OPERATIONAL

AMPLIFIER
Internship Report
Submitted by
NITHYA SHREE . M (510621106018)
SRISHA . MK (510621106029)
PRIYANKAA . R (510621106020)
HARINI . M (510621106006)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

C.ABDUL HAKEEM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Accredited by AICTE, NBA, NACC, an ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution)

MELVISHARAM – 632509
ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI – 632025
MAY 2024

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 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Introduction:
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are fundamental components in
electronics, indispensable for a wide range of applications from signal conditioning to
mathematical operations. Among the popular op-amp models, including LM324, LM348, and
OPA4197, each offers distinct characteristics tailored to different needs. The LM324 and LM348
are renowned for their versatility, with multiple op-amps housed in a single package, making
them suitable for various tasks despite their relatively higher input offset voltages and moderate
common-mode rejection ratios (CMRR). They find extensive use in battery-operated devices,
sensor interfaces, and audio amplifiers.
However, to optimize performance in critical applications, such as those
requiring precise measurements or sensitive instrumentation, external circuits like precision
resistor networks and differential amplifiers may be necessary to mitigate offset and enhance
CMRR. On the other hand, the OPA4197 stands out for its superior precision, boasting ultra-low
input offset voltages and high CMRR, making it ideal for applications demanding utmost
accuracy, like precision instrumentation and sensor signal conditioning. While external circuits
can further refine performance, the OPA4197's inherent precision often obviates the need for
additional circuitry, simplifying designs and reducing costs.
Nevertheless, for scenarios where precision is paramount, meticulous
component selection and matching can effectively minimize offset and maximize CMRR without
resorting to external components, showcasing the versatility and adaptability of op-amps in
addressing diverse engineering challenges.

Operational Amplifier (Op-amp):

 An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit that can amplify weak electric signals.
 An operational amplifier has two input pins and one output pin. Its basic role is to
amplify and output the voltage difference between the two input pins.

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Purpose of Operational Amplifier:
 An op-amp operates on analog input. It can be used to amplify or attenuate this input, and
to carry out mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and
differentiation.

 Because of their wide range of uses, op-amps are encountered in most electric circuits.
Op-amps are used for voltage amplifiers, filters, phase shifts, and more.

 The comparator, also known as a voltage comparator, has a function to detect the high or
low voltage with respect to the reference signal.

Operational Amplifier Applications:

1. Non-inverting amplifier circuit:

This is also a circuit for amplifying and outputting input signals.

VOUT = (1+R2/R1) × VIN

2. Inverting amplifier circuit:

 An inverting amplifier circuit is indicated by a minus sign. If the VIN voltage increases,
the VOUT voltage decreases.

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 VOUT = -R2/R1×VIN

3. Voltage follower circuit:

 This is a non-inverting amplifier circuit where R2 is short-circuited (R2=0Ω) and R1 is

open (R1=infinity).

 Since VOUT=(1+R2/R1)×VIN= (1+0Ω/∞)×VIN=VIN, the output is the same voltage as the

input signal. A voltage follower is used as a buffer circuit to convert the impedance or to
separate circuits.

VOUT=VIN

4. Differential amplifier circuit:

 This is a circuit for amplifying and outputting the difference between two input signals.

VOUT=R2/R1×(VIN2-VIN1)

Selecting an Operational Amplifier:

1) Operating power supply voltage range:

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 This is the range of the operable power supply voltage at the VDD pin. Check that the
power supply voltage is within the range of the operational amplifier operating voltage
range.

2) Common-mode input voltage range:

 The range of voltage of a signal that may be applied to the input pins. The operational
amplifier will work as long as the input signal is within this range.

 An operational amplifier whose common-mode input voltage range covers VSS - VDD is
called a “Rail-to-Rail input operational amplifier”; that is, an operational amplifier
with an excellent input signal voltage range.

3) Gain bandwidth product:

 This specifies the maximum frequency that an operational amplifier can amplify a signal
to. The maximum frequency varies with the factor (gain) you use to amplify a signal.

 At a gain of one (=0dB), the signal can be amplified to maximum frequency, the so called
gain bandwidth product.

 The graph on the right indicates that at a gain of one (=0dB), the maximum frequency
that amplification allows using the S-89630A is 1.2MHz and that at a gain of 10 (=20dB),
the maximum frequency is 120kHz.

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 Make sure that the maximum frequency you want to amplify to is within the range of the
factor by which you want to amplify.

4) Current consumption:

 This indicates the current value drawn from the VDD pin. The lower this value is, the
more you can reduce the power of the system.

 Normally, an operational amplifier with low current consumption tends to also have low
frequency of gain bandwidth.

5) Input offset voltage:

 The input offset voltage is a conversion of the error voltage generated at the output to an
input value when the input voltage is 0V. It is an essential attribute affecting the
amplification accuracy of operational amplifiers.

 Generally, when the voltage amplitude of the input signal is on the order of mV, an input
offset voltage on the order of μ V is required. This makes it necessary to select a “zero
drift operational amplifier” to handle such tiny offset voltages.

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 6) Common Mode Rejection Ratio:

The op amp common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the common-mode gain to
differential-mode gain.

CMRR = Adiff /Acom = Adiff [dB] - Acom [dB]

 CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio) in op amps measures how well they can filter
out unwanted noise or interference that's common to both the input terminals.

 Higher CMRR values mean better noise rejection, crucial for accurate signal processing
in various applications.

Block Diagram of Op amp:

An ideal and a practical Op-amp are shown in the figure below.

Op amp Symbol:
An operational amplifier represents a triangle symbol with inputs, outputs, and supplies.

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Latest Op Amp available in market:
1. ROHM Semiconductor BD87522FJ-LB EMARMOUR™ Operational
Amplifier
 ROHM Semiconductor BD87522FJ-LB EMARMOUR™ CMOS Operational Amplifier
is a high-output drive rail-to-rail input/output amplifier with excellent EMI immunity.
 This operational amplifier operates from a 4V to 15V voltage range and a -40°C to 125°C
temperature range. The BD87522FJ-LB CMOS operational amplifier features a high slew
rate and 16.5mA output current (Vout=0.5V).
 Typical applications include industrial equipment, various sensor amplifiers, battery-
powered equipment, current detection amplifiers, ADC peripheral circuits and buffers,
photodiode peripheral circuits, and various amplifiers.

I. FEATURES:

 EMARMOUR™ Series.
 Rail-to-Rail input/output.
 High slew rate.
 High output drive.

II. SPECIFICATIONS:

 Operating supply voltage range:

o 4V to 15V single supply.
o ±2V to ±7.5V dual supply.
 1mV maximum input offset voltage.
 16.5mA typical output current (VOUT = 0.5V).

 2.4V/μ s slew rate.

 110dB voltage gain.

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 0.001nA input bias current.
 -40°C to 125°C operating temperature range.

III. APPLICATIONS:

Industrial equipment.
Various sensor amplifiers.
Battery-powered equipments.
Current detection amplifiers.
ADC peripheral circuits and buffers.
Photodiode peripheral circuits.
Various amplifiers.

2. STMicroelectronics TSB952 Dual Operational Amplifiers

 STMicroelectronics TSB952 Dual Operational Amplifiers are high-speed op-amps with
rail-to-rail output and unity gain stability.
 These op-amps offer 52MHz gain bandwidth and consume less than 3.3mA per channel
at 36V supply voltage, providing a good speed/current consumption ratio.
 The TSB952 dual op-amps come in a small package size and can be used in applications
where the board space is limited, which helps reduce the cost of the PCB.
 These TSB952 amplifiers operate over a wide temperature range from -40°C to 125°C
and are ideal for industrial and automotive applications with the associated qualifications.

i. FEATURES:

 Unity gain stable.

 Rail-to-rail output.
 3mV (max) low offset voltage at +25°C.
 Low current consumption of 3.3mA (max)/channel at 36V.
 4.5V to 36V wide supply voltage range.
 52MHz (typical) gain bandwidth at 36V.
 40mA (typical) output current at 36V.
 Input common-mode voltage includes ground.
 High ESD tolerance of 4kV HBM.
 EMI hardened.
 -40°C to 125°C extended temperature range.

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  Automotive qualification.
 SO8 or DFN8 micro package with 3mm x 3mm wet table flanks.

ii. APPLICATIONS:

Industrial.
Power supplies.
Automotive.

3. ROHM Semiconductor LMR1901YG-M Automotive CMOS

Operational Amplifiers

 ROHM Semiconductor LMR1901YG-M Automotive CMOS Operational Amplifiers

are designed for battery-powered and portable devices and sensor amplifiers.
 The ROHM Semiconductor LMR1901YG-M boasts ultra-low power consumption, low
input offset voltage, and Rail-to-Rail Input/Output. Key features include Nano Energy™
integrated OPAMP and AEC-Q100 qualification.

I. FEATURES:

 Nano Energy integrated OPAMP.

 AEC-Q100 qualified.
 Ultra-low supply current.
 Low-input offset voltage.
 Rail-to-rail input/output.

II. APPLICATIONS:

Battery-powered equipment.
Portable equipment.
Sensor amplifiers.
Car navigation system.
Car audio.
Current monitoring amplifier.
Human detection sensor amplifier.

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 Gas sensor amplifier.
Photodiode amplifier.

III. SPECIFICATIONS:

 160nA (Typ.) supply current.

 0.55mV (Max) input offset voltage.
 VSS to VDD common-mode input voltage range.
 0.5pA (Typ.) input bias current.
 Operating supply voltage range:
o 1.7V to 5.5V single supply.
o ±0.85V to ±2.75V dual supply.
 -40°C to +105°C operating temperature range.

4. Nisshinbo NL601x Operational Amplifiers

 Nisshinbo Micro Devices NL601x Operational Amplifiers feature low offset voltage
(10μV maximum) and zero-drift over temperature (0.05μV/°C maximum).
 The single and dual NL601x Op Amps supply high-impedance rail-to-rail input and rail-
to-rail output that swings within 50mV of the rails.
 The Nisshinbo NL601x series offers excellent CMRR without the crossover associated
with traditional, complementary input stages.
 This design results in superior performance for driving analog-to-digital converters
without degradation of differential linearity.
 The NL601x series contains an integrated EMI filter to reduce malfunctions caused by
RF noises from mobile phones and other wireless devices.
 NL601x series functions from a supply range of 2.1V to 5.5V and has a -40°C to +125°C
temperature range. The NL6012 is available in an 8-pin VSP package.

I. FEATURES:

 Low input offset voltage of 10μV max.

 Zero-drift of 0.05μV/°C max.
 Low supply current (per amplifier):

o NL6010/NL6011 at 17μA.
o NL6012 at 15μA/ch.

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  Rail-to-rail input and output.
 Supply voltage of 2.1V to 5.5V.
 Input bias current of 30pA.
 Gain bandwidth product of 260k Hz.
 Slew rate of 0.11V/μ s.
 Equivalent input noise voltage of 60nV/√Hz.
 Integrated EMI filter.
 CMOS architecture.
 SOT-23-5-DC, SC-88A-DB, and VSP-8-AF packages.

ii. APPLICATIONS:

Battery-powered equipment.
Sensor interfaces.
Temperature sensors.
Current sensing amplifiers.

5. Analog Devices Inc. AD8460 High Output Current Operational Amplifier

 Analog Devices Inc. AD8460 High Output Current Operational Amplifier is a “bits in,
power out” high voltage, high-power, high-speed driver optimized for large output
current (up to ±1A).
 The device also has a high slew rate (up to ±1800V/μ s) at high voltage (up to ±40V) into
capacitive loads.
 Combining a 14-bit high-speed DAC, a high voltage, high output current (HV-HI)
analog driver, and fault monitoring and protection circuits, the AD8460 is ideally suited
for high power applications such as arbitrary waveform generation (AWG),
programmable power supplies, and high voltage automated test equipment (ATE).
 A proprietary high-voltage BCDMOS process, novel high-voltage architecture, and
thermally enhanced package from Analog Devices Inc. enable this high-performance
driver.
 A digital engine implements user-configurable features: modes for digital input,
programmable supply current, and fault monitoring and programmable protection settings
for output current, output voltage, and junction temperature.
 Analog features extend functionality:
External compensation enables unlimited capacitive load drive, programmable shutdown
delay, and full-scale adjustment.
 The AD8460 operates on high voltage dual supplies up to ±55V and a single low voltage
supply of 5V.

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 i. FEATURES:

 ±12V to ±55V wide high voltage supply range.

 High output capability
o Up to ±40V output voltage range.
o 1A continuous high output current drive.
o ≥ 1800V/μ s into 1000pF load high slew rate.
o 1MHz large signal bandwidth.
 Extensive programming and diagnostics
o 14-bit resolution arbitrary waveform generation (AWG) mode.
o 16-level analog pattern generation (APG) mode.
o Digitally programmable current, voltage, and thermal fault monitoring and
protection.
o Programmable supply current with shut down mode.

 Design-in friendly
o Unlimited capacitive load drive with external compensation and slew control.
o 80-pin, 12mm x 12mm TQFP package
 EPAD-up package for mountable heat sink.
o −40 °C to +85 operating temperature range.

Controllers used in Op amp:

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are versatile electronic components used in a wide
range of circuits, from simple amplifiers to complex signal processing systems.

Op-amps typically have two input terminals, labeled as the inverting (-) and non-
inverting (+) inputs, and one output terminal.

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To control or manipulate the behavior of op-amps, various types of controllers or components
can be used. Here are some common ones:

 Resistors (R):

Resistors are frequently used to set the gain of the op-amp circuit. By configuring the
feedback loop with resistors, you can control the amplification factor of the op-amp.

 Capacitors (C) :

Capacitors are used for coupling and filtering purposes. They can be used to stabilize the
op-amp, filter out noise, or create frequency-dependent behavior in the circuit.

 Feedback Networks:

Resistors and capacitors configured in various arrangements form feedback networks that
determine the overall behavior of the op-amp circuit.

 Potentiometers:

Potentiometers (variable resistors) can be used to adjust the gain or other parameters of
the op-amp circuit dynamically.

 Diodes:

Diodes can be used for limiting or clamping the output voltage of the op-amp, protecting
downstream components from excessive voltage levels.

 Transistors:

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 Transistors can be used in conjunction with op-amps to create more complex circuits,
such as voltage regulators or oscillators.

 Operational Transconductance Amplifiers (OTAs):

These are specialized integrated circuits that function similarly to op-amps but with
current rather than voltage inputs. They can be used in certain applications where current
control is more advantageous.

 Digital Potentiometers:

In digital circuits or digitally controlled systems, digital potentiometers can be used to

dynamically adjust parameters of the op-amp circuit under digital control.

 Active Filters:

Active filter circuits combine active components like op-amps with passive components
to create filtering functions. The arrangement of active components allows control over
characteristics such as cutoff frequency, bandwidth, and gain.

Analog , Digital inputs and outputs of operational amplifier:

Analog inputs and outputs of operational amplifier:

1) Analog inputs in op-amp circuits:

Analog inputs in operational amplifier (op-amp) circuits refer to the signals that are
continuously varying over time, typically represented as voltages.

Op-amps are designed to process analog signals, and they can handle a wide range of
input voltages.

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Some common examples of analog inputs in op-amp circuits:

 Voltage Signals:

The most common type of analog input to an op-amp is a voltage signal. This signal can
come from various sources such as sensors, transducers, or other electronic circuits. Op-
amps can amplify, filter, or perform other operations on these voltage signals.

 Current Signals:

While op-amps are voltage-controlled devices, they can also handle current signals by
converting them into voltage signals using techniques like current-to-voltage conversion
circuits.

 Temperature Sensors:

Temperature sensors often output analog voltage signals proportional to the temperature
being measured. Op-amp circuits can be used to amplify or process these signals for
further analysis or control purposes.

 Strain Gauges:

Strain gauges are sensors that change resistance in response to mechanical strain.Op-amp
circuits can be used to measure the small changes in resistance and convert them into
voltage signals for analysis.

 Light Sensors:

Light sensors, such as photodiodes or phototransistors, generate analog voltage signals

proportional to the intensity of light falling on them.Op-amp circuits can be used to
amplify or condition these signals for various applications.

 Audio Signals:

Op-amps are commonly used in audio circuits to amplify, filter, or modify audio signals
from microphones, musical instruments, or other audio sources.

 Feedback Signals:

In feedback control systems, op-amps can process feedback signals to control the
behavior of a system. These feedback signals are often analog and represent the current
state of the system.

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 2) Analog output in op-amp circuits:

Analog output in operational amplifier (op-amp) circuits refers to the continuous varying
voltage signals generated at the output of the op-amp in response to the input signals and
the internal operation of the amplifier.

Op-amps are widely used to produce analog output signals that are proportional or
modified versions of their input signals.

Some common examples of analog output in op-amp circuits:

 Amplified Signals:

Op-amps amplify input signals and maintain their characteristics at the output through
feedback configurations, resulting in increased signal magnitude.

 Filtered Signals:

Op-amps, combined with resistors, capacitors, and other passive components, create
different filters like low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-stop filters. These circuits
attenuate or pass specific frequency components in the output analog signal based on the
filter design.

 Integrated Circuits (ICs):

Op-amp circuits can be used in conjunction with other ICs to perform specific functions.
For example, op-amps are often used in analog-to-digital converter (ADC) circuits to
convert analog input signals into digital output signals.

 Voltage Regulators:

Op-amp circuits can be configured as voltage regulators to maintain a stable output

voltage despite changes in the input voltage or load conditions. These voltage regulator
circuits provide a regulated analog output voltage.

 Signal Conditioning:

Op-amps are frequently employed for signal conditioning tasks like level shifting, offset
adjustment, or impedance matching. They modify the input signal to suit the needs of
subsequent circuit stages.

 Waveform Generation:

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 Op-amps create diverse analog waveforms like sine, square, triangular, or arbitrary waves
by combining them with passive components and feedback networks.

 Control Systems:

Op-amps are integral components in control systems where analog output signals are
used to regulate the behavior of systems, such as in motor control, temperature control, or
audio volume control applications.

Digital inputs and outputs of operational amplifier:

1) Digital inputs in op-amp circuits:

In traditional operational amplifier (op-amp) circuits, digital inputs are not commonly
used because op-amps are primarily designed to process analog signals.

However, there are scenarios where digital signals can interact with op-amp circuits
indirectly or in specialized applications.

Here are a few instances where digital inputs can be involved with op-amp circuits:

 Digital Control of Op-Amp Parameters:

In advanced op-amp circuits, digital signals control parameters like gain or offset
dynamically.

 Digital Potentiometers (Digipots):

Digipots paired with op-amps form digitally controlled variable resistors, replacing
analog potentiometers for digital control over parameters like gain, offset, or filter
characteristics.

 Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs):

DACs convert digital signals to analog voltages, often serving as input signals for op-amp
circuits. For example, a microcontroller or DSP generates digital control signals for a
DAC, producing analog signals for op-amp processing.

 Digital Switches or Multiplexers:

Digital switches or multiplexers can route digital signals to different parts of an op-amp
circuit. These components can be used to selectively connect or disconnect analog input
or feedback paths in response to digital control signals.

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  Digital Filters:

Op-amps handle analog signal processing, but in mixed-signal systems, digital filters
work alongside op-amp circuits. These filters process digital inputs and can connect to
op-amps through DACs or digital interfaces for combined analog and digital signal
processing.

2)Digital output in op amp circuits:

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are primarily analog devices, so they don't inherently
produce digital outputs.

However, there are scenarios where op-amps can indirectly interact with digital systems
or where additional circuitry is employed to create digital outputs based on op-amp
operations.

Here are a few ways this can happen:

 Comparator Operation:

Op-amps, primarily linear, can act as comparators when needed. As comparators, their
output toggles between two voltage levels based on input relationships, functioning like a
digital output—high or low—signifying input comparisons.

 Threshold Detection:

Op-amps can be set to identify when an input voltage surpasses a specific threshold,
handy for converting signals into digital format based on their levels.

 Analog-to-Digital Conversion:

Op-amps commonly pair with ADCs to convert analog signals to digital. The ADC's
output is a digital representation of the analog input, ready for further processing by
digital systems.

 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

Op-amps can be part of circuits that generate pulse width modulated signals. In PWM,
the duty cycle of a square wave is adjusted based on the input signal. This can be
interpreted digitally by measuring the proportion of time the signal is high versus low.

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  Digital Interface:

Some op-amp circuits include digital interfaces or microcontrollers to control or monitor

their behavior. While the op-amp itself remains analog, the digital interface allows for
communication with digital systems.

 Digital Potentiometers (Digipots):

Digital potentiometers are sometimes used in op-amp circuits to provide digital control
over parameters like gain or offset. The output of the digital potentiometer can be
interpreted digitally even though the op-amp itself remains analog.

Analog signal conditioning in op amp:

 To condition the analog signals before the acquisition (and further digital processing) in a
microcontroller or to provide the necessary output drive in control applications.

 Analog signal conditioning refers to the process of modifying, filtering, or amplifying

analog signals to prepare them for further processing or conversion.

 Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are commonly used in analog signal conditioning

circuits due to their high gain, versatility, and ability to perform various signal processing
tasks.

Here are some common techniques and configurations used for analog signal conditioning with
op-amps:

 Amplification:

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 Op-amps amplify signals through configurations like inverting, non-inverting, or
differential amplifiers, crucial for strengthening weak input signals for accurate
measurement or processing.

 Filtering:

Op-amps, along with passive components, create filters to eliminate unwanted frequency
components from input signals. Types include low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-
stop filters, customizable by adjusting passive component values to meet specific
application needs.

 Offset Adjustment:

Op-amps adjust DC offsets in input signals by biasing with DC voltage or using feedback
networks to set the desired operating point, ensuring signal alignment with the desired
voltage level.

 Level Shifting:

Op-amps perform level shifting by adding or subtracting a constant voltage from the
input signal, useful for adjusting signal levels between different circuit stages or
interfacing with various systems.

 Impedance Matching:

Op-amps can be employed to match the impedance between different stages of a circuit,
ensuring efficient transfer of signals without distortion or loss.Buffer amplifiers,
constructed using op-amps, are commonly used for impedance matching purposes.

 Linearization:

Op-amps linearize non-linear sensor outputs by applying mathematical transformations to

the input signal, ensuring an accurate linearized output across the desired range.

 Signal Conditioning for Sensors:

Op-amps are common in sensor interface circuits, conditioning signals from temperature,
pressure, or strain gauges. Conditioning tasks include amplification, filtering,
linearization, and impedance matching for accurate sensor signal measurement.

Best Operational amplifiers:

However, several op-amp models are widely regarded for their excellent performance across a
range of applications:

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1. LM741:

The LM741 is one of the most popular and widely used general-purpose
op-amps. It offers a combination of low cost, wide supply voltage range,
and high input impedance.

However, it's worth noting that the LM741 is an older design and may not
offer the same performance as more modern op-amps in terms of
bandwidth and noise.

2. TL072:

The TL072 is a dual operational amplifier with low noise and high slew
rate. It is commonly used in audio and other low-noise applications where
high performance is required.

The TL072 offers a wide supply voltage range and is available in a variety
of package options.

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3. OPA2134:

The OPA2134 is a high-performance, dual op-amp known for its

low noise, low distortion, and high bandwidth.

It is often used in audio applications and precision instrumentation

where high fidelity and accuracy are essential.

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4. OPA2277:

The OPA2277 is another high-performance op-amp from Texas

Instruments, featuring ultra-low offset voltage, low noise, and high
precision.

It is well-suited for precision instrumentation, sensor conditioning, and

other applications requiring high accuracy and stability.

5. AD826:

The AD826 is a high-speed, low-distortion op-amp from Analog Devices.

It offers excellent bandwidth and fast settling time, making it suitable for
high-speed signal processing applications such as video, communications,
and data acquisition systems.

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Characteristic LM 324 LM 348 OPA4197
s
Input Offset Typically around 2 mV. Similar to LM324, Ultra-low, typically in
Voltage around 2 mV. the microvolt range.
Common-Mode Typically around 70 Typically around 70 dB. Higher, typically
Rejection Ratio dB. around 100 dB.
(CMRR)
Standard vs. Standard op-amp. Standard op-amp. Precision op-amp.
Precision
Suitable for basic signal Suitable for basic signal Ideal for precision
conditioning tasks such conditioning tasks such signal conditioning
Signal as amplification, as amplification, tasks due to its high
Conditions buffering, and filtering buffering, and filtering in precision, low noise,
in general-purpose general-purpose and high CMRR
applications. applications. characteristics.

 It require  Similar to the  May require

simpler external LM324, it additional
circuitry due to typically external
their standard necessitates components for
op-amp external compensation
configurations. components for and
 Requires configuring gain, optimization
external filtering, or due to its
resistors and compensation. higher
capacitors for  Used in precision and
configuring applications like performance.
gain, filtering, instrumentation  Often
External Circuit or compensation amplifiers, employed in
Needs in different precision voltage precision
applications. followers, and applications
 Commonly used signal where high
in amplifiers, conditioning performance is
active filters, circuits. critical.
oscillators, and  May require
signal external
conditioning components for
circuits. tasks such as
setting gain,
filtering, or
providing
feedback
compensation.
 Found in

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 precision
instrumentation
, data
acquisition
systems, and
high-resolution
audio
equipment.

i. Cost-effective i. Quad op-amp i. High precision

solution for configuration and accuracy,
general-purpose offers space ideal for
applications. efficiency and precision
ii. Widely available cost-effectiveness. instrumentation
Advantages and easy to use. ii. Suitable for and
iii. Can operate with applications measurement
a wide range of requiring multiple applications.
power supply independent op- ii. Ultra-low offset
voltages. amps within a voltage and low
single package. noise
characteristics
ensure accurate
signal
processing.

i. Limited i. Higher cost

precision and compared to
accuracy LM324 and
compared to Shares similar limitations LM348.
precision op- with LM324 in terms of ii. May consume
Disadvantages amps like precision and accuracy. more power
OPA4197. compared to
ii. Relatively higher LM324 and
offset voltage LM348 in some
and noise. cases.

26
 i. Precision
instrumentation
and
measurement
applications
Widely used in audio Widely used in audio requiring high
applications, voltage applications, voltage accuracy,
followers, comparators, followers, comparators, stability, low
Applications active filters, and basic active filters, and basic noise, and
signal processing signal processing superior
circuits. circuits. CMRR.
ii. Sensor
interfaces, data
acquisition
systems,
medical
devices, and
control systems
where precise
signal
processing is
essential.

LM324 Operational Amplifier:

Improving CMRR (Common-Mode Rejection Ratio) and minimizing offset voltage in an LM324
op-amp circuit involves both external components and careful design considerations.

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 1. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):
CMRR refers to the ability of the op-amp to reject any signals that are common to both inputs.
While the LM324 has a moderate CMRR, it may not be sufficient for some applications.

To enhance CMRR:
Differential Amplifier Configuration: You can use a differential amplifier configuration before
feeding the signal into the LM324. This amplifier amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages while rejecting any common-mode signal. By adjusting the gain of this amplifier, you
can effectively improve CMRR.

2. Offset Voltage:

Offset voltage refers to the voltage that appears between the input terminals when the input
voltage is zero. This can introduce errors in precision applications.

To minimize offset voltage:

 Nulling Circuits: Use external nulling circuits to adjust the offset voltage. This could
involve adding potentiometers or trimming resistors to nullify the offset voltage.

 Auto-Zeroing: Employ auto-zeroing techniques where an external capacitor periodically

nullifies the offset voltage. This is typically done by briefly shorting the input terminals
or by other means to reset the offset.

How the external circuits can be avoided in LM324:

While external circuitry can be beneficial for enhancing performance characteristics like CMRR
and offset voltage in op-amps like the LM324, there are also techniques to minimize reliance on
external components.

1. CMRR Improvement:

 Selecting Proper Input Signals: Keep input signals within the op-amp's common-mode
input voltage range for optimal CMRR performance, eliminating the need for extra
external circuitry.

 Input Signal Conditioning: If possible, condition the input signals before they reach the
op-amp to minimize common-mode voltage variations. This might involve filtering,
amplification, or signal isolation techniques.

2. Offset Voltage Minimization:

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  Use of Precision Resistors: Employ precision resistors in the feedback and input
networks. Higher precision resistors can help minimize offset voltages without needing
additional external nulling circuitry.

 Temperature Stabilization: Minimize temperature fluctuations in the circuit

environment to reduce the impact of temperature-related offset voltage drift. This can be
achieved through proper PCB layout, thermal management, or environmental control.

 Trimming and Calibration: Some applications may benefit from post-manufacturing

trimming or calibration to nullify offset voltage. While this involves additional effort
during production, it can eliminate the need for external circuitry in certain cases.

LM348 Operational Amplifier:

The LM348 is a quad operational amplifier, similar to the LM324 but with higher performance
specifications. However, the principles for improving CMRR and offset voltage using external
circuitry remain similar to those discussed earlier for the LM324.

1. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):

To enhance CMRR with the LM348:

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Differential Amplifier Configuration: Implement a differential amplifier configuration before the
LM348. This configuration amplifies the difference between the two input voltages while
rejecting any common-mode signal. Adjust the gain of this amplifier to improve CMRR.

2. Offset Voltage:

For offset voltage minimization with the LM348:

 Nulling Circuits: Utilize external nulling circuits to adjust the offset voltage. This might
involve adding potentiometers or trimming resistors to nullify the offset voltage.

 Auto-Zeroing: Employ auto-zeroing techniques where an external capacitor periodically

nullifies the offset voltage. This can be achieved by briefly shorting the input terminals or
through other methods to reset the offset.

How the external circuits can be avoided in LM348:

The LM348 is a quad operational amplifier similar to the LM324, but with improved
performance characteristics. While external circuitry can enhance certain aspects of op-amp
performance, there are methods to minimize reliance on external components, particularly for
CMRR and offset voltage:

1. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) Improvement:

 Input Signal Conditioning: Ensure input signals fall within op-amp's common-mode
voltage range. Conditioning signals beforehand minimizes common-mode voltage
variations, maintaining CMRR performance without extra circuitry.

 Balanced Input Configuration: Maintain a balanced input configuration by ensuring

that both inputs of the op-amp see similar impedance to ground. This can help improve
CMRR by minimizing differences in the signal path.

Offset Voltage Minimization:

 Use of High-Precision Resistors: Employ high-precision resistors in the feedback and
input networks to minimize offset voltages. High-quality, low-tolerance resistors can help
reduce offset without requiring external nulling circuitry.

 Temperature Stabilization: Minimize temperature variations in the circuit environment

to reduce temperature-related offset voltage drift. Proper thermal management and
environmental control techniques can help maintain stable operating conditions.

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  Trimming and Calibration: Consider post-manufacturing trimming or calibration to
nullify offset voltage if necessary. While this may involve additional effort during
production, it can eliminate the need for external circuitry in certain cases.

OPA4197 Operational Amplifier:

The OPA4197 is a precision operational amplifier with excellent performance characteristics,
including high CMRR and low offset voltage. However, in certain applications where even
higher CMRR or lower offset voltage is required, external circuitry can be used to further
improve these parameters.

1. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):

The OPA4197 already has a high CMRR, but you can still enhance it with
external circuitry if needed:
Differential Amplifier Configuration: Implement a precision differential amplifier before the
OPA4197. This setup amplifies the difference between the two input voltages while rejecting any
common-mode signal. By adjusting the gain of this amplifier, you can effectively improve
CMRR further.

2. Offset Voltage:

To minimize offset voltage even more:

 Nulling Circuits: Utilize external nulling circuits to adjust the offset voltage, although
with the OPA4197, this might not be necessary in many applications due to its low
inherent offset voltage.

 Auto-Zeroing: Employ auto-zeroing techniques where an external capacitor periodically

nullifies the offset voltage. This can further reduce any remaining offset voltage.

How the external circuits can be avoided in OPA4197:

The OPA4197 is a precision operational amplifier with excellent performance characteristics,
including high CMRR and low offset voltage. While external circuitry can further enhance
performance in some cases, the OPA4197's inherent characteristics often mitigate the need for
additional components. Here are ways to minimize reliance on external circuitry:

1. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) Improvement:

 Input Signal Quality: Ensure that the input signals provided to the op-amp are well
within its common-mode input voltage range. High-quality input signals with minimal

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 noise and interference help maintain excellent CMRR performance without additional
circuitry.
 Balanced Input Configuration: Maintain a balanced input configuration by keeping
both inputs of the op-amp at similar impedance to ground. This promotes balanced signal
paths and helps preserve CMRR.

2. Offset Voltage Minimization:

 Use of Precision Components: Utilize precision resistors and other components in the
feedback and input networks. High-quality, low-tolerance components help minimize
offset voltages without requiring additional external nulling circuitry.

 Temperature Control: Minimize temperature variations in the circuit environment to

reduce offset voltage drift. Proper thermal management techniques can help maintain
stable operating conditions and minimize offset.

 Factory Calibration: The OPA4197 may already undergo factory calibration to

minimize offset voltage. This eliminates the need for post-manufacturing trimming in
many cases.

Data sheet Comparison of LM324, LM348, OPA4197:

SPECIFICATIONS OPA4197 LM324 LM348

Manufacturer Texas Instruments Texas Texas Instruments
Instruments
Number of channels 4 4 4

Total supply voltage

(+5 V = 5, ±5 V = 10) 36 32 36
(max) (V)

Total supply voltage

(+5 V = 5, ±5 V = 10) 4.5 3 8
(min) (V)

Vos (offset voltage at

25°C) (max) (mV) 0.1 6 6

GBW (typ) (MHz) 10 1.2 1

Features  EMI Standard Amps.  µA741 Operating

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 Hardened Characteristics
 High Cload  Low Supply-
Drive Current Drain . . .
 e-Trim™. 0.6 mA Typ (per
amplifier)
 Low Input Offset
Voltage
 Low Input Offset
Current
 Class AB Output
Stage
 Input/Output
Overload
Protection
 Designed to Be
Interchangeable
With Industry
Standard LM148
 LM248
 LM348.

Slew rate (typ) (V/µs) 20 0.5 0.5

Rail-to-rail In ,Out In to -V No

Offset drift (typ)

(µV/°C) 0.5 - 15

Iq per channel (typ)

(mA) 1 0.175 0.6

Vn at 1 kHz (typ)
(nV√Hz) 5.5 35 60

CMRR (typ) (dB) 140 80 90

Rating Catalog Catalog Catalog

Operating
temperature range -40 to 125 0 to 70 0 to 70
(°C)

Input bias current

(max) (pA) 20 250000 200000

Iout (typ) (A) 0.065 0.04 0.025

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 Architecture CMOS Bipolar Bipolar

Input common mode

headroom (to negative -0.1 0 3
supply) (typ) (V)

Input common mode

headroom (to positive 0.1 -1.5 -3
supply) (typ) (V)

Output swing
headroom (to negative 0.095 0.005 2
supply) (typ) (V)

Output swing
headroom (to positive -0.095 -2 -2
supply) (typ) (V)

THD + N at 1 kHz - -
(typ) (%) 0.00008

The operational Amplifiers like OPA4205, OPA2191, OPA2192, OPA2196, OPA2197,

OPA2205, OPA2206 has the similar characteristics of OPA4197.
EMI Hardened:
It resist and minimize the impact of electromagnetic interference from stuff like radios, motors,
or other electronic gadgets buzzing around.
High Cload Drive:
They're great for situations where you need to connect to things like long cables, big speakers, or
filters without messing up your signal.
e-Trim™ (Digital Programmable Offset and TCR Trim):
It lets you use digital commands to adjust and fine-tune the op-amp's offset voltage and how it
responds to temperature changes.
Standard amplification:
The purpose of standard amplification in op-amps is to boost and manipulate electrical signals,
enabling functions like signal amplification, voltage level shifting, signal conditioning, buffering,
and facilitating various applications such as active filters, instrumentation amplifiers, and
feedback control systems.
Slew rate :

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How fast its output can change in response to changes in the input signal. It's like the speed limit
for how quickly the output voltage can rise or fall. This feature ensures that the op-amp can
accurately track rapid changes in the input signal without introducing distortion or instability.
Architecture:
The architecture of an op-amp refers to its internal design and arrangement of components. It
determines the op-amp's performance characteristics, such as gain, bandwidth, and input/output
impedance. Essentially, the architecture dictates how the op-amp functions and behaves in
different applications.
Rail-to-rail:
The entire range from the maximum voltage of a power line (VCC) to its minimum voltage
(GND or minimum negative voltage, VEE)
Offset drift:
It is a measure of how VOS changes with temperature and time.
Output headroom:
Output headroom is how close to the power supply rails the output of an amplifier can swing,
with a specified load.

History of operational amplifier:

i. Op amps have evolved from vacuum tube designs in the 1940s to modern integrated
circuits (ICs).
ii. Significant milestones include the introduction of differential inputs in 1947,
iii. Chopper stabilization in 1949, and
iv. The commercial availability of vacuum tube op amps in 1953.
v. Solid-state discrete op amps emerged in 1961, followed by monolithic IC op amps in
1963.
vi. The μA741, released in 1968, became ubiquitous due to its internal compensation
capacitor.
vii. The 1970s saw the rise of FET-based designs and single-sided supply op amps.
viii. Modern trends include lower supply voltages, rail-to-rail outputs, and compact
packaging.

Recent trends:
Recently supply voltages in analog circuits have decreased (as they have in digital logic) and
low-voltage op amps have been introduced reflecting this. Supplies of 5 V and increasingly 3.3
V (sometimes as low as 1.8 V) are common. To maximize the signal range modern op amps
commonly have rail-to-rail output (the output signal can range from the lowest supply voltage to
the highest) and sometimes rail-to-rail inputs.

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Conclusion:
In conclusion, operational amplifiers (op-amps) serve as indispensable
building blocks in electronic circuits, catering to a wide array of applications ranging from
simple signal conditioning to precision instrumentation. While op-amps like the LM324 and
LM348 offer versatility and cost-effectiveness with multiple op-amps in a single package, they
may require external circuitry to mitigate offset and enhance CMRR in demanding applications.

On the other hand, the OPA4197 provides unparalleled precision,

minimizing the need for external components and offering exceptional performance in precision-
sensitive tasks. Whether optimizing performance with external circuits or leveraging the inherent
precision of advanced op-amp models, engineers can tailor their designs to meet specific
requirements while balancing factors like cost, complexity, and performance. Ultimately, the
continued evolution of op-amp technology ensures that designers have the tools necessary to
tackle the challenges of modern electronics with precision and efficiency.

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