MAGNETISM

The property of any object by virtue of which it can attract a piece of iron or
steel is called magnetism.
Properties of Magnet
(i) A freely suspended magnet always aligns itself into north-south direction.
(ii) Like magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract each other.
(iii) Magnetic poles exist in pair. No mono poles exists
(v) The two poles of the magnet are of equal pole strength(±m)
(iv) The distance between the two poles of the magnet is called magnetic
length (2l)

Modern view about magnetism

Due to orbital and spin motion of electrons, each atom is equivalent to a
current loop (i.e.) each atom behaves as a magnetic dipole

When a substance is magnetized the magnetic dipoles aligned in same

direction.

1
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
Coulomb’s law in magnetism
“ The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly
proportional to the product of their pole strength and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them”

SI Unit of pole strength

m1= m2= m , d= 1m , F=10-7 N, then
10-7=10-7 x m x m/12
m2=1
m= ±1 Am
The strength of a magnetic pole is said to be one ampere-meter(1Am) if it
repels an equal and similar pole with a force of 10-7 N when placed in
vacuum/air at a distance of 1m from it.
Magnetic dipole
A Magnetic dipole consists of two unlike magnetic poles of equal strength
separated by a small distance.
Le- Magnetic length
Lg- Geometrical length

⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
Magnetic dipole moment of a bar magnet (𝑴
It is the product of the strength of either pole(m) and
magnetic length(2l)
⃗⃗⃗⃗ x m
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑙
𝑀

It is a vector and directed from south pole to north pole. Its SI unit – Am2
(ampere meter2)

2
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
The Bar magnet
A magnet with cross-section rectangular is called a bar magnet.

The pattern suggests that bar magnet is a magnetic dipole. The magnetic field
lines have the following properties
1. The field is tangent to the magnetic field line.
2. Field strength is proportional to the line density.
3. Field lines cannot cross.
4. Field lines are continuous loops.

Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid

3
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
Magnetic field along the axial and equatorial line of a bar magnet

𝐾 2𝑀
B axial =
𝑟3

𝐾𝑀
B equatorial =
𝑟3

Torque on a bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field

A bar magnet is placed at an angle 𝜃 in a uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗

𝐵 .
Force on north pole = mB (along ⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 )
Force on south pole = mB (oppsite to 𝐵⃗⃗⃗ )
Two forces being equal and opposite and having different lines of action,
constitute a couple.

4
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
 𝜏 = one of the force X perpendicular distance (nb)

=mb absin
𝜏 =mB 2l sin𝜃
𝜏 =MBsin𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋𝐵
𝜏⃗⃗ =𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋𝐵
𝜏⃗⃗ =𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗

(i) 𝜃= 0° 𝜏= 0
(ii) 𝜃= 90° 𝜏 =MBsin𝜃
Potential energy of a magnetic dipole in uniform magnetic field
The work done to change the position (orientation) of the dipole against the
torque is stored as potential energy of the dipole.
𝜏 =MBsin𝜃
d𝜃-very small angle to be rotated
dw= 𝜏 d𝜃 = MBsin𝜃 d𝜃
Total work done in rotating dipole from 𝜃 1 to 𝜃 2
𝜃2
W= ∫𝜃1 MBsin𝜃 d𝜃 =MB [-cos𝜃2 – (cos 𝜃1)]
𝜃 1=0° and 𝜃 2 = 𝜃
W= -MB cos 𝜃
U = -MB cos 𝜃
or
⃗⃗⃗⃗ .𝐵
U = -𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗

(i) 𝜃= 0° , U = -MB (ii) 𝜃= 90° , U = 0, (iii) 𝜃= 180° , U = +MB

Work done in rotating a magnetic dipole in uniform magnetic field
P.E of magnetic dipole U= -MB Cos𝜃
When𝜃 =0° (stable equilibrium) Ui=-MB
When dipole is rotated to an angle 𝜃 from equilibrium position, U f = -MB Cos𝜃
The external work done in rotating dipole through an angle 𝜃 is equal to
increase in potential energy of the dipole.
W= Uf – Ui = (-MB Cos𝜃) –(-MB)

5
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
= -MB Cos𝜃+MB
W= MB(1- Cos𝜃)

W= MB(1- Cos𝜃)

(i) 𝜃= 0° , W= 0 (ii) 𝜃= 90° , W = MB, (iii) 𝜃= 180° , W = 2MB

Analogy between electric and magnetic dipoles

Gauss’s law in magnetism

“The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero”

∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =0
𝐵 . 𝑑𝑠
The no. of magnetic field lines leaving any closed surface is always equal to the
no. of magnetic field lines entering it. In other words, m. field lines form closed
loop.
Gauss’s law in magnetism tells us the following facts:
(i) mono poles don’t exist
(ii) The most elementary magnetic element is magnetic dipole or current loop.
All the magnetic phenomena can be explained in terms of arrangement of
magnetic dipoles and or current loops

6
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
Current loop as magnetic dipole
Looking at the upper face of the loop from above, the current in the loop is
anti-clockwise so the t upper face is north pole and lower face is south pole

Thus current loop behaves as a system of two equal and opposite magnetic
⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
poles and hence is a magnetic dipole. The magnitude of dipole moment (𝑀
depends on
(i) M ∝ I ………I is the current in the loop
(ii) M∝ A………A is the area of the loop
M ∝ IA or M =K IA , K=1
M=IA For single turn loop
M=nIA for ‘n’ turns
⃗⃗⃗⃗ is vertically upwards.
The direction of 𝑀
The magnetic dipole moment of current loop is defined as the product of
current and area of the loop.
(i.e.) M=IA. Unit- ampere meter2 (Am2)
Magnetic dipole moment of revolving electron In an atom e- revolve around
the nucleus. It is equivalent to a current loop. Since a current loop behaves as a
magnetic dipole and possesses definite magnetic dipole moment.
The e- is revolving anticlockwise so that current is clockwise. So, upper face of
the current loop acts as south pole and lower face north pole.

7
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
Expression for orbital magnetic dipole moment of revolving e -
An e- revolving in an orbit of radius ‘r’ with uniform angular velocity 𝜔. The
revolving e- is equivalent to a single –turn current loop.
M= IA
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒𝜔
I= = =
𝑇 2𝜋/𝜔 2𝜋
𝑒𝜔 1
A=𝜋r2 M= 𝜋r2 = e𝜔 r2 [ v=𝜔r2]
2𝜋 2
1
M = evr………(1)
2
𝑛ℎ
According to Bohr’s theory mvr = ……..(2) where n=1,2,3…
2𝜋
1 𝑛ℎ
From (1) & (2) M= ev[ ]
2 2𝜋𝑚
1 𝑒ℎ
M= n [ ]……..(3)
2 4𝜋𝑚

(3) gives the orbital magnetic moment of the revolving electron.

𝑒ℎ
When n=1, M=
4𝜋𝑚

M= n μB Where μB is called Bohr magneton.

Bohr magneton -It is the minimum magnetic dipole moment due to orbital
motion of an electron in its first orbit of an atom.

μB= 9.27 X 10 -24Am2

Magnetic dipole in uniform magnetic field

Force on each pole, F= mB

The corrosponding torque 𝜏 = mB x 2l sin𝜃
=MB sin𝜃

8
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ X 𝐵
𝜏⃗⃗ =𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗

Once dispaced from equilibrium position, 𝜏⃗⃗ acts as the restoring force and
hence, 𝜏⃗⃗ = - MB sin𝜃
Relation between 𝜏⃗⃗ and angular acceleration is
𝜏 =I 𝛼 where I is moment of inertia and 𝛼 is angular
accelration .
Substitute I 𝛼 = - MB sin𝜃 [ 𝜃 is small ]
𝑑2𝜃
I 𝛼 = - MB 𝜃 with 𝛼 =
𝑑𝑡2
𝑀𝐵 𝛼
=
𝐼 𝜃
𝑑2𝜃
𝑀𝐵 𝑑𝑡2
=
𝐼 𝜃
1
Hence period from SHM theory T=2𝜋 √
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

T=2𝜋√1/MB/I

T=2𝜋√𝐼/𝑀𝐵
By finding T, I and M we can determine B as

4𝜋2
B=
𝑚𝑇2

9
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
 EARTH’S MAGNETISM
Earth behaves as a magnet whose field is in the order of 10-5 T.
A reasonable source of earth’s magnetic field is due to the electrical currents
produced by convective motion of metallic fluids (consisting mostly of molten
iron and nickel) in the outer core of the earth. This is known as dynamo effect.
The axial line (of assumed dipole) is not coinciding with the axis of rotation of
earth. The angle between them is approximately 11.3°.

Geographic meridian
The vertical plane passingthrough the geographical axis is called geographic
meridian
Magnetic meridian
The vertical plane passingthrough the magnetic axis is called megnetic
meridian
Elements of earth’s magnetism
The quantities that completely determine magnetic field of earth at a plane are
called magnetic elements of earth. They are
(1) Declination( 𝜃)
(2) Inclination or dip (𝛿)
(3) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (BH)
(1) Declination( 𝜽) – The angle between the magnetic meridian and
geographic meridian at a place is called declination at that plane.
It changes from place to place. The line joining the places of same declination
are called isogonic lines. The declination is greater at latitudes and smaller near
the equator

10
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
(2) Inclination or dip (𝜹) The dip at a place is the angle which the
direction of earth’s magnetic field makes with horizontal.
At poles, magnetic field of earth is perpendicular to earth’s surface. So, the
value of dip at poles is 90° and at equator dip is zero.
(3) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field ((BH)
It is the component of earth’s total magnetic field along the horizontal
direction in magnetic meridian.
Horizontal component ,BH = B cos 𝛿
Vertical component , BV = B sin 𝛿
B2 cos2 𝛿 + B2 sin 2 𝛿 = BH2 +BV2
B2 = BH2 +BV2
B = √BH2 +BV2

BV B sin 𝛿
Also, =
BH B Cos 𝛿

BV
= tan 𝛿
BH

At poles 𝛿 = 90° so that BH = 0

At equator 𝛿 = 0° so that BH = B
Points BH =B cos 𝛿 and BV = B sin 𝛿
(i) At poles 𝛿=90° BV =B and BH = 0 , so earth’s magnetic field has a horizontal
component except at poles
(ii) At equator 𝛿=0° BV =0 and BH = B , so earth’s magnetic field has a vertical
component except at equator

11
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
Classification of magnetic materials

Magnetic intensity (𝑯⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)

The magnetic field inside a current carrying toroid is
B=𝜇nI (𝜇= 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟)
⃗⃗⃗⃗ )
The quantity nI is called magnetic intensity (𝐻
B= 𝜇H (H= nI)
Magnetic intisity is defined as the number of ampere-turns per meter length of
the toroid. Its unit is ATm-1
𝐵
= 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇r= Constant for a material
𝐻
Bo = 𝜇0H……….air/vaccum
B = 𝜇H…………..in iron.

Magnetisation (𝑰⃗⃗ )
It is defined as the magnetic moment developed per unit volume of the
material
𝑀
⃗𝐼 = Unit- Am-1
𝑉

Magnetic susceptibility ( )
The ratio of magnetisation to the magnetic intensity is magntic susceptibility of
a material

𝐼
= (no unit)
𝑯

Relation between and 𝝁r

Bo- M.field due to current in the coil , BH –mfield due to magnetisation of the
coil
B = Bo + BM
B= 𝜇0 (H+I)
𝐵 𝐼
divide by H = 𝜇0 (1+ )
𝐻 𝐻

12
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
 B0= 𝜇0H, B= 𝜇0I, B= 𝜇0H + 𝜇0I , B= 𝜇0(H +I)

𝜇 = 𝜇0 ( 1+ ) (𝜇/𝜇0 = 𝜇𝑟)

Classification of magnetic materials

Materials can be classified into following categories based on the magnetic
properties shown by them:
(1) diamagnetic substance- Feebly repelled by a strong magnetic field
(2) paramagnetic substance- Feebly attracted by a strong magnetic field
(3) ferromagnetic substance- strongly attracted by a strong magnetic field

S.no Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

1 When placed in external magnetic field When placed in external When placed in external
these substances weakly magnetized in magnetic field these magnetic field these
direction opposite to that of applied substances weakly substances strongly
external m.field magnetized in direction of magnetized in direction of
applied external m.field applied external m.field
2 Feebly repelled by a strong magnet Feebly attracted by a Strongly attracted by a
strong magnet strong magnet
3. M.field lines prefer to pass through the M.field lines prefer to pass M.field lines tens to crowd
air rather than through the substance through the substance into substance
rather than through air

4. µr < 1 µr > 1 µr >>> 1

5
Small negative (-0.0015) Small positive Very large (+8000)
Ex- Bismuth (+2.3 x10-5) Ex-Aluminum Ex-Soft iron
6
Indepenedent of tempertaure inversely propotional inversely propotional
to temperature (i.e.) to temperature (i.e.)
decreases with increase in decreases with increase in
temperature temperature

13
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
Curie temperature
The temperature at which a ferromagnetic substance become a paramagnetic
substance is called curie point or curie temperature
Curie law According to Curie law, the intensity of magnetization (I) for a
paramagnetic substance is
(i) directly proportional to the external m.filed(B) (ii) inversely proportional to
the absolute temperature(T)
𝐵
I∝
𝑇
𝐵
I=C
𝑇
Where C is a constant called Curie
constant.
Magnetic hysteresis
When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to a cycle of magnetization, the
variation of magnetization B with magnetic intensity H is shown below.

(i) M. field increased from zero to maximum value, B increases and reaches
saturation value.

(ii) If the applied field is decreased in steps, B lags behind H and does not
follow the original curve. It traces the curve AB. This lagging of magnetization
(B) behind the magnetizing field(H) is called magnetic hysteresis

14
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23
 (iii)When H=0, B≠ 0. It is represented by OB. OB is called retentivity or
remanence. The magnetic lux density left after the removal of H is called
retentivity.
(iv)If the m. field is reversed and increased, the value of B decreases and
reaches zero for certain field, it is represented by OC. This reverse field is called
coercivity. The value of reverse magnetizing force required to wipe out the
residual magnetism is called corecivity.
(V) If we increase the field still further the value of B increases in the reverse
direction and reaches maximum. On reversing the field again and reducing in
steps to zero and increasing to maximum value the portion of the graph
ABCDEFA is obtained.
The area of the hysteresis loop represents the wastage of energy in the form of
heat when a material undergoes cycle of magnetization.
Permanent magnets
Substances which retain magnetic property at room temperature are called
permanent magnets.
A permanent magnet should possess high residual magnetism, high corevicity
and moderate permeability and retentivity. It should not lose magnetism easily
by temperature change.
Ex- Steel, Alnico and Cobalt
Electromagnets (Temporary magnets)
Substance which loses its magnetic property after the removal of current are
called electromagnets.
They must possess the following characteristics
(i) low coercivity
(ii) high retentivity
Ex- Soft iron

15
G. SELVAN PGT PHYSICS CS ACADEMY ERODE 2022/23