 Chapter 11: Islands & Coral Reefs

▪ An island is a piece of land surrounded on all sides by water.

▪ Continental islands: Formerly part of the mainland and now detached from
the continent. They may be separated by a shallow lagoon or a deep
channel.
1. Individual Islands: Just outside the continent, very much associated with
the mainland in terms of characterisitcs.
2. Archipelago or Island Groups: Groups of islands of varying sizes and
shapes.
3. Festoons or island arcs: It forms an archipelago in the shape of a loop
around the edge or the mainland, marking the continuation of mountain
ranges which can be traced on the mainland.
▪ Oceanic Islands: These are small and are located in the midst of the
oceans. They have no connection with the mainland. They have flora
and fauna unrelated to the mainland.
1. Volcanic Island: Formed because of oceanic-oceanic convergence.
2. Coral Islands: Formed due to accumulation of skeletons of coral
reefs on suitable platform.
 Coral Reefs

▪ Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed of the skeletons of coral, which are
marine invertebrate animals. The coral species that build coral reefs are known as
hermatypic or "hard" corals because they extract calcium carbonate from seawater to
create a hard, durable exoskeleton that protects their soft, sac-like bodies.
▪ Each individual coral is referred to as a polyp. New coral polyps live on the calcium
carbonate exoskeletons of their ancestors, adding their own exoskeleton to the existing
coral structure. As the centuries pass, the coral reefs slowly grow one tiny exoskeleton at
a time, until they become massive features of the submarine environment.
▪ Most reef-building corals contain photosynthetic algae, called zooxanthellae that live in
their tissues. The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship. The coral provides the
algae with a protected environment and compounds they need for photosynthesis. In
return, the algae produce oxygen and help the coral to remove wastes. Most importantly,
zooxanthellae supply the coral with glucose, glycerol, and amino acids, which are the
products of photosynthesis. The coral uses these products to make proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates, and produce calcium carbonate.
 Conditions necessary for coral reefs survival are

▪ Mean annual temperature of 20-21°C

▪ Depth of maximum 200 to 250 fathoms as sunlight is
required for algae for photosynthesis.

▪ Sediments free water.

▪ Fresh or very saline water is harmful (salinity 32-37
parts per thousand)

▪ Ocean currents & waves are favourable as they bring

food.

▪ Extensive submarine platform not more than 50

fathoms.
 Fringing Reef

▪ They grow close to the shore

and extend out into the sea like
a submerged platform.
▪ Steep & vertical seaward slope
& gentle landward slope.
▪ Uneven & corrugated upper
surface.
▪ Sometimes lagoons are also
formed aka boat channel.
 Barrier Reef

▪ These are the reefs separated from the land by wide expanses of water and follow the
coastline.
▪ Barrier reefs are far less common than fringing reefs or atolls, although examples can
be found in the tropical Atlantic as well as the Pacific.
▪ Largest coral reef of coastal landform but parallel to them.
▪ Forms shallow lagoons between coastal land & barrier reef.
▪ Sometimes base of barrier reef exceed require depth. Subsidence is accepted as
reasons for this.
▪ The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef off the NE coast of Australia is the world’s
largest example of this reef type.
▪ The GBR is not actually a single reef as the name implies, but rather a very large
complex consisting of many reefs.
 Atolls

▪ These are roughly circular ring of reefs surrounding a lagoon, a low lying island, common in the Indian and
South pacific oceans.
▪ Generally found around an island or in elliptical form on a submarine platform.
▪ Atoll are of 3 types:
1. True atoll- Circular reef enclosing shallow lagoon without islands.
2. Island atoll- Islands in centre surrounded by circular reef.
3. Coral island- Island is formed due to erosion & deposition by marine waves E.g. Maldives, Lakshadweep.
▪ Atolls are far more common in the Pacific than any other ocean. The Fiji atoll and the Funafuti atoll in the
Ellice/Island are well known examples of atolls. A large ‘number of atolls also occur in the Lakshadweep
Islands.
▪ In the South Pacific, most atolls occur in mid-ocean. Examples of this reef type are common in French
Polynesia, the Caroline and Marshall Islands, Micronesia, and the Cook Islands.
▪ The Indian Ocean also contains numerous atoll formations. Examples are found in the Maldives and Chagos
island groups, the Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island group.
 Chapter 12: The Oceans

▪ The reliefs of the ocean

1. Continental Shelf: Continents do not end abruptly at the shoreline. They slope
seaward from coast to a point where the slope becomes very steep. This shallow
submerged extension of the continent is called as the Continental Shelf. The shelf
is formed mainly due to,
Submergence of a part of a continent
Relative rise in sea level
Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers
2. Continental Slope: The continuous sloping portion of the continental
margin, seaward of the continental shelf and extending down to the
deep sea floor of the abyssal plain, is known as Continental Slope. Its
depth extends between 200m to 3000m.
3. Deep Sea Plain: aka Abyssal Plain is generally present at 3000 to
6000m depth. It covers two third of the total region
4. The Ocean Deeps: These are the deepest part of the ocean present at
around 5000 to 30000 fathoms. It is present over the continental slopes.
Deepest trench is Mariana Trench in Pacific Ocean.
 Temperature

▪ Insolation: The average daily duration of insolation and its intensity.

▪ Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and radiation.
▪ Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
▪ The physical characteristics of the sea surface: Boiling point of the sea water is
increased in the case of higher salinity and vice versa [Salinity increased-> Boiling
point increased-> Evaporation decreased].
▪ The shape of the ocean: The latitudinally extensive seas in low latitude regions
have warmer surface water than longitudinally extensive sea [Mediterranean Sea
records higher temperature than the longitudinally extensive Caspian Sea].
▪ The enclosed seas (Marginal Seas – Gulf, Bay etc.) in the low latitudes record
relatively higher temperature than the open seas; whereas the enclosed seas in
the high latitudes have lower temperature than the open seas.
▪ Local weather conditions such as cyclones.
▪ Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more
heat due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
▪ Prevalent winds generate horizontal and sometimes vertical ocean currents: The winds blowing
from the land towards the oceans (off-shore winds-moving away from the shore) drive warm
surface water away from the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below (This
happens near Peruvian Coast in normal years. El-Nino).
▪ Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds flowing from oceans into continents) pile up warm
water near the coast and this raises the temperature (This happens near the Peruvian coast
during El Nino event)(In normal years, North-eastern Australia and Western Indonesian islands
see this kind of warm ocean waters due to Walker Cell or Walker Circulation).
▪ Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold currents
decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf Stream (warm current) raises the
temperature near the eastern coast of North America and the West Coast of Europe while the
Labrador Current (cold current) lowers the temperature near the north-east coast of North
America (Near Newfoundland). All these factors influence the temperature of the ocean currents
locally.
 Salinity

▪ Evaporation: High evaporation leads to higher salinity. Evaporation coupled with

low humidity causes more salinity thus salinity is higher at tropics than at equator.
▪ Precipitation: Higher precipitation leads to lower salinity and vice versa.
▪ Influx of river water: As rivers bring huge amount of fresh water, the salinity is
reduced at their mouth. The effect of influx of river is more pronounced in
enclosed seas.
▪ Atmospheric pressure and wind direction: Anticyclonic conditions with stable air
and high temperature increases salinity of the surface. Winds also help in
redistribution of salt in the oceans and the seas as winds drive away saline water to
less saline areas.
▪ Circulation of oceanic water: Ocean currents affect the spatial distribution of
salinity by mixing seawaters. Equatorial warm currents drive away salts from the
western coastal areas of the continents and accumulate them along the eastern
coastal areas.
 Ocean Currents
• The general movement of a mass of oceanic water in a definite direction is called Ocean Current.

• Horizontal currents arise mainly due to friction between wind and water. Rotation of earth, Coriolis
force and differences in water level gradient also play a major role.

• Vertical currents arise mainly due to density differences caused by temperature and salinity changes.

• There is a difference between Drift, Currents and the Stream as follows:

o Drift: The forward movement of surface water of oceans under the influence of prevailing winds is
called drift.

o Stream: Movement of larger mass of oceanic water like big river in a definite direction with greater
velocity than drift and currents is called stream.

▪ Thus, velocity of Stream> Currents> Drift

 Factors controlling the ocean currents
▪ The currents in the oceans are originated due to combined effects of several factors acting
internally as well as externally. Some of those factors are:
1. Factors related to the rotation of the earth: The rotation of the earth on its axis from
west to east results in the genesis of deflective force or Coriolis force which deflects the
general direction of ocean currents.
2. Oceanic factors
▪ Temperature difference: The amount of insolation received at the earth’s surface and
consequent temperature decrease from equator towards the poles. High temperature
decreases the water density at equator while low temperature increases it on the poles.
Consequently, water moves due to expansion of volume from equatorial region to polar
areas.
▪ Salinity difference: Oceanic salinity affects the density of ocean water and density
variation causes ocean currents.
▪ Density difference: As a rule, water moves from the areas of the lower density to the areas
of higher density. Density variation can be due to pressure, temperature or salinity
differences
External Oceanic factors:
▪ Air pressure and winds: The areas of high atmospheric pressure are characterized by low
volume of water and thus lowering of water level. Contrary to this, the areas of low
atmospheric pressure record higher volume of water and higher water level. Thus, water
moves as surface current from the areas of higher water level to areas of low water level.
▪ Prevailing planetary winds play major roles in the origin of ocean currents. The wind
blowing on the water surface also moves water in its direction due to its friction with the
water. There is seasonal change in the direction of currents in the Indian Ocean twice a
year due to seasonal change in the direction of monsoon winds.
▪ Rainfall and evaporation: The sea water level becomes relatively higher in the areas of low
evaporation and high rainfall than those areas which record low rainfall but high
evaporation. Also, low evaporation coupled with high rainfall lowers the amount of salinity
and thus reduces water density and vice versa. Thus, surface ocean currents are generated
from the areas of high water level to the areas of low water level.
Modifying factors are

▪ Direction, Shape and configuration of coastlines

▪ Bottom reliefs
▪ Seasonal variation (E.g. Monsoon)
 Part 2: Weather, Climate, Vegetation

The difference between Climate and weather

▪ Any casual remarks about the atmospheric conditions of a certain place at a
certain time are about weather. It is never static, and thus cannot be generalized.
▪ When we speak of climate we mean the average atmospheric conditions of an
area over a considerable time i.e. around 35 years. This involves the systematic
observations, recording and processing of the various elements of climate such as
rainfall, temperature, humidity, air pressure, winds, clouds and sunshine before
averages can be arrived at.
▪ The degree of variability in the climate or weather of a country also differs.
Generally speaking, the climate of temperate latitudes is far more variable than
that of the tropics.
The Importance of Climate and weather
▪ The influence of climate and weather over man’s activities can be seen from his
everyday life. Forces of nature have regulated to a great extent the food we eat,
what we wear, how we live and work.
▪ Our mental alertness, our physical characteristics and even our racial differences
when closely examined have at least some relationship with climate.
▪ The direction of winds once controlled the pattern of trading routes. Despite
advances made in S&T, farmers and their crops are still at the mercy of the
climate and the weather.
▪ Conditions of temperature, precipitation and humidity may promote or
discourage the growth of fungus and diseases->malnutrition->poverty->
Illiteracy-> Unemployment-> Weak Economy.
The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate
▪ Found between 5° and 10°N and S of the equator
▪ Great uniformity of temperature throughout the
year.
▪ There is no winter.
▪ Cloudiness and heavy precipitation help to
moderate the daily temperature.
▪ Regular land and sea breezes assist in maintaining a
truly equable climate.
▪ The diurnal and annual range of temperature is
small.
▪ Double rainfall peak months in a year coinciding
with the equinoxes
▪ Vegetation: It supports a luxuriant type of vegetation – the tropical rain
forest. Amazon tropical rain forest is known as Selvas.
▪ Yield tropical hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony, greenheart, cabinet
wood. Lianas, epiphytic and parasitic plants are also found. Trees of single
species are very scarce in such vegetation.
▪ Life and Development in the Equatorial Regions: Sparsely populated. In
the forests most primitive people live as hunters and collectors and the
more advanced ones practice shifting cultivation.
▪ In the Amazon basin, the Indian tribes collect wild rubber, in the Congo
Basin the Pygmies gather nuts and in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang
Asli make all sorts of cane products and sell them to people in villages and
towns. In the clearings for shifting cultivation, crops like manioc (tapioca),
yams, maize, bananas and groundnuts are grown.
The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates
▪ Found in the zones between 5° and 30°
latitudes on either side of the equator.
▪ Tropical monsoonal lands with on-
shore wet monsoons in the summer
and off-shore dry monsoons in the
winter.
▪ Outside this zone, the climate is
modified by the influence of the on-
shore Trade Winds all the year round,
and has a more evenly distributed
rainfall. Such a climate, better termed
the Tropical Marine Climate
▪ Climatic Conditions: The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference
in the rate of heating and cooling of land and sea. In regions like the Indian
sub-continent which have a true Tropical Monsoon Climate, three distinct
seasons are distinguishable - The cool, dry season (October to February),
the hot dry season (March to mid-June) and the rainy season (mid-June to
September).
▪ Natural Vegetation: The natural vegetation of tropical monsoon lands
depends on the amount of the summer rainfall. Trees are normally
deciduous because of the marked dry period, during which they shed their
leaves to withstand the drought.
The Savannah or Sudan Climate
▪ transitional type of climate found between
the equatorial forest and the hot deserts.
▪ In South America, there are two distinct
regions of savannah north and south of the
equator, namely the llanos of the Orinoco
basin and the Campos of the Brazilian
Highlands.
▪ characterized by distinct wet and dry
seasons.
▪ The extreme diurnal range of temperature is
a characteristic of Sudan type of climate.
▪ Natural Vegetation: The savannah landscape is typified by tall grass and
short trees. The terms 'parkland' or 'bush-veld' perhaps describe the
landscape better. Trees grow best towards the equatorial humid latitudes
or along river banks but decrease in height and density away from the
equator.
▪ Economy: Many tribes live within the Savannah lands. Some tribes live as
pastoralists like the Masai of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganada and other as
settled cultivators like the Hausa of northern Nigeria. However, agriculture
is not much developed.
The Hot Desert and Mid-latitude Desert Climates
▪ The major hot deserts of the world are
located on the western coasts of continents
between latitudes 15º and 30ºN and S.
▪ They include the Sahara Desert, Great
Australian Desert, Arabian Desert, Iranian
Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib
Deserts.
▪ In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian
Desert is the driest of all deserts with less
than 0.5 inches of rainfall annually.
▪ The Patagonian Desert is more dry due to its
rain- shadow position on the leeward side of
the lofty Andes than to continentality.
▪ The aridity of deserts is the most
outstanding feature of the desert climate.
 Climatic Conditions
▪ Climatic Conditions: The aridity of deserts is the most outstanding feature of the
desert climate. In tropical region high pressure, off shore winds prevents rainfall
while the Westerlies in temperate region that are on-shore, blow outside the desert
limits. Whatever winds reaches the deserts blow from the cooler to the warmer
regions, and their relative humidity is lowered, making condensation almost
impossible.
▪ Natural Vegetation: The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude
deserts is xerophytes or drought-resistant scrub. This includes the bulbous cacti,
thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacia. Trees are rare
except where there is abundant ground water to support clusters of date palms.
▪ Life in the Deserts: The desert inhabitants may be grouped under the following
categories - The primitive hunters and collectors (The Bushmen of Kalahari and The
Bindibu of Australia), the nomadic herdsmen (The Tuaregs of the Sahara, the Gobi
Mongols and The Bedouin of Arabia)
 The Warm Temperate Western Margin
(Mediterranean) Climate
▪ entirely confined to the western portion of
continental masses, between 30° and 45°
north and south of the equator.
▪ The basic cause of this type of climate is the
shifting of the wind belts. Other than
regions near Mediterranean Sea, other
Mediterranean regions include California,
the south-western tip of Africa (around
Cape Town), southern and south-west
Australia.
▪ Climatic Conditions: Warm summer with off-shore trades, a concentration of rainfall
in winter with onshore westerlies, bright, sunny weather with hot dry summers and
wet, mild winters and the prominence of local winds around the Mediterranean Sea
(Sirocco, Mistral). Since all regions with a Mediterranean climate are near large
bodies of water, temperatures are generally moderate with a comparatively small
range of temperatures between the winter low and summer high.
▪ Natural vegetation: Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very
tall. Though there are many branches they are short and carry few leaves. The
absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands. The Mediterranean
lands are also known as the world's orchard lands. A wide range of citrus fruits such
as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit are grown. Wine production is
another speciality of the Mediterranean countries.
 The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate
▪ Though they lie in the Westerly wind belt,
they are so remote from maritime
influence that the grasslands are practically
treeless.
▪ In the northern hemisphere, the grasslands
are far more extensive and are entirely
continental.
They are known by different names
▪ North America: Prairies
▪ Europe: Steppes
▪ Argentina and Uruguay: Pampas
▪ South Africa: Veld
▪ Australia: Downs
▪ NZ: Cantebury Grasslands
▪ China: Manchuria Grasslands
▪ Hungary: Pustaz
Climatic Conditions:
▪ Temperature: Their location in the heart of continents means that they have
little maritime influence. Their climate is thus continental with extremes of
temperature. Summers are very warm, over 19°C. Winters are very cold. In
contrast, the steppe type of climate in the southern hemisphere is never
severe due to large water body.
▪ Natural Vegetation: Their greatest difference from the tropical savannah is that
they are practically treeless and the grasses are much shorter.
▪ Economy: The grasslands have been ploughed up for extensive, mechanized
wheat cultivation and are now the ‘granaries of the world’. Besides wheat,
maize is increasingly cultivated in the warmer and wetter areas.
The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China
Type) Climate
▪ This type of climate is found on the eastern
margins of continents in warm temperate
latitudes, just outside the tropics.
▪ It has comparatively more rainfall than the
Mediterranean climate in the same latitudes,
coming mainly in the summer. In south-
eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mexico,
continental heating in summer induces an
inflow of air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean.
Thus it is sometimes also referred to as the
Gulf type of climate.
▪ Natal type of climate is found in New South
Wales (Australia), Natal (South Africa),
Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay basin (South
America).
▪ Climatic Condition: The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate is typified by a
warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter. Another important feature is the
fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year. There is rain every
month, except in the interior of central China, where there is a distinct dry
season.
▪ Natural Vegetation: The eastern margins of warm temperate latitudes have a
much heavier rainfall than either the western margins or the continental interiors
and thus have luxuriant vegetation.
▪ Economy: The warm temperate eastern margins are the most productive parts of
the middle latitudes. Besides the widespread cultivation of Maize and cotton in
the Corn and Cotton Belts of U.S.A. fruit and tobacco are also grown. Rice, tea
and mulberries are extensively grown in China.
 The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British
Type) Climate
▪ The cool temperate western margins are
under the permanent influence of the
Westerlies all round the year.
▪ They are also regions of much cyclonic
activity. From Britain, the climatic belt
stretches far inland into the lowlands of
North-West Europe, including such regions
as northern and western France, Belgium,
the Netherlands, Denmark, western
Norway and also north-western Iberia.
▪ In the southern hemisphere, the climate is
experienced in southern Chile, Tasmania
and most parts of New Zealand, particularly
in South Island.
▪ Temperature: The mean annual temperatures are usually between 5°C and 15°C.
The annual range of temperature is small.
▪ Natural Vegetation: The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous
forest. The trees shed their leaves in the cold season.
▪ Economy: The region differs from many others in its highly industrial
advancement. The countries are concerned in the production of machinery,
chemicals, textiles and other manufactured articles.
 The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate or
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate
▪ The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian)
Climate is experienced only in the northern
hemisphere where the continents within
the high latitudes have a broad east-west
spread.
▪ The Siberian Climate is conspicuously
absent in the southern hemisphere because
of the narrowness of the southern
continents in the high latitudes.
▪ The strong oceanic influence reduces the
severity of the winter
▪ Temperature: The climate of the Siberian type is characterized by a bitterly
cold winter of long duration, and a cool brief summer. Thus it is often referred
to as the 'cold pole of the earth'. Some of the lowest temperatures in the
world are recorded in Verkhoyansk where -67 °C was once recorded.
▪ Natural Vegetation: No other trees are as well adapted as the conifers to
withstand such an inhospitable environment as the Siberian type of climate.
The world's largest softwood producers are Russia, U.S.A., Canada and the
Fenoscandian countries (Finland, Norway and Sweden).
The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin
(Laurentian) Climate
▪ Distribution: The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laurentian)
Climate is an intermediate type of climate between the British
and the Siberian type of climate. It has features of both the
maritime and the continental climates. The Laurentian type of
climate is found only in two regions and that too only in
northern hemisphere. One is north-eastern North America,
including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A., and
Newfoundland. The other region is the eastern coastlands of
Asia, including eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea
and northern Japan.

▪ In southern hemisphere only a small section of continents

extends south of 40°S latitude. Some of these small sections
come under the rain-shadow region of Andes (Patagonia) and
hence Westerlies hardly ever reach these regions. So these
regions are subjected to aridity rather than continentality. In
other regions, the oceanic influence is so profound that
neither the continental nor the eastern margin type of climate
exists.
▪ Climatic Conditions: The Laurentian type of climate has cold, dry winters and
warm, wet summers.
▪ Natural Vegetation: The predominant vegetation of the Laurentian type of
climate is cool temperate forest. Oak, beech, maple and birch are the principal
trees.
▪ Economy: Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and pulp industries are the
most important economic undertaking. Agriculture is less important in view of
the severity of the winter and its long duration. Fishing is, however, the most
outstanding economic activity of the Laurentian climatic regions.
The Arctic or Polar Climate
▪ Distribution: The polar type of climate and
vegetation is found mainly north of the Arctic
Circle in the northern hemisphere. The ice-cap is
confined to Greenland and to the highlands of
these high latitude regions, where the ground is
permanently snow-covered.
▪ Temperature: The polar climate is characterized by
a very low mean annual temperature. Winters are
long and very severe; summers are cool and brief.
▪ Precipitation: Precipitation is mainly in the form of
snow, falling in winter and being drifted about
during blizzards.
▪ Natural vegetation: In such an adverse environment as the tundra, few plants survive. The greatest inhibiting
factor is the region's deficiency in heat. There are no trees in the tundra. Such an environment can support
only the lowest form of vegetation, mosses, lichens and sedges

▪ Polar Vortex: A polar vortex is a large pocket of very cold air, typically the coldest air in the Northern
Hemisphere, which sits over the polar region during the winter season.

▪ They are formed as churning effect (wind speed) of the air which is maximum at the poles as they are closer
to earth’s axis thus the coriolis force is also maximum which leads to formation of circumpolar whirl around
the poles moving high up in the altitudes aka Polar Vortex. They are also responsible for the formation of
Polar Stratospheric Clouds or nacreous clouds.

▪ Polar vortex is closely associated with jet streams [Rossby waves]. It surrounds polar highs and lie within the
polar front.

▪ As they form high up in the atmosphere they suck up more halocarbons from the atmosphere from lower
latitudes towards them. Halocarbons acts as a catalyst for the process of ozone depletion in the presence of
Polar Stratospheric Clouds and thus ozone hole is more prominent in polar regions.